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2022

NOTRE DAME
REBUILDING AN ICON
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 FURTHER F E B R UA RY 2 0 2 2

C O N T E N T S On the Cover
During preparation for
a faithful restoration of
Notre Dame Cathedral in
Paris, white canopies pro-
tect gaping wounds left by
the devastating 2019 fire.
TOMAS VAN HOUTRYVE

17
P R O O F E X P L O R E

THE BIG IDEA

On the Trail
of Julius Caesar
We might imagine
meeting the Roman
emperor face-to-face—
but how do we know
what he actually

24
8
looked like?
BY M A RY B E A R D

ADVENTURE
BREAKTHROUGHS
Water Garden
Scat Scan Discovery The Mekong River is
Scientists could iden- home to rafts of water
tify beetle fossils as a lilies—and, increasingly,
new species because plastic pollution. The
they were preserved National Geographic
so well in 230-million- Society is helping fund
year-old … feces. research on the issue.
BY H I C K S WO GA N
BY R AC H E L N G ; P H OTO -
G R A P H BY K H Á N H P H A N

A Family’s Valor
THROUGH THE LENS
With the timeless
look of tintypes to The Conflict Zone
bind the past and Ugandan villagers’
present, a photogra- clashes with chimps
pher pays tribute to raise tricky questions
the armed forces about conservation
ALSO
members in his family. and coexistence.
P H OTO G R A P H S BY A Shrew’s Brain STO RY A N D P H OTO G R A P H S
R A S H O D TAY LO R Mulch From Coffee? BY RO N A N D O N OVA N
F E B R U A R Y | CONTENTS

F E AT U R E S Notre Dame The Adapters Crops and Climate

After the Fire Cichlids in Lake The toll that climate
The cathedral was still Tanganyika could be change takes on food
smoldering in April poster fish for diversity, crops deserves a micro-
2019 as French leaders exhibiting many sizes, scopically close look.
vowed to rebuild it— colors, and behaviors. T E X T A N D I M AG E S B Y
by 2024. As restoration B Y N ATA S H A D A LY RO B E RT DA S H
proceeds, unrivaled P H OTO G RA P H S BY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. 102
access allowed National A N G E L F I TO R
Geographic to witness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. 72 Sudan’s Reckoning
the efforts. A new generation dis-
BY RO B E RT KU N Z I G A Climb for History covers a proud past and
P H OTO G RA P H S BY An all-Nepali team pre- faces an unsure future.
T O M A S VA N H O U T R Y V E vails on the world’s sec- BY KRISTIN ROMEY
A RT BY F E R N A N D O G . ond highest mountain. P H OTO G RA P H S BY
B A P T I S TA BY FREDDIE WILKINSON NICHOLE SOBECKI
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. 36 ...................................... P. 80 ..................................... P. 110
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F E B R U A R Y | FROM THE EDITOR

