CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Solar panels harness the sun's energy in the form of light and convert the energy into electricity.

Although the average consumer might associate solar panels with residential rooftop assemblies,

solar panels are available for a wide range of applications, including powering individual

gadgets, electronic devices and vehicle batteries.

The smallest unit of a solar panel is the solar cell, also called a photovoltaic, or PV cell; it's the

individual PV cell that turns sunlight into electricity. Individual cells arranged in a group are

called a "module" or panel; a collection of two or more panels is called an array. According to

the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the typical residential or business solar panel holds

approximately 40 cells and the average residential array consists of 10 to 20 panels

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, panels can gather between 10 watts and 300 watts.

This broad range of panel output represents the variety of solar panel products on the market.

While small panel systems gather enough electricity to power consumer devices, large systems

gather enough wattage to power residences.

As described in the Energy Department's "Energy Savers" series, to convert the direct current

electricity gathered by solar panels into the alternating current electricity that powers appliances

and devices, solar panels route the electricity through a conversion device called an inverter.

After conversion to alternating current, electricity runs through circuit breaker panels and into

the home. (See References 4) A "grid-connected" solar panel system connects to a municipal

utility provider's system through an electrical meter, redirects excess solar electricity to the utility

provider, turns the meter backwards and typically provides the homeowner with credit (see

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References 6). Alternately, an "off-grid" system does not connect to a utility provider's grid and

often directs excess electricity to a storage system, such as a battery bank.

In addition to rooftop arrays that provide electricity to homes and businesses, manufacturers

apply solar panel technology to a wide range of consumer products. Roof-mounted solar panels

are available for boats, recreational vehicles and cars; these modules can power electronic

systems or charge batteries. Lightweight, portable solar panels are available to power small

batteries and electronic devices, such as cell phones and laptop computers, or as an emergency

power supply for campers or backpackers. The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's

Environmental Energy Technologies Division hosts a directory that includes links to several

manufacturers of personal solar panel products.

It's an oversimplification to imagine an appliance drawing power directly from a solar panel, but

the reality isn't that much different. A complication arises because the panel output is usually

direct current -- not alternating current -- and it usually isn't at a voltage that an appliance can

use. A device called an inverter resolves this complication. Besides an inverter, most working

systems include batteries, so you can continue to use appliances when the sun isn't out.

Impinging sunlight creates a potential difference between the two sides of a solar cell, and when

you connect these sides with a conducting wire, a current will flow. A typical panel consists of a

number of such cells wired together to produce a fixed potential difference, or voltage, of 12, 24

or 48 volts. Depending on the square footage of the panel, the current that flows when you

connect the terminals could be enough to charge a computer, but to run any kind of motor or

power an appliance, you usually need to wire several panels together.

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Most photo-voltaic systems are set up to charge a battery bank that is set up at the same voltage

as the panels. Panel output fluctuates with variations in sunlight, and these fluctuations can harm

the batteries. You prevent this by wiring a charge controller between the panels and the battery

bank. Besides stabilizing the panel output into a steady signal that the batteries can handle, the

charge controller monitors the batteries and shuts off the input when they are charged. It also

prevents power flowing back to the panels from the batteries, which can damage the panels.

Once you have a panel array connected to a battery bank via a charge controller, and the bank is

charged, you still aren't ready to power any appliances. That's because the output from the

batteries is DC, and it's at 6, 12, 24 or 48 volts instead of the 120 volts needed by the appliance.

You need an inverter to convert the DC battery power to a modified-sine or pure sine wave AC

signal, and to transform the voltage. Inverters are rated for the amount of power they provide. A

300-watt inverter, which is on the small side, will run a small appliance.

Inverters have standard 120-volt grounded receptacles that accept any appliance plug, but you

must make sure that the appliance doesn't draw more than the inverter can handle. If so, you need

a larger inverter. Some panels come with a built-in charge controller and inverter, and you can

plug directly into the receptacle supplied on the panel. These systems typically don't supply

much power, however, and are usually only suitable for charging cell phone or computer

batteries. Any power-hungry appliance like a blender or vacuum cleaner will require the output

of a sizable battery bank and the charging power of more than one panel.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT

Though solar energy has found a dynamic and established role in today’s clean energy economy,

there’s a long history behind photovoltaics (PV) that brought the concept of solar energy to

3
fruition. With the way the cost of solar has plummeted in the past decade, it’s easy to forget that

going solar had a completely different meaning even just 15 years ago. Let’s go back a few

centuries to the origins of solar PV and explore the history of solar energy and silicon solar

technology.

In theory, solar energy was used by humans as early as 7th century B.C. when history tells us

that humans used sunlight to light fires with magnifying glass materials. Later, in 3rd century

B.C., the Greeks and Romans were known to harness solar power with mirrors to light torches

for religious ceremonies. These mirrors became a normalized tool referred to as “burning

mirrors.” Chinese civilization documented the use of mirrors for the same purpose later in 20

A.D.

Another early use for solar energy that is still popular today was the concept of “sunrooms” in

buildings. These sunrooms used massive windows to direct sunlight into one concentrated area.

Some of the iconic Roman bathhouses, typically those situated on the south-facing side of

buildings, were sunrooms. Later in the 1200s A.D., ancestors to the Pueblo Native Americans

known as the Anasazi situated themselves in south-facing abodes on cliffs to capture the sun’s

warmth during cold winter months.

In the late 1700s and 1800s, researchers and scientists had success using sunlight to power ovens

for long voyages. They also harnessed the power of the sun to produce solar-powered

steamboats. Ultimately, it’s clear that even thousands of years before the era of solar panels, the

concept of manipulating the power of the sun was a common practice.

