Iceberg

An iceberg is a piece of freshwater ice more than 15

m long[1] that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf
and is floating freely in open (salt) water.[2][3] Smaller
chunks of floating glacially-derived ice are called
"growlers" or "bergy bits".[4][5] The 1912 loss of the
RMS Titanic led to the formation of the International
Ice Patrol in 1914. Much of an iceberg is below the
surface, which led to the expression "tip of the
iceberg" to illustrate a small part of a larger unseen
issue. Icebergs are considered a serious maritime An iceberg in the Arctic Ocean
hazard.

Icebergs vary considerably in size and shape. Icebergs that

calve from glaciers in Greenland are often irregularly shaped
while Antarctic ice shelves often produce large tabular (table
top) icebergs. The largest iceberg in recent history (2000),
named B-15, measured nearly 300  km x 40  km.[6] The
largest iceberg on record was an Antarctic tabular iceberg of 0:00
over 31,000 square kilometres (12,000  sq  mi) [335 by 97
kilometres (208 by 60 mi)] sighted 240 kilometres (150 mi)
west of Scott Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, by the USS Icebergs in Greenland as filmed by NASA in
Glacier on November 12, 1956. This iceberg was larger than 2015
Belgium.[7] Big icebergs are also often compared in size to
the area of Manhattan.[8][9][10]

Contents
Etymology
Overview
Drift
Bubbles
Stability
Color
Shape
Monitoring and control
History
Technological development
Modern monitoring
Iceberg management
Commercial use
Oceanography and ecology
Recent large icebergs
See also
References
External links

Etymology
The word iceberg is a partial loan translation from the Dutch word ijsberg, literally meaning ice
mountain,[11] cognate to Danish isbjerg, German Eisberg, Low Saxon Iesbarg and Swedish isberg.

Overview
Typically about one-tenth of the volume of an iceberg is above water, which follows from Archimedes's
Principle of buoyancy; the density of pure ice is about 920 kg/m3 (57 lb/cu ft), and that of seawater about
1,025 kg/m3 (64 lb/cu ft). The contour of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the
portion above the surface.

Table 1. Iceberg size classifications

according to the International Ice
Patrol[1]
Size class Height (m) Length (m
Growler <1 <5
Bergy Bit 1-5 5-15
Small 5-15 15-60
Medium 15-45 60-122
Northern edge of Iceberg B-15A in the Ross
Large 45-75 122-213
Sea, Antarctica, 29 January 2001
Very Large >75 >213

The largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica.
Icebergs may reach a height of more than 100 metres (300 ft) above the sea surface, and have mass ranging
from about 100,000 tonnes up to more than 10 million tonnes. Icebergs or pieces of floating ice smaller
than 5 meters above the sea surface are classified as "bergy bits"; smaller than 1 meter—"growlers".[12]
The largest known iceberg in the North Atlantic was 168 metres (551 ft) above sea level, reported by the
USCG icebreaker Eastwind in 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate
from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have interior temperatures of −15 to −20  °C (5 to
−4 °F).[13]

Drift

A given iceberg's trajectory through the ocean can be modelled by integrating equation 1. Equation 1
assumes that an iceberg of mass m drifts with velocity v. The variables f, k, and F correspond to the Coriolis
force, the vertical unit vector, and a given force. The subscripts a, w, r, s, and p correspond to the air drag,
water drag, wave radiation force, sea ice drag, and the horizontal pressure gradient force.[14][15]

eq. (1).
Icebergs deteriorate through melting and fracturing, which changes the
mass, m, as well as the surface area, volume, and stability of the
iceberg.[15][16] Iceberg deterioration and drift, therefore, are interconnected
iceberg thermodynamics and fracturing must be considered when
modelling iceberg drift.[15]

Winds and currents may move icebergs close to coastlines, where they can
become frozen into pack ice (one form of sea ice), or drift into shallow
waters, where they can come into contact with the seabed, a phenomenon
called seabed gouging.

Bubbles
Grotto in an iceberg,
Air trapped in snow forms bubbles as the snow is compressed to form firn photographed during the
British Antarctic Expedition
and then glacial ice.[17] Icebergs can contain up to 10% air bubbles by
of 1911–1913, 5 Jan 1911
volume.[17] These bubbles are released during melting, producing a fizzing
sound that some may call "Bergie Seltzer". This sound results when the
water-ice interface reaches compressed air bubbles trapped in the ice. As each bubble bursts it makes a
"popping" sound[13] and the acoustic properties of these bubbles can be used to study iceberg melt.[18]

Stability

An iceberg may flip, or capsize, as it melts and breaks apart, changing the center of gravity. Capsizing can
occur shortly after calving when the iceberg is young and establishing balance.[19] Icebergs are
unpredictable and can capsize anytime and without warning. Large icebergs that break off from a glacier
front and flip onto the glacier face can push the entire glacier backwards for a few minutes, producing
earthquakes that give off as much energy as an atomic bomb.[20][21]