HISTORIC
MONUMENTS
Deciding What
to Preserve—and How
BY SUSAN GOLDBERG

C U LT U R A L H E R I TA G Esite s are a
nonrenewable resource. When they
disappear, they’re gone forever, a loss
akin to the extinction of species.
Today architectural and archaeologi-
cal heritage sites are being destroyed or
imperiled at an alarming rate. They’re
threatened by rising seas (Venice),
pollution (the Taj Mahal), overtourism
(Angkor Wat), encroaching develop-
ment (the Pyramids at Giza), conflict
(Syria’s ancient city of Palmyra) …
And by accidents.
In this issue, we explore the hercu-
lean efforts to rebuild the roof and spire
of Notre Dame Cathedral, part of the city to rubble. As Dresden, then in East Since its principal con-
Banks of the Seine UNESCO World Heri- Germany, slowly rebuilt after the war, struction from 1163 to 1350,
Notre Dame Cathedral
tage site in Paris. Before it was wracked the Frauenkirche remained in ruins. repeatedly has been dam-
by fire in spring 2019, the landmark But after German reunification, the aged and repaired, includ-
drew some 12 million visitors a year. church was reconstructed using many ing desecration during
the French Revolution and
We’ll take you behind the scenes of the of its original stones, as a statement of major restoration in the
rebuilding, through the work of pho- peace and harmony. mid-1800s. On April 15, 2019,
tographer Tomas van Houtryve, writer Berlin’s Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial the landmark’s roof caught
fire (above). After 15 hours
Robert Kunzig, and artist Fernando Church, better known as the Gedächt-
ablaze, the cathedral’s spire
Baptista. You’ll see debris cleared, chap- niskirche, also fell to bombing but met had collapsed, most of its
els restored, statuary saved. a different fate. Its spire has been left a roof was destroyed, and its
You’ll also confront thorny ques- ruin on purpose, to be what Germans upper walls were severely
damaged. Work on the
tions about cultural heritage sites. As call a mahnmal—a “warning monu- site began quickly; even
Kunzig writes, “What part of the past ment” against war and destruction. the COVID-19 pandemic
is worth preserving and transmitting Like the Frauenkirche, Notre Dame caused only a two-month
delay. Architects have said
to posterity? What duty do we owe is being rebuilt as close as possible to the project is on track to be
the creations of our ancestors, what how it was before, including using the completed in 2024.
strength and stability do we draw original, toxic metal—lead—for the
from their presence—and when, on roof. That choice was controversial,
the contrary, do they become a lead as future choices are bound to be in
weight, preventing us from projecting the debate about how to restore and
ourselves into the future?” maintain historic buildings.
Humankind has answered that We at National Geographic don’t
query differently in different places. claim to have the “right” answers on
In Dresden, Germany, the Frauen- preservation; there may not even be
kirche was an 18th-century baroque right answers. What we will do is con-
church whose bell-shaped dome was tinue to monitor the care of cultural
a landmark. In February 1945, one of heritage sites, as a matter of significance
the most destructive Allied bombing to humanity’s past, present, and future.
attacks of World War II killed an esti- Thank you for reading National
mated 25,000 people and reduced the Geographic. j

PHOTO: THIERRY MALLET, AP/SHUTTERSTOCK

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EDITOR IN CHIEF Susan Goldberg SPECIAL PROJECTS MANAGER Alexandra Moreo
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Photographer Rashod
Taylor’s cousin Valerie
Lewis—at right, with
her parents, Ernest and
Modester—is one of
Taylor’s relatives who’ve
served in the U.S. military
dating to World War II.

8 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 P R O O F

N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C

VO L . 2 41 N O. 2

A FAMILY’S
VALOR

LO O K I N G PHOTOGRAPHS BY
AT T H E R A S H O D TAY L O R
E A RT H
F RO M Evocative tintype images create
E V E RY a visual link between present and
POSSIBLE past in a tribute to one family’s
ANGLE history in the U.S. armed forces.

F E B RUA RY 2 0 2 2 9
P R O O F

Ernest Lewis (top left) saw two daughters deploy with the Army: Valerie (bottom left) to Afghanistan and Iraq, Vanessa Lewis
Williams (top right) to Iraq and Qatar. Here his daughter Melissa’s children, Ania and Eric Jr. (bottom right), wear military
caps belonging to their father, Eric Kelsey, a Navy combat veteran.

10 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
Vanessa is now maintenance supervisor in the 848th Engineer Company (Sapper), a Georgia Army National Guard unit
located in Douglasville. She says it’s “true about being a female in the military facing discrimination and favoritism for your
sex and color,” but she’s proud to be a servicewoman.

F E B RUA RY 2 0 2 2 11
P R O O F

Taylor’s great-uncle
Lecky Taylor served in
the Army during World
War II and is buried at
the Marietta National
Cemetery in Georgia.

12 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
F E B RUA RY 2 0 2 2 13
P R O O F

THE BACKSTORY
A P H O T O G R A P H E R T R A I N S H I S L E N S O N F A M I LY T O I L L U S T R AT E
T H E C O M P L E X H I S TO RY O F B L AC K M I L I TA RY S E RV I C E .