The development of solar panel technology was an iterative one that took a number of

contributions from various scientists. Naturally, there is some debate around when exactly they

4
were created and who should be credited for the invention. Some people credit the invention of

the solar cell to French scientist Edmond Becquerel, who determined light could increase

electricity generation when two metal electrodes were placed into a conducting solution. This

breakthrough, defined as the “photovoltaic effect,” was influential in later PV developments with

the element selenium.

In 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered that selenium had photoconductive potential, leading to

William Grylls Adams’ and Richard Evans Day’s 1876 discovery that selenium creates

electricity when exposed to sunlight. A few years later in 1883, Charles Fritts actually produced

the first solar cells made from selenium wafers – the reason some historians credit Fritts with the

actual invention of solar cells.

However, solar cells as we know them today are made with silicon, not selenium. Therefore,

some consider the true invention of solar panels to be tied to Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and

Gerald Pearson’s creation of the silicon photovoltaic (PV) cell at Bell Labs in 1954. Many argue

that this event marks the true invention of PV technology because it was the first instance of a

solar technology that could actually power an electric device for several hours of a day. The first

ever silicon solar cell could convert sunlight at four percent efficiency, less than a quarter of

what modern cells are capable of.

1.1.2 MOTIVATION

North Carolina has experienced significant growth in its clean energy markets. As of 2012, these

state industries accounted for over 18,591 full-time equivalent employees across 1,100

businesses accounting for $3.7 billion in annual gross revenues.1 This growth is especially

noteworthy in the solar industry. Total registered capacity has increased from less than 1

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megawatt (MW) in 2006 to 632 MW in 2012,2 which amounts to an average annual growth rate

of 1,243%. Powered by over 500 state businesses working in the solar space,3 this trajectory

ranks North Carolina as the 3rd most active state in the nation in terms of new solar additions in

2013 Q3.4 Geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps have grown in popularity globally with

annual increases of approximately 10% in many areas.5 Growth in North Carolina’s renewable

energy and energy efficiency sectors is driven by many factors, including the falling price of

installation, rising electricity prices, and the predictability of state renewable energy incentives.

The price of solar panels has fallen 60% since 2011,6 and it is expected that, for the majority of

electricity ratepayers, utility scale and commercial scale solar PV systems in North Carolina will

deliver at grid parity without any solar subsidies within the next five years.7 Residential scale

solar PV systems will deliver at grid parity around the year 2020.

In light of these trends, the purpose of this report is to assess the financial, personal, and policy

drivers that have influenced residential owners of solar PV and geothermal systems in North

Carolina to make these investments. In January 2012, the NC Sustainable Energy Association

and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Kenan-Flagler Business School conducted a

survey of 1,323 solar PV owners and 1,023 geothermal ystem owners to assess the motivations

behind their decision to purchase a renewable energy system, challenges faced in the process,

energy efficiency behaviors in which they engage, energy efficiency products and design they

have chosen, and characteristics of these consumers.

1.2 PROBLEM OF THE STATEMENT

Today, the whole world uses electricity - it’s impossible to imagine a life without it. We depend\

on it for refrigeration, heating, transportation, hospitals, communication systems and many other

essential services that maintain our way of life. The major sources of electricity production that

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we utilize are coal and oil, both of which produce pollutants to the atmosphere and the

environment. By relying on these nonrenewable energy sources, the price of energy will increase

exponentially, and eventually be too expensive to incorporate into power stations.

Team Eclipse has acknowledged this pressing issue and has decided to focus on solar energy to

replace nonrenewable resources. With improved and more advanced solar panels being designed

each year, there is a way out of the fossil fuel slope as solar energy becomes as cost efficient as

coal and oil. However, with this new field there are many problems to tackle before it can take its

place as the leading energy source. We want to assist in solving one of solar energy’s pressing

issues that plague all solar panels, the vulnerability of solar panels being exposed to erosion and

piling-up of debris.

All solar panels in outdoor environments are affected by the accumulation of debris on the

panels. This reduces the efficiency of the photovoltaic cell, requiring maintenance to retain its

current energy production. Maintenance of solar panels is costly over larger solar grids, and if

they are in a logistically difficult area, they may not be cleaned at all. Furthermore, the lack of

maintenance decreases the operational longevity of a solar cell. So, Team Eclipse asks: How

might we create a device that can clean solar panels while reducing both the monetary and

electrical cost to the consumer, versus current solutions?

1.3 AIM OF THE PROJECT

Solar panels turn light energy from the sun not its heat into electricity. The main part of the solar

panel that does this is the photovoltaic (PV) cell. Each solar panel has 60 or so PV cells

connected together that convert sunlight into electricity.

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The goal of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) is

to accelerate the development and deployment of solar technology to support an equitable

transition to a decarbonized electricity system by 2035 and decarbonized energy sector by 2050.

Achieving this goal will support the nationwide effort to meet the threat of climate change and

ensure that all Americans benefit from the transition to a clean energy economy. In September

2021, DOE released the Solar Futures Study, a report that explores the role of solar energy in

achieving these goals.

SETO supports solar energy research, development, demonstration and technical assistance in

five areas—photovoltaics (PV), concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP), systems integration,

manufacturing and competitiveness, and soft costs—to improve the affordability, reliability, and

domestic benefit of solar technologies on the electric grid. Learn more about SETO’s research

areas.

In May 2021, SETO released its Multi-Year Program Plan, which describes the office’s activities

and specific goals for 2025. Download the plan.

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The first objective is to design a device that can clean solar panels and be energy positive (create

more energy than it uses). Another aim is to make this device more efficient, in energy, time, and

money, than devices currently in the market.

Solar efficiency can be decreased by inclement weather conditions, such as dust, snow, and even

pollen. While it may not seem like these environmental conditions can have much of an effect on

photovoltaic cells, research from Marouani et al has shown that debris as small as sand has the

potential to lower solar efficiency by 40 percent. Seeing as the maximum solar efficiency

8
attained is 44.7 percent according to Fraunhofer ISE, that would mean that under desert

conditions the maximum practical efficiency would be 27 percent. If solar cells can be better

maintained, there will not be such an immediate necessity to research how to raise the efficiency

of a solar cell.