Color

Icebergs are generally white because they are covered in snow, but can be green, blue, yellow, black,
striped, or even rainbow-colored.[22] Seawater, algae and lack of air bubbles in the ice can create diverse
colors. Sediment can create the dirty black coloration present in some icebergs.[23]

Shape

In addition to size
classification (Table 1),
icebergs can be classified
on the basis of their shapes.
The two basic types of
iceberg forms are tabular Tabular iceberg, near Brown Bluff in
and non-tabular. Tabular the Antarctic Sound off Tabarin
icebergs have steep sides Peninsula
and a flat top, much like a
plateau, with a length-to-
Different shapes of icebergs height ratio of more than 5:1.[24]
This type of iceberg, also known as an ice island,[25] can be quite
large, as in the case of Pobeda Ice Island. Antarctic icebergs formed
by breaking off from an ice shelf, such as the Ross Ice Shelf or
Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, are typically tabular. The largest icebergs
in the world are formed this way.

Non-tabular icebergs have different shapes and include:[26]

Non-tabular iceberg off Elephant
Dome: An iceberg with a rounded top.
Island in the Southern Ocean
Pinnacle: An iceberg with one or more spires.
Wedge: An iceberg with a steep edge on one side and a
slope on the opposite side.
Dry-Dock: An iceberg that has eroded to form a slot or channel.
Blocky: An iceberg with steep, vertical sides and a flat top. It differs from tabular icebergs in
that its aspect ratio, the ratio between its width and height, is small, more like that of a block
than a flat sheet.

Monitoring and control

History

Prior to 1914 there was no system in place to track icebergs to

guard ships against collisions. despite fatal sinkings of ships by
icebergs. In 1907, SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, rammed
an iceberg and suffered a crushed bow, but was still able to
complete her voyage. The advent of steel ship construction led
designers to declare their ships "unsinkable".
One of the icebergs suspected of
The April 1912 sinking of the Titanic, which killed 1,496 of its sinking the RMS Titanic; a smudge
2,223 passengers and crew, discredited this claim. For the of red paint much like the Titanic 's
remainder of the ice season of that year, the United States Navy red hull stripe was seen near its base
patrolled the waters and monitored ice movements. In November at the waterline.
1913, the International Conference on the Safety of Life at Sea met
in London to devise a more permanent system of observing
icebergs. Within three months the participating maritime nations had formed the International Ice Patrol
(IIP). The goal of the IIP was to collect data on meteorology and oceanography to measure currents, ice-
flow, ocean temperature, and salinity levels. They monitored iceberg dangers near the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland and provided the "limits of all known ice" in that vicinity to the maritime community. The
IIP published their first records in 1921, which allowed for a year-by-year comparison of iceberg
movement.

Technological development

Aerial surveillance of the seas in the early 1930s allowed for the development of charter systems that could
accurately detail the ocean currents and iceberg locations. In 1945, experiments tested the effectiveness of
radar in detecting icebergs. A decade later, oceanographic monitoring outposts were established for the
purpose of collecting data; these outposts continue to serve in environmental study. A computer was first
installed on a ship for the purpose of oceanographic monitoring in 1964, which allowed for a faster
evaluation of data. By the 1970s, ice-breaking ships were equipped
with automatic transmissions of satellite photographs of ice in
Antarctica. Systems for optical satellites had been developed but
were still limited by weather conditions. In the 1980s, drifting
buoys were used in Antarctic waters for oceanographic and climate
research. They are equipped with sensors that measure ocean
temperature and currents.

Side looking airborne radar (SLAR) made it possible to acquire

images regardless of weather conditions. On November 4, 1995,
Canada launched RADARSAT-1. Developed by the Canadian An iceberg being pushed by three
Space Agency, it provides images of Earth for scientific and U.S. Navy ships in McMurdo Sound,
commercial purposes. This system was the first to use synthetic Antarctica
aperture radar (SAR), which sends microwave energy to the ocean
surface and records the reflections to track icebergs. The European
Space Agency launched ENVISAT (an observation satellite that 0:00 / 0:00
orbits the Earth's poles)[27] on March 1, 2002. ENVISAT employs
Acoustic monitoring of an iceberg.
advanced synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) technology, which can
detect changes in surface height accurately. The Canadian Space
Agency launched RADARSAT-2 in December 2007, which uses SAR and multi-polarization modes and
follows the same orbit path as RADARSAT-1.[28]

Modern monitoring

Iceberg concentrations and size distributions are monitored worldwide by the U.S. National Ice Center
(NIC), established in 1995, which produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic, Great Lakes and
Chesapeake Bay ice conditions. More than 95% of the data used in its sea ice analyses are derived from the
remote sensors on polar-orbiting satellites that survey these remote regions of the Earth.