My America project
A S PA R T O F H I S the 1770s, many of them dealt—and
highlighting Black people’s experiences, still deal—with unequal treatment.
photographer Rashod Taylor focused Taylor’s relatives have benefited from
on a subject that had influenced his life: opportunities that the military offers.
Black military service. Though Taylor At the same time, they’ve faced hostil-
himself never joined the armed forces, ity and discrimination while on active
members of his family did. And he lis- duty and as citizens.
tened intently to their stories. Taylor chose tintype photography,
“I really found this new apprecia- using metal plates in a process that
tion for what kind of sacrifices they’ve was popular from the mid-1800s to
made,” Taylor says. “Not only in the the early 1900s, as a way to bridge the
military in general but just being Black gap between former and current ser-
in the military and still having to go vice members. Despite being decades
through those extra layers of life liv- apart, their similar experiences unite
ing as a person of color in the United them. The images reflect a compli-
States.” Although Black Americans cated legacy, one of disparity, pride,
have fought for their country since and endurance. —T U C K E R C . TO O L E
Valerie (top) feels a special bond with her great-uncle Lecky. Both were Army medics.
 IN THIS SECTION

Scat Scan Discovery

E X P L O R E Water Lily Harvest

Mentoring Fossil Hunters
Chimp-Human Conflict

I L L U M I N AT I N G T H E M Y S T E R I E S — A N D W O N D E R S — A L L A R O U N D U S E V E R Y D AY

N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C VO L . 2 41 N O. 2

On the Trail of
Julius Caesar
W E ’ D L OV E T O M E E T T H I S M O ST FAM O U S ROM A N FAC E - T O -FAC E ,
B U T H O W D O W E K N O W W H AT H E A C T U A L LY L O O K E D L I K E ?

I
B Y M A RY B E A R D

IN SEPTEMBER 2007 one French archaeologist got

lucky. He was diving in the murky waters of the Rhône
River at Arles, in the south of France, in search of
ancient remains on the riverbed. He emerged holding
a finely carved, life-size marble head. As he lifted it
up out of the water, in one of those classic discovery
moments, the director of the team shouted, “Putain,
mais c’est César—Damn, it’s Caesar.”
It was, in other words, a portrait of arguably the
most famous Roman who ever lived: Julius Caesar,
conqueror of Gaul, charismatic dictator, populist
autocrat, and, finally, victim of assassination on
the ides of March, 44 B.C. (an event immortalized
by William Shakespeare, among many other writers
and painters). He is one of the people from antiquity
who—alongside Cleopatra, perhaps—later gen-
erations have most wanted to meet face-to-face.
Tracking down the likeness of the real Caesar has
proved an irresistible sport.