Currently, solutions that do exist have many drawbacks. Cleaning the panels by hand is tedious-

often dangerous - and sometimes downright impossible, depending on panel location. Paying for

labor and materials is also expensive, and harsh cleaners can decrease the operational lifetime of

the cell. Cleaning robots can cost several thousand dollars (not including yearly maintenance),

and often require almost as much energy as they save.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

Much of solar cell research is funneled into increasing the efficiency of the solar cell. However,

this research is sparked in part by the lack of a solar cell’s ability to maintain efficiency due to

inner circuitry decay and exterior conditions. Environmental debris plays a significant role as it

is the condition in which we humans have the least control over, but can be easily remedied.

There are three main reasons why our solution is needed:

1) Solar panels put in the desert can easily be covered by fine particles of sand due to the wind.

Sand coating can decrease solar cell efficiency by 15% (Marouani, Bouaouadja, Castro, and

Duran).

2) The high cost of maintenance is a deterrent to some looking to buy into the industry

(solarpoweristhefuture.com).

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3) Current solar panel owners could save $5,000-$10,000 a year with a cheap cleaning system

(winsol.com).

The sun provides more than enough energy to meet the whole world's energy needs, and unlike

fossil fuels, it won't run out anytime soon. As a renewable energy source, the only limitation of

solar power is our ability to turn it into electricity in an efficient and cost-effective way.

Solar energy is the energy force that sustains life on Earth for all plants, animals and people. It

provides a compelling solution for all societies to meet their needs for clean, abundant sources of

energy in the future.

1.6 ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR POWER

Solar energy offers considerable advantages over conventional energy systems by nullifying

flaws in those systems long considered to be unchangeable. Solar power for home energy

production has its flaws, too, which are outlined in another article, but they're dwarfed by the

advantages listed below. 

The following are advantages of solar energy:

 Raw materials are renewable and unlimited. The amount of available solar energy is

staggering -- roughly 10,000 times that currently required by humans -- and it’s

constantly replaced. A mere 0.02% of incoming sunlight, if captured correctly, would be

sufficient to replace every other fuel source currently used.

Granted, the Earth does need much of this solar energy to drive its weather, so let’s look only at

the unused portion of sunlight that is reflected back into space, known as the albedo. Earth’s

average albedo is around 30%, meaning that roughly 52 petawatts of energy is reflected by the

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Earth and lost into space every year. Compare this number with global energy-consumption

statistics.  Annually, the energy lost to space is the combined equivalent of 400 hurricanes, 1

million Hoover Dams, Great Britain's energy requirement for 250,000 years, worldwide oil, gas

and coal production for 387 years, 75 million cars, and 50 million 747s running perpetually for

one year (not to mention 1 million fictional DeLorean time machines!). 

 Solar power is low-emission. Solar panels produce no pollution, although they impose

environmental costs through manufacture and construction. These environmental tolls are

negligible, however, when compared with the damage inflicted by conventional energy

sources:  the burning of fossil fuels releases roughly 21.3 billion metric tons of carbon

dioxide into the atmosphere annually. 

 Solar power is suitable for remote areas that are not connected to energy grids. It may

come as a surprise to city-dwellers but, according to Home Power Magazine, as of 2006,

180,000 houses in the United States were off-grid, and that figure is likely considerably

higher today. California, Colorado, Maine, Oregon, Vermont and Washington have long

been refuges for such energy rebels, though people live off the grid in every state. While

many of these people shun the grid on principle, owing to politics and environmental

concerns, few of the world’s 1.8 billion off-the-gridders have any choice in the matter.

Solar energy can drastically improve the quality of life for millions of people who live in

the dark, especially in places such as Sub-Saharan Africa, where as many as 90% of the

rural population lacks access to electricity. People in these areas must rely on fuel-based

lighting, which inflicts significant social and environmental costs, from jeopardized

health through contamination of indoor air, to limited overall productivity.   

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1.7 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Energy from sun can be categorised in two ways: in the form of heat and light. We use the solar

energy every day in many different ways. When we hang laundry outside to dry in the sun, we

are using the solar heat to dry our clothes. Plants make their food in the presence of sunlight.

Animals and humans get food from plants. Fossil fuels are actually solar energy stored millions

and millions of years ago.

There is variety of products that uses solar energy. These products are called solar devices (or

appliances) or solar thermal collectors. Solar thermal technologies uses the solar heat energy to

heat water or air for applications such as space heating, pool heating and water heating for homes

and businesses. Let us look at the applications of solar energy in different sectors.

1.7.1 Residential Application

Use of solar energy for homes has number of advantages. The solar energy is used in residential

homes for heating the water with the help of solar heater. The photovoltaic cell installed on the

roof of the house collects the solar energy and is used to warm the water. Solar energy can also

be used to generate electricity. Batteries store energy captured in day time and supply power

throughout the day. The use of solar appliances is one of the best ways to cut the expenditure on

energy.

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1.7.2 Industrial Application

Sun’s thermal energy is used in office, warehouse and industry to supply power. Solar energy is

used to power radio and TV stations. It is also used to supply power to lighthouse and warning

light for aircraft.

1.7.3 Remote Application

Solar energy can be used for power generation in remotely situated places like schools, homes,

clinics and buildings. Water pumps run on solar energy in remote areas. Large scale desalination

plant also use power generated from solar energy instead of electricity.

1.7.4 Transportation

Solar energy is also used for public transportation such as trolleys, buses and light-rails.

1.7.5 Pool heating

Solar heating system can be used to heat up water in pool during cold seasons.