The NIC is the only organization that names and tracks all
Antarctic Icebergs. It assigns each iceberg larger than 10 nautical
miles (19 km) along at least one axis a name composed of a letter
indicating its point of origin and a running number. The letters used
are as follows:[29]

A – longitude 0° to 90° W (Bellingshausen Sea,

Weddell Sea)
B – longitude 90° W to 180° (Amundsen Sea, Eastern
Iceberg A22A in the South Atlantic
Ross Sea)
Ocean
C – longitude 90° E to 180° (Western Ross Sea,
Wilkes Land)
D – longitude 0° to 90° E (Amery Ice Shelf, Eastern
Weddell Sea)

The Danish Meteorological Institute monitors iceberg populations around Greenland (http://polarportal.dk/e
n/sea-ice-and-icebergs/icebergs/) using data collected by the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) on the Sentinel-
1 satellites.

Iceberg management
In Labrador and Newfoundland, iceberg management plans have been developed to protect offshore
installations from impacts with icebergs.[30]

Commercial use

In the late 2010s, a business from the UAE wanted to tow an iceberg from Antarctica to the Middle East,
but the plan failed as the estimated cost of $200 million was too high.[31] In 2019, a German company,
Polewater, announced plans to tow Antarctic icebergs to places like South Africa.[32][33]

Companies have used iceberg water in products such as bottled water, fizzy ice cubes and alcoholic
drinks.[32] For example, Iceberg Beer by Quidi Vidi Brewing Company is made from icebergs found
around St. John's, Newfoundland.[34] Although annual iceberg supply in Newfoundland and Labrador
exceeds the total freshwater consumption of the United States, in 2016 the province introduced a tax on
iceberg harvesting and imposed a limit on how much fresh water can be exported yearly.[32]

Oceanography and ecology

The freshwater injected into the ocean by melting icebergs can
change the density of the seawater in the vicinity of the
iceberg.[35][36] Fresh melt water released at depth is lighter, and
therefore more buoyant, than the surrounding seawater causing it to
rise towards the surface.[35][36] Icebergs can also act as floating
breakwaters, impacting ocean waves.[37]

Icebergs contain variable concentrations of nutrients and minerals

that are released into the ocean during melting.[38][39] Iceberg- Icebergs in Disko Bay
derived nutrients, particularly the iron contained in sediments, can
fuel blooms of phytoplankton.[38][40] Samples collected from
icebergs in Antarctica, Patagonia, Greenland, Svalbard, and Iceland, however, show that iron
concentrations vary significantly,[39] complicating efforts to generalize the impacts of icebergs on marine
ecosystems.

Recent large icebergs

Iceberg B15 calved from the Ross Ice Shelf in 2000 and initially
had an area of 11,000 square kilometres (4,200  sq  mi). It broke
apart in November 2002. The largest remaining piece of it, Iceberg
B-15A, with an area of 3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi), was
still the largest iceberg on Earth until it ran aground and split into
several pieces October 27, 2005, an event that was observed by
seismographs both on the iceberg and across Antarctica.[41] It has
been hypothesized that this breakup may also have been abetted by
ocean swell generated by an Alaskan storm 6 days earlier and
13,500 kilometres (8,400 mi) away.[42][43]
The calving of Iceberg A-38 off
1987, Iceberg B-9, 5,390 km2 (2,080 sq mi) Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf

1998, Iceberg A-38, about 6,900 km2 (2,700 sq mi)[44]

1999, Iceberg B-17B 140 km2 (54 sq mi), shipping alert issued December 2009.[45]
2000, Iceberg B-15 11,000 km2 (4,200 sq mi)
 2002, Iceberg C-19, 5,500 km2 (2,100 sq mi)
2002, Iceberg B-22, 5,490 km2 (2,120 sq mi)
2003 broke off, Iceberg B-15A, 3,100 km2 (1,200 sq mi)
2006, Iceberg D-16, 310 km2 (120 sq mi)
2010, Ice sheet, 260 km2 (100 sq mi), broken off of Petermann Glacier in northern Greenland
on August 5, 2010, considered to be the largest Arctic iceberg since 1962.[46] About a month
later, this iceberg split into two pieces upon crashing into Joe Island in the Nares Strait next
to Greenland.[47] In June 2011, large fragments of the Petermann Ice Islands were observed
off the Labrador coast.[48]
2014, Iceberg B-31, 615 km2 (237 sq mi), 2014[49]
2017, Iceberg A-68, (Larsen C) 5,800 km2 (2,200 sq mi)[50]
2018, Iceberg B-46, 225 km2 (87 sq mi)[51]
2019, Iceberg D-28, 1,636 km2 (632 sq mi)[52]
2021, Iceberg A-74 from the Brunt Ice Shelf, 1,270 km2 (490 sq mi)[53][54]
2021, Iceberg A-76 from the Ronne Ice Shelf, 4,320 km2 (1,670 sq mi)[55]

See also
List of recorded icebergs by area
Drift ice station
Ice calving
Ice drift
Polar ice cap
Polar ice pack (disambiguation)
Polynya
Sea ice
Seabed gouging by ice
Shelf ice Iceberg pictured in the
coat of arms of Ilulissat

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External links
Iceberg Finder Service (http://www.icebergfinder.com/) for east coast of Canada
Icebergs of The Arctic and Antarctic (https://web.archive.org/web/20090826010509/http://ww
w.solcomhouse.com/iceberg.htm)
Works related to Iceberg at Wikisource

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