F E B RUA RY 2 0 2 2 17
E X P L O R E | THE BIG IDEA

In the 15 years since it was pulled from the water,

this head from the Rhône1 (see next page) has
achieved celebrity status. It has been the subject of
special art exhibitions and television programs, and
it even ended up on a French postage stamp.
Currently, it stands proudly as the star of an Arles
museum, captured in countless selfies by admiring Will the real
visitors. One possible backstory is that it was put
up to honor Caesar during his lifetime by the loyal
Julius Caesar
citizens of Arles, but it was chucked into the river please stand up?
after his assassination when the changed political
climate made it seem too hot a property. As soon as There is only one ancient physical
Caesar was yesterday’s man, no one wanted a statue description of Julius Caesar, by
of him. It was only some two millennia later that his original biographer Suetonius,
it was dramatically rescued from its watery grave. writing 163 years after Caesar’s
So far, so good. But the big question is: How on death. “He was particularly fastid-
earth do we know it is Julius Caesar? There’s no ious over his body image,” writes
name attached to the head. So, why do we think it Suetonius, adding that Caesar
is him? There are nearly 80 ancient heads found all used to pluck his body hair. And
over Europe and the United States that have been he considered his baldness a
claimed to be a true portrait of Caesar. How do we terrible disfigurement, finding
decide which are and which are not? Ancient writers it exposed him to the gibes of
note that, as a mark of his power, Caesar flooded the abusers. So, he used to brush
Roman world with his image. But can we recognize forward his thinning hair from the
his head out of the estimated hundreds of thousands crown of his head in order to con-
of other Roman portraits that still survive, lined up ceal his bald patch—an intriguing
on our museum shelves? early use of the comb-over.
This problem has kept archaeologists busy for
centuries and is made all the trickier because none
of the potential candidates carry a name. (As a rule
T O M A K E T H I S P O R T R A I T, artist David Samuel
of thumb, if a marble portrait is neatly inscribed Stern photographed a bust of Caesar, circa
with the name Julius Caesar, it’s a fake.) The only 1512, at New York’s Metropolitan Museum
firm evidence that survives for what Caesar looked of Art. Three photos were converted to red,
green, and blue tonal ranges, printed on
like is a series of silver coins2 minted just before his translucent vellum, cut into strips, woven
assassination. These show a characterful, gaunt by hand, and then backlit to create this final
face, with a wrinkled neck and a prominent Adam’s image. “Our collective mental picture of
Caesar is almost certainly not what he really
apple and a laurel wreath crown. According to his looked like,” Stern says.
biographer, writing a century and a half after his
death, Caesar would position the laurels artfully to
conceal the bald patch of which he was ashamed.
The problem for archaeologists has been to try to
match up the three-dimensional busts with the tiny
images on the coins.
The array of may-be-Caesar portraits in the round
is much more varied than you might expect. One is
a particularly luscious “Green Caesar,”3 originally locations around Italy. He moved the original into
from Egypt and now—after passing through the the council chamber of the city of Rome—where
hands of the Prussian royal family—on display in it remains, presiding over discussions of planning
Berlin. It is made out of polished green stone and so regulations and traffic control. But no serious his-
impressive that some overoptimistic historians and torian now thinks it a statue of Caesar, certainly not
archaeologists have imagined that it might have been sculpted from life.
commissioned by Cleopatra herself, who had briefly There is even another that was dragged up from
been Caesar’s lover. (Equally likely, as more sober a riverbed, this time from the Hudson in New York,
scholars have suggested, it was a portrait of some in 1925. How it got there is anyone’s guess—presum-
Egyptian bigwig who was aping the style of Caesar.) ably “lost overboard” while traveling by boat, rather
Another is a full-length portrait statue, which than being the clinching piece of evidence that the
was the favorite of the Italian Fascist leader Benito Romans really did reach America. But for a while it
Mussolini, who saw Julius Caesar as his ideological was hailed as America’s own Julius Caesar. Not for
ancestor. He liked the statue so much that he had long. It ended up in a Swedish museum, demoted to
full-scale replicas made and displayed in prominent “unknown Roman.”

18 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
WOVEN PORTRAIT: DAVID SAMUEL STERN. PHOTOGRAPHED AT THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK 19
E X P L O R E | THE BIG IDEA