1.8 LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT

High initial costs for material and installation and long ROI (however, with the reduction in the

cost of solar over the last 10 years, solar is becoming more cost feasible every day) Needs lots of

space as efficiency is not 100% yet. No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery

bank.

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1.9 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR PANELS

Advantages:

1. Solar power is pollution-free and causes no greenhouse gases to be emitted after

installation

2. Reduced dependence on foreign oil and fossil fuels

3. Renewable clean power that is available every day of the year, even cloudy days produce

some power

4. Return on investment unlike paying for utility bills

5. Virtually no maintenance as solar panels last over 30 years

6. Creates jobs by employing solar panel manufacturers, solar installers, etc. and in turn

helps the economy

7. Excess power can be sold back to the power company if the grid inner tied

8. Ability to live grid free if all power generated provides enough for the home/building

9. Can be installed virtually anywhere; in a field to on a building

10. Use batteries to store extra power for use at night

11. Solar can be used to heat water, power homes and buildings, even power cars

12. Safer than traditional electric current

13. Efficiency is always improving so the same size solar that is available today will become

more efficient tomorrow

14. Aesthetics are improving making the solar more versatile compared to older models; i.e.

printing, flexible, solar shingles, etc.

15. Federal grants, tax incentives, and rebate programs are available to help with initial costs

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 16. No trenching is needed since the solar can be close to or at the place of installation

Disadvantages:

1. High initial costs for material and installation and long ROI (however, with the reduction

in the cost of solar over the last 10 years, solar is becoming more cost feasible every day)

2. Needs lots of space as efficiency is not 100% yet

3. No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank

4. Some people think they are ugly (I am definitely not one of those!)

5. Devices that run on DC power directly are more expensive

6. Depending on geographical location the size of the solar panels vary for the same power

generation

7. Cloudy days do not produce as much energy

8. Solar panels are not being massed produced due to a lack of material and technology to

lower the cost enough to be more affordable (this is starting to change)

9. Solar-powered cars do not have the same speeds and power as typical gas-powered cars

(this too is starting to change)

10. Lower solar production in the winter months

 There is more solar power that hits the earth every day than the current population can use in a

year. Let’s keep working to harness this great power and put it to good use. With efficiencies

evolving, pricing being reduced every day, and new technologies being experimented with, it

will be interesting to see where we are in the solar industry in the next couple of years. What do

you think the future will look like?

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Alex Mathew & B. Biju et al. studied design and stability analysis of solar panel supporting

structure subjected to wind force. In this study the arrangement of solar panels in structure is

similar to double sloped roof trusses. Due to this wind force, the structure experiences an

overturning effect. This overturning couple imparts a reaction force at the base of the structure.

The structure is symmetric along any vertical plane. They used CAD modeling software

CREO 2.0, the test model of solar panel supporting structure was created steel. They

concluded that the design of solar panel supporting structure is done and the effects of wind

force on its structure stability are analyzed. Due to the wind force, a reaction force is

experienced on the structure and the structure will retain its stable state, only if this reaction

force is compensated by the force due the self-weight of the structure. This structure will be used

as the fuel stations to meet the energy requirement of solar cars, as it can be used for domestic

purpose, commercial purpose.

Mihailidis et al. represented the analysis of two different design approaches of solar panel

support structures which are 1) Fixed support structure design, 2) Adjustable support structure

design. They did analysis according to the following steps.

Load calculation, 2) Analysis of the structure, which includes the creation of a Finite element

model using ANSA as preprocessor. Loads calculated in the first step are applied to the model.

As solver MSC Nastran is used. 3) Identification of the structure critical points. According to the

results weak points are redesigned in order to increase theend.

Jinxin Cao et al. performed a wind tunnel experiment to evaluate wind loads on solar panels

mounted on flat roofs. In order to find module force characteristics at different locations on the

16
roof they use solar array which were fabricated with pressure taps. They consider two different

cases 1) single array, 2) multi-array and find mean and peak module force co- efficient. They

also find effect of mean module force co-efficient on design parameter of solar panel. They

found effect of mean module force co-efficient on design parameters (tilt angle, height) of solar

panel. The results show module force coefficient for single array cases is larger than multi array

cases.

2.1 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Solar energy is a renewable energy resource and is converted to electrical energy in two ways

thus using a photovoltaic material which generates an electrical potential when exposed to light

or using a thermal process which uses the energy from the sun to heat a working fluid in an

electricity generating cycle. The former will be dealt with in this work. It is a known fact that

energy from the sun is quantized in photon; this photon in sunlight hit solar panel and is

absorbed by semi conducting materials such as silicon. Electrons (negatively charged) are

knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce

electricity. The complementary positive charges that are also created (like bubbles) are called

holes and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon panel. By this process the

photovoltaic cell converts the energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.

Since this energy is required for immediate and post use, it is temporarily stored in an

accumulator (battery) from where it is fed into an inverter circuit which turns the DC electricity

into 220-240volt AC (Alternating current) needed in homes to drive some electronic gadgets

like computers, televisions, CDs etc. The design objective of this project is to come up with a

prototype of a system that will do this transformation. The diagram below shows the block

diagram of the system components

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2.2 OVERVIEW OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar power is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical energy. Solar

technologies can harness this energy for a variety of uses, including generating electricity,

providing light or a comfortable interior environment, and heating water for domestic,

commercial, or industrial use.

Solar energy is a very flexible energy technology: it can be built as distributed generation

(located at or near the point of use) or as a central-station, utility-scale solar power plant (similar

to traditional power plants). Both of these methods can also store the energy they produce for

distribution after the sun sets, using cutting edge solar + storage technologies. Solar exists within

a complex and interrelated electricity system in the U.S., working alongside other technologies

like wind power to transition the U.S. to a clean energy economy.

All of these applications depend on supportive policy frameworks at the local, state and federal

level to ensure consumers and businesses have fair access to clean energy technologies like solar.

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2.3 MAXIMIUM ANGLE OF INCLINATION

The solar panel of 45 Watts capacity was placed on the manual tracker between the hours of

7:00am and 6:15pm on the geographical location of latitude of 40 55’ 58” North and longitude of

60 59’ 55” East in University of Port Harcourt environment between November and December,

2010. The protractor was used to measure the tilt angle which the solar panel made with the

horizontal at an interval of 5º daily. A digital Multi-meter was employed to record the open

circuit voltage VOC and short circuit current ISC of the solar panel from which the power output

was determined.

The study shows that the maximum power output of 39.74 watts was obtained at the tilt angle of

400 by 11.30a.m., a day that was characterized with high intensity of sunlight, in this

geographical location. This result gives 88.31% of the full capacity of the employed solar panel.

Considering the Daily Average Power Output, Tilt angle of 150 recorded Optimum Daily

Average Power output of 16.83 Watts throughout the period of measurement. This suggests that

tilt angle of 150 is considered as suitable angle for Solar panel installation for optimum daily

power production in this geographical location.

2.4 SOLAR PANEL

A solar panel system is a system of interconnected assembly (also known as an array) of

photovoltaic (PV) solar cells.

The energy produced by the solar panel is measured in volts or watts, it will vary according to

the type of system and solar cell that you are using.

Each of the solar panels (modules) in the array consists of a group of solar cells packed jointed in

a metal frame. A single solar panel typically consists of 60, 72, or 96 solar cells. Every solar cell

19
includes an inverter to convert the direct current produced into the alternating current electricity

used in the home. The placed inverter can be large and centralized.

2.5 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOLAR PANEL

Though solar energy has found a dynamic and established role in today’s clean energy economy,

there’s a long history behind photovoltaics (PV) that brought the concept of solar energy to

fruition. With the way the cost of solar has plummeted in the past decade, it’s easy to forget that

going solar had a completely different meaning even just 15 years ago. Let’s go back a few

centuries to the origins of solar PV and explore the history of solar energy and silicon solar

technology.

In theory, solar energy was used by humans as early as 7th century B.C. when history tells us

that humans used sunlight to light fires with magnifying glass materials. Later, in 3rd century

B.C., the Greeks and Romans were known to harness solar power with mirrors to light torches

for religious ceremonies. These mirrors became a normalized tool referred to as “burning

mirrors.” Chinese civilization documented the use of mirrors for the same purpose later in 20

A.D.

Another early use for solar energy that is still popular today was the concept of “sunrooms” in

buildings. These sunrooms used massive windows to direct sunlight into one concentrated area.

Some of the iconic Roman bathhouses, typically those situated on the south-facing side of

buildings, were sunrooms. Later in the 1200s A.D., ancestors to the Pueblo Native Americans

known as the Anasazi situated themselves in south-facing abodes on cliffs to capture the sun’s

warmth during cold winter months.

20
In the late 1700s and 1800s, researchers and scientists had success using sunlight to power ovens

for long voyages. They also harnessed the power of the sun to produce solar-powered

steamboats. Ultimately, it’s clear that even thousands of years before the era of solar panels, the

concept of manipulating the power of the sun was a common practice.

2.6 REVIEW OF DIFFERENT PANEL MOUNTING SYSTEM

Solar mounting system attaches the solar panels array to either the ground or rooftop for

residential and commercial applications. For rooftop of industrial sheds installations, a variety of

frame designs are used depending on whether the system is mounted on pitched or flat roof.

These structures helps panels to rest com- portably, prevent from being damaged more

importantly position them at precise tilt angle to harness maximum sun’s energy. Mounting

structures can be made for rooftops, ground mounting carports and sun tracker solutions which

now have seen a lot of developments in terms of weight, material, adaptability and ease of

installation. There have been many technological innovations that have led to reduced cost faster

and better installation, high durability and with enhanced output.

Extruded Aluminum frame structures meet or exceed the strength and flexibility requirements

while delivering a lower lifetime cost compared to steel frames, especially with a properly

designed custom solution. Aluminum also provides a high level of aesthetic appeal through

anodizing or powder coating to achieve the desired surface finish. And, an aluminum frame

structure will remain free of rust and resistant to corrosion for the life of the structure.

Long life, simple design, easy installation, and greater aesthetic appeal over the life of the

structure combined with lower lifetime cost makes aluminum the metals of choice for products.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

In order to perform the necessary research, the team completed the following four objectives:

1. Research factors affecting solar PV quality

2. Evaluate metrics indicative of solar PV quality

3. Develop an understanding of consumer priorities

4. Design a more comprehensive multiple-criteria decision-making matrix to compare

photovoltaic component quality. To begin, the team researched factors affecting solar

photovoltaic system quality and common failure modes of systems. The team conducted

interviews with industry leaders including manufacturers, retailers, installers, and researchers to

gain a better understanding of the operation of solar photovoltaic systems and what factors an

industry leader would utilize to classify a system as “high quality”. A coding mechanism was

constructed to turn qualitative interview data regarding system quality into quantifiable data

backed by industry leaders. Table 1 represents the industry leaders interviewed and their

combined years of experience in the solar industry.

22
Through the data collected in the interviews, the team became aware of reliability data used by

industry leaders to determine system quality. The team made use of various research institutions’

data, online databases product data sheets, and independent research to draw conclusions

regarding reliability and performance of solar products and metrics which best identify them. A

survey was sent out to solar consumers to determine consumer priorities when purchasing a solar

photovoltaic system. This survey also provided a section for solar photovoltaic system owners to

provide feedback regarding their system, any failures it may have had, and data such as panel

orientation, inverter type, and panel type. The survey received 868 responses from consumers

across Australia. Figure 1 displays the distribution of survey responses across Australia in

comparison to the population distribution.