But two pieces in particular have been the stars dictator, firmly identified it as a portrait of Julius
of the Caesar show, and through much of the 19th Caesar, taken from life. So accurate was it, he claimed,
and 20th centuries they held sway as the real face of that the strange shape of the head, which you might
Julius Caesar. The first,4 bought in 1818 from a British easily put down to an incompetent sculptor, was in
collector who had picked it up in Italy, is in the British fact the reflection of congenital deformations of
Museum. It entered as an unknown Roman, but by Caesar’s skull (clinocephaly and plagiocephaly, to
the 1840s it was confidently identified as Julius Cae- use the technical terms). Never mind that there was
sar himself and given pride of place in the museum something circular here (there is no evidence for
display—thanks to its wrinkly neck, Adam’s apple, Caesar’s skull conditions apart from this sculpture);
and hollowed cheeks that seemed a close match for the Bonaparte portrait has not only prompted the
the silver coins. same kind of purple prose as the British Museum
For decades this face decorated the cover of almost head, it has given us the illusion that we are doing
every book on Caesar, and it was lauded in rapturous more than looking the man in the eye—we are taking
prose by Caesar’s modern fans. “This bust represents,” his medical notes.
wrote one, “the strongest personality that has ever But this head too is falling. That is not so much
lived ... In the profile it is impossible to detect a flaw.” because it is thought to be a fake, or not to be Caesar
John Buchan—scholar, diplomat, and author of The at all, but because beyond all the hype it is in fact a
Thirty-Nine Steps—judged it “the noblest presentment rather rough-and-ready piece. Our best guess now is
of the human countenance known to me.” that it might be a later Roman copy of some contem-
This bust was an early modern celebrity, but its porary head of Caesar, but certainly not a product of
authenticity was eventually toppled. After decades of careful observation (and the odd shape of the skull
increasing doubts, in the early 1960s it was officially is probably just that, an odd shape).
declared a fake; there were traces of abrasion and Enter, just in time, the head from the Rhône. The
artificial staining designed to make it look centuries city of Arles had political connections with Caesar (he
older than it really was. It certainly was meant to be settled some of his veteran troops there). The neck
Julius Caesar, copying the head on those coins (no of the sculpture has the required wrinkles, and the
unknown Roman here), but it was made in the late Adam’s apple is prominent enough (though it hardly
18th century. It has been relegated to a traveling has the gaunt aspect of the coins). It will be the face
exhibit on ancient Rome and occasionally emerges of Caesar for a few decades and will decorate any
in exhibitions of notorious fakes. number of glossy book jackets. Indeed, it may be
There was, however, another head of Caesar wait- him. But my guess is that sooner or later, doubts will
ing in the wings to take its place in the limelight. It grow, and a quite different head will be rediscovered
had been excavated near Rome by Lucien Bonaparte, to take its place.
Napoleon’s younger brother, who was a keen archae- The true image of Julius Caesar is always just out-
ologist. But when he hit hard times, it was sold and side our grasp. Each generation finds a new Caesar
taken to its new owner’s estate outside Turin, where for themselves. j
it remained anonymously (“unknown old man”) for a Mary Beard is Professor of Classics at the University of Cambridge.
hundred years. In the 1930s an Italian archaeologist, She is the author of many books about ancient Rome, including
perhaps playing to Mussolini’s enthusiasm for the the best-selling SPQR. Her most recent book is Twelve Caesars.

FACE OF AN EMPEROR?
Rhône Caesar Silver Coin Caesar 'Green Caesar' British Museum Caesar
Rescued from the Rhône Before Caesar’s death in Some archaeologists spec- Once given pride of place
River, this celebrated bust 44 B.C., a series of silver ulated that this green stone at the museum, this likeness
(it’s appeared on a French coins was minted, the only head, originally from Egypt, was declared a fake in the
postage stamp) resides at firm surviving evidence of was commissioned by 1960s and is now relegated
an Arles museum. what he looked like. Cleopatra, Caesar’s lover. to a traveling exhibit.

1 2 3 4

PHOTOS (FROM LEFT): BORIS HORVAT, AFP/GETTY IMAGES; ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM/HERITAGE

IMAGES/GETTY IMAGES; DEAGOSTINI, GETTY IMAGES; THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
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E X P L O R E | BREAKTHROUGHS

The saving of the shrew

Unlike seasonal hibernators, the Etruscan
shrew—one of Earth’s smallest mammals—
D I S PAT C H E S must eat heartily year-round to stay
alive. But the insectivore may have a
FROM THE FRONT LINES different way to conserve energy
OF SCIENCE in winter: It shrinks a section of
A N D I N N OVAT I O N its brain by more than 25 per-
cent. The lost cells regrow by
summertime. — H I C K S W O G A N