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3.1 REQUIRED TOOLS

We’ve all heard that bit of wisdom thousands of times. And it’s no different for a Solar Electric

(PV) system installation than for anything else. Fortunately, most of the tools needed for a PV

install are commonly used and easily found. There are very few highly specialized tools. Below

are several lists that describe many of the tools needed for an installation. They are broken out

into functional groups for site assessment, installation and maintenance. Most of the specialized

tools fall into the site assessment and maintenance categories; the installation tools are probably

already in your tool box!

Site Assessment Tools

 50-100 ft. tape measure

 Solar Pathfinder (evaluates the solar energy potential at a site)

 Compass (not needed if you’re using a Solar Pathfinder)

 Maps (reference for location latitude and magnetic declination)

 Digital camera

Basic Tools Needed for Installation

 Angle finder

 Torpedo level

 Fish tape

 Chalk line

 Cordless drill (14.4V or greater), multiple batteries

 Unibit and multiple drill bits (wood, metal, masonry)

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  Hole saw

 Hole punch

 Torque wrench with deep sockets

 Nut drivers (most common PV sizes are 7/16”, ½”, 9/16”)

 Wire strippers

 Crimpers

 Needle-nose pliers

 Lineman's pliers

 Slip-joint pliers

 Small cable cutters

 Large cable cutters

 AC/DC multimeter

 Hacksaw

 Tape measure

 Blanket, cardboard or black plastic to keep modules from going “live” during installation

 Heavy duty extension cords

 Caulking gun

 Fuse Pullers

Additional Tools to Consider (especially for multiple installations)

 DC clamp-on ammeter

 Reciprocating saw / Jig saw

 Right angle drill

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  Conduit bender

 Large crimpers

 Magnetic wristband for holding bits and parts

 C-clamps

 Stud finder

 Pry bar

Tools for Battery Systems

 Hydrometer or Refractometer

 Small flashlight (to view electrolyte level)

 Rubber apron

 Rubber gloves

 Safety goggles

 Baking Soda (to neutralizer any acid spills)

 Turkey Baster

 Funnel

 Distilled Water

 Voltmeter

3.2 SOLAR SYSTEM COMPONENTS

A solar power system is that system that uses power from the sun, called solar energy to generate

power. There are two major types of solar power systems: On-grid and Off-grid systems.

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Off-Grid Solar power systems are those that aren’t connected to the national or public grid. They

run solely on the energy from the solar panels and the stored energy in the battery banks that are

charged using solar panels.

On-Grid Solar power systems refer to systems that are connected to the public grid. It usually

works by using a two-way electrical meter. They work hand in hand with the grid. They can also

be called grid-tied system.

Now that we know about these systems, let us know what they consist of. Below are major

components of a solar powered system:

SOLAR PANELS

An aggregation of solar cells wired in series and parallel form a solar panel/module. A

combination of solar panels is called a solar array. They convert solar energy from sunlight into

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electrical energy. There are various types of solar panels and here are the best ways to maintain

your solar panels.

MOUNTING STRUCTURES

Solar panels are

mounted on roofs, poles or on the ground. The stands or racks hold these panels together to be

able to withstand wind. They are made of iron and are called mounting structures.

INVERTER

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Most of our appliances and devices use Alternating Current (AC) to operate. An inverter is an

electronic device that converts the Direct Current (DC) from the solar panel to Alternating

current (AC) that is used to power electrical appliances. There are different classification of

inverters: Sine wave, modified sine wave and square wave inverters.

BATTERY

In the

daytime, solar-powered systems produce and run on electricity generated from the solar panels.

In the night, when there is no sunlight, or on very cloudy days, a form of energy storage is

needed which brings about the need for batteries. They are the energy storage banks. They are

also of different types: the lead-acid, flooded and tubular batteries.

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CHARGE CONTROLLER

A charge controller is a device that regulates the voltage output from the solar panel. It helps to

prevent over-charging of batteries. Some also give overvoltage protection.

3.3 SOLAR PANEL INSTALLATION PROCESS

Solar panels can be used to generate electricity for both commercial and home use. In both cases,

the Photovoltaic Panel are installed on Roof Top to get maximum possible sunlight and generate

maximum electricity from the system.

Following are the steps involved in the installation process:

Step-1: Mount Installation

The first step is to fix the mounts that will support he Solar Panels. It can be Roof-ground

mounts or flush mounts depending on the requirement. This base structure provides support and

sturdiness. Care is taken on direction in which the PV panels (monocrystalline or

polycrystalline) will be installed. For countries in the Northern Hemisphere, the best direction to

face solar panels is south because it gets maximum sunlight. East and West directions will also

do. For countries in the Southern Hemisphere, the best direction is North.

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Again, the mounting structure must be slightly tilted. Angle of the tilt could be between 18 to 36

Degree. Many companies use a solar tracker to increase the conversion efficiency.

Step-2: Install the Solar Panels

Next step is to fix the solar panels with the mounting structure. This is done by tightening nuts

and bolts. Care is taken to secure the whole structure properly so that it is sturdy and lasts long.

Step-3: Do Electrical Wiring

Next step is to do the electrical wiring. Universal Connectors like MC4 are used during wiring

because these connectors can be connected with all type of solar panels. These panels can be

electrically connected with each other in following series:

Series Connection: In this case, the Positive (+) Wire is of one PV module is connected to

the Negative (–) Wire of another module. This type of wiring increases the voltage match with

the battery bank.

Parallel Connection: In this case, Positive (+) to Positive (+) and Negative (–) to Negative

(–) connection is done. This type of wiring voltage of each panel remains same.

Step-4: Connect the System to Solar Inverter

Next step is to connect the system to a solar inverter. The Positive wire from the solar panel is

connected to the Positive terminal of the inverter and the Negative wire is connected to the

Negative terminal of the inverter.

The solar inverter is then connected to the Solar Battery and Grid input to produce electricity.

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Step-5: Connect Solar Inverter and Solar Battery

Next step is to connect the solar inverter and the solar battery. The positive terminal of the

battery is connected with the positive terminal of the inverter and negative to negative. Battery is

needed in off grid solar system to store electricity backup.

Step-6: Connect Solar Inverter to the Grid

Next step is to connect the inverter to the grid. To make this connection, a normal plug is used to

connect to the main power switch board. An output wire is connected with electric board that

supplies electricity to the home.

Step: 7: Start Solar Inverter

Now when all the electrical wiring and connections are done, it is time to start the inverter switch

ON the Main Switch of the Home. Most solar inverters will have digital display to show you

stats regarding generation and usage of solar unit.

3.4 INSTALLATION CALCULATION

Calculating Solar Panel, Inverter and Battery Charger Specifications

For the sake of convenience, let's believe you possess a a 100 watt appliance or load that you

would like to operate, free of charge through solar power, for around ten hours every night.

In order to exactly determine the dimensions of the solar panel, batteries, charge controller and

inverter the following mentioned parameters will need to be strictly calculated and configured.

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Estimating Load Wattage

1) First you will need to estimate how much watts of electricity you may require for the specified

load.

Let's say  you have a 100 watt load that needs to be operated for approximately 10 hours, in that

case the total power required could be estimated simply by multiplying the load with hours, as

given under

100 Watts x 10 hours = 1,000 Watt hours. This becomes the absolute power necessary from

the panel.

Determining Approximate Solar Panel Dimension

2) Next, we need to determine the approximate dimensions of the solar panel for satisfying the

above estimated load requirement. If we assume a roughly ten hour daily optimal sunshine, the

specifications for the solar panel could be simply and quickly calculated as explained in the

following expression:

1,000 Watt hours / 10 hours sunlight = 100 Watt solar panel.

However, you may notice that mostly during the summer seasons you may normally get around

10 hours of reasonable amount of sunshine, but the winter season may produce roughly around

4-5 hours of effective sunshine.

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Contemplating the above scenario, you too might agree and recommend considering the worst

possible sunshine hour into calculation so that even on the weakest of sunshines your load keeps

running optimally.

Therefore taking into account the 4 to 5 hours sunshine per day consideration, we calculate the

true power for the solar panel which would enable your load to keep running throughout the year

1,000 Watt hours / 5 hours sunlight = 200 Watt solar panel.

Calculating Battery Ah

3) Once you have calculated the solar panel as per the above calculations, it's time to calculate

the AH rating for the batteries that might be required for operating the specified load under all

conditions. If the selected battery is rated at 12V, in that case:

Dividing 1,000 Watt hours by 12 Volts = 83 Amp Hours of reserve battery power.

Let's upgrade this value a little more with a 20% added tolerance, which finally gives a rounded

up figure of  around 100 AH. Hence, a 100AH 12V battery is what you may finally require for

the inverter.

Evaluating Charger Controller Specifications

4) Now, to figure out how big your solar charge controller would need to be for the above

calculated parameters, you might need to take your solar panel current or the Amperage specs

34
into consideration, which may be simply gotten by dividing the panel's wattage rating with its

voltage rating (Ohms law remember?)

100 / 12 = 8.3 Amps.

We have so far applied a "plus tolerance" to all the previous parameters, so let's show some

generosity to the Amp spec of the panel also, and instead of sticking to the 8.3 amps limit, you

might be happy raising the level to around 10 Amps? That looks good, right?

Assessing Inverter Specifications

5) Finally we boil down to the inverter specifications, and determine the reasonably exact

capacity that would keep the unit compatible with the above discussed results, and keep the load

running without issues, whenever required.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 TESTING OF SOLAR PANELS

4.1.1 Testing Solar Panels For Volts

To test solar panel voltage output, put your solar panel in direct sunlight, set your multi-meter to

the "volts" setting and...

1. touch the multi-meter's (red) positive lead to your solar panel's positive wire.

2. Then touch, the multi-meter's (black) negative lead to your solar panel's negative wire.

The volt reading on your multi-meter should be close to (or just under) 60 volts. If it's not, there

is a problem with your solar panel output. Go back and check all the connections of your solar

cells and all your stringers or check for cracks in the solar cells themselves.

4.1.2 Solar Panel Testing For Amps

To test solar panel amperage output, put your solar panel in direct sunlight, set your multi-meter

to the "amps" setting and...

1. touch the multi-meter's (red) positive lead to your solar panel's positive wire.

2. Then touch, the multi-meter's (black) negative lead to your solar panel's negative wire.

The amp reading on your multi-meter should be close to (or just under) 3.5 amps. 3 amps

is about normal since your panel may not be currently getting maximum sunlight. If the

amps are much lower there is a problem with your solar panel output. Go back and check

36
 all the connections of your solar cells and all your stringers or check for cracks in the

solar cells themselves.

That's all there is to testing solar panels and making sure they work right!

After doing your solar panel testing, you should find that the solar panel output (for the pv panel

you built on the Make Solar Panels page) is about 18 volts and 3.5 amps.

Whenever you have these two values you can figure out the wattage by multiplying them

together.

Volts x Amps = Watts

So... 18 Volts x 3.5 Amps = 63 Watts

4.2 SOLAR PANEL MAINTENANCE

Solar panel cleaning

Cleaning of the solar panels is easy but labor intensive. It ensures that the solar cells are

unobstructed and receive the maximum amount of insolation.Clean solar panels are important to

maximize the panel’s energy output.Cleaning the glass on the panels is a simple procedure that

can be carried out as often as required depending on how much dirt is accumulating. To clean

panels, you can use a soft cloth or wash rag and biodegradable soap.If you are only dealing with

dust you can run a hose pipe with water over the panels.