REFORESTATION

New forests
benefit from
coffee’s jolt
Just like us, forests
move a bit faster
when there’s cof-
fee on hand. An
experiment in a
Costa Rican rain-
forest covered
deforested land
with pulp that’s a
by-product of the
coffeemaking pro-
cess, to see how
it affected forest
regrowth. After
two years, the
pulp-covered
PALEONTOLOGY
forest plots were
doing much better
SCAT SCAN DISCOVERY than untreated
ones—giving coffee
FOUND IN TRIASSIC FECES: A NEW BEETLE SPECIES producers a new,
come in exquisite containers—gilded
S O M E V E RY O L D O B J E C T S sustainable alter-
sarcophagi, carved chests—and others, in less appealing packages. native to dumping
The newfound beetle Triamyxa coprolithica is among the latter. A their waste.
team of scientists reported discovering the species in a coprolite, —SARAH GIBBENS
aka fossilized feces. The team used synchrotron microtomography,
a powerful x-ray technique, to scan an ancient dropping that the
scientists had unearthed in Poland. Inside the 230-million-year-old
scat, nickel size in diameter, were partial and whole specimens of
the tiny beetle (above). Study lead author Martin Qvarnström says
that to see 3D scans of the bugs, “it’s like they’re becoming alive in
front of you.” With even some of the delicate legs and antennae
intact, the remains were preserved well enough to identify the bee-
tles as a previously unknown, now extinct species—the first time an
insect species has been described from a coprolite. The researchers
theorized that the dung came from Silesaurus opolensis—a dino-
saur relative up to eight feet long—and hope their discovery will
encourage more stool sampling by paleontologists. — H W

PHOTOS: MARTIN QVARNSTRÖM (BEETLES); JOEL SARTORE, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC PHOTO ARK (SHREW);
EDWIN REMSBERG, VW PICS/UIG VIA GETTY IMAGES (TREES)
U

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E X P L O R E | ADVENTURE

The Mekong Delta brims with life in southwestern Vietnam.

BEHIND THE SCENE T H E L I F E A Q UAT I C R I V E R WAT C H

Before entering the South Water lilies are among The Mekong has long
China Sea, the Mekong more than 20,000 species sustained locals and
River fans out into a net- of plants that grow in attracted travelers. But
work of waterways. During the Mekong. The world’s its natural and cultural
flood season (June to second most biodiverse wonders are threatened
November), women steer river, after the Amazon, by environmental stresses
long-tail boats to har- supports animals such as such as discarded plastic.
vest water lilies. Wading the endangered Irrawaddy With funding from the
into waist-deep water, dolphin, the hairy-nosed National Geographic
they rinse and bundle the otter, and the giant fresh- Society, researchers at
plants for sale at markets water stingray. Human life England’s University of
and to restaurants. These bustles along the river in Hull are studying how this
women learned boating floating markets, villages pollution ends up in the
from their mothers and perched on stilts, and river; the United Nations
grandmothers, says Khánh delta floodplains where Environment Programme
Phan, who captured the farmers harvest more than has plans to evaluate
image by drone. She likens half of Vietnam’s rice. the effects of plastic on
the circle of lilies to one migratory species.
big blossom on which “the
women are like bees.”

WATER
24
GARDEN
N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 BY THE NUMBERS

6
COUNTRIES THROUGH WHICH
T H E M E KO N G R I V E R F LOWS

24.7
MILLION METRIC TONS OF RICE
G R O W N P E R Y E A R I N T H E D E LTA

2,700
A P P R OX I M AT E L E N G T H , I N M I L E S ,
O F T H E M E KO N G R I V E R

ASIA
Mekong
River

VIETNAM
Mekong
River Delta

BY RACHEL NG PHOTOGRAPH BY KHÁNH PHAN

NGM MAPS F E B RUA RY 2 0 2 2 25

IF YOU HAVE DIABETES—
YOUR EYES NEED ATTENTION
If you have diabetes, excess blood sugar can damage the
blood vessels inside your eyes—a condition known as diabetic
retinopathy. Even if your vision seems fine and you don’t notice
it happening, there still may be damage that could lead to vision
loss. Fortunately, an eye doctor