Avoid shading

Shading is one of the things you already avoid when you do a proper site analysis during pre-

installation.Once the panels have been mounted, you need to ensure shades do not come up such

37
as new towering trees, as this will decrease the amount of energy produced by the system. You

do not necessarily have to cut down trees but you can trim them to ensure the panels are not

shaded.

Monitor the solar system

The only way to detect a problem in the system is to monitor its performance through daily,

monthly, quarterly and annual checks.

Daily solar panel maintenance

Daily checks should involve monitoring the inverter display to ensure that it is working correctly

and that the green light is on, failure to which you should refer to the manual.Also, keep a daily

record of the system’s output to be able to monitor performance over a long period of time. Most

modern inverter and their monitoring software will do this automatically for you.

Monthly and quarterly solar panel maintenance

Monthly and quarterly maintenance checks involve checking the cleanliness of the panels, and

accumulation of any dust and debris under and around the PV array.Annual maintenance checks

are more detailed and should involve a thorough checkup of the entire system to ascertain that it

is working correctly.

Annual solar panel maintenance

Some of the annual maintenance services for solar systems include:

 Performing a general performance check of the system by reviewing the daily

performance data to detect any major changes in output

 Checking the solar panels to ensure that they are clean, free of fractures, scratches,

corrosion, moisture penetration and browning.

stipulated tolerance.

 Checking the mounting hardware to ensure it is in good condition and ensuring the earth

connection is continuous.

 Checking of junction boxes to ensure there is no water accumulation and that the integrity

of lid seals, connections and clamping devices is intact.

 Checking of breakers for any damage, and to verify that the isolation devices are working

correctly

 Checking of fuse boxes for water damage and resistive joints on connections

 Inspecting the inverters to assess any damage, checking for any resistive joints on

connections and verifying the DC voltage coming into the inverter.

39
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RCOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

Solar energy is one of most important renewable energy sources that have been gaining

increased attention in recent years. Solar energy are plentiful it has the greatest availability

compared to other energy sources. The amount of 20% solar energy supplied in the earth. The

sun are sufficient to power the total energy needs of the earth for one year .The conversion of

solar energy into electrical energy has many application fields. Residential, space and aircraft

and naval applications are the main fields of solar energy. Solar energy quite simply the energy

produced directly by the sun and collected where, normally the Earth. The sun creates its energy

through a thermonuclear process that converts about 650,000,0 tons of hydrogen to helium…

show more content…

Solar power has two big advantages over fossil fuels. The first in the fact that it is renewable

energy it is never going to run out. The second is its effect on the environment. Energy

generation using solar photovoltaic requires large area. As cost of the land are growing day by

day, there are some strong requirement to use the available land as efficiently as possible. Due to

the nature of , two components are required to have a functional solar energy generator. These

two components are collector and a storage unit. Solar energy has experienced phenomenal

growth in recent years due to both technological improvements resulting in cost reductions and

government policies supportive of renewable energy development and utilization.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
40
1. Leverage state energy policy to support low-income deployment. Many states already have

policies to encourage renewable energy. State renewable portfolio standards (RPSs), financial

incentives, community solar and net metering policies can all be adapted to support low-income

solar. Colorado, for example, experimented with a requirement for community solar programs to

include low-income customers, while Washington, D.C., and Massachusetts have used their RPS

programs to provide financial incentives for low-income solar.

2. Adapt housing and anti-poverty programs to include low-income solar. A vast array of

federal and state programs seek to reduce poverty and promote economic development, two

things that solar power can help with. Energy assistance programs, like the Low Income Home

Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) and the Weatherization Assistance Program (WAP), can

be adapted (and in some cases are being adapted) to include solar power as approved cost-

effective measures. There are further opportunities in the many public housing programs,

economic development incentives for impacted communities, and job training and placement

initiatives. HUD has been turning to solar to reduce the $5 billion a year it spends on utility bills

in public housing.

3. Set up a financial vehicle. Many financial strategies can enable access to solar. They may

require enabling legislation or new regulations, and involve working with utilities, solar

developers, county agencies and/or financial institutions. Because of the diversity of options,

legal and regulatory complexity, and potential range of stakeholders, it may be beneficial to

establish a lead agency with specialized skills in project finance. The Connecticut Green Bank,

for example, is not a single “policy,” but a multifaceted vehicle that develops, tests and deploys

innovative financial strategies, and provides leadership to other stakeholders and agencies. Given

41
the many financing vehicles that already exist, the expertise and leadership of an agency steeped

in clean energy financing can be just as important as having a substantial endowment.

4. Promote volunteerism. Using solar power to help low-income consumers can be appealing to

the public, because it simultaneously helps solve social and environmental problems. Volunteer

labor can drive down the cost of installations while providing job training and community

service opportunities. Groups like Habitat for Humanity and Grid Alternatives have found

success with this approach. It can be encouraged through public policies, including financial and

promotional support, preferential permitting, and public recognition.

5. Partner with trusted low-income allies. In many cases, government officials and program

managers may not be best situated to promote programs in low-income communities. Early

stakeholder engagement and coalition building can help ensure greater buy in and program

enrollment. Partnering with organizations that are trusted within the particular market segments

you are trying to reach — such as low-income outreach and advocacy groups, community action

agencies, and other service institutions — can reinforce mutual trust and improve outreach and

marketing.

6. Ensure programs provide tangible benefits to low-income consumers. It may seem

obvious to say that low-income customers should benefit from low-income solar programs, but

in practice it can be difficult to achieve. For example, installing solar on a low-income,

multifamily apartment building won’t necessarily provide savings for the tenants. Low-income

solar programs should complement existing programs and provide real financial benefits for the

low-income customers they serve. While there is a need and opportunity for innovative policies

to encourage low-income solar, the perception that solar is only for the wealthy is already being

eroded by real-world deployment of solar across the income spectrum.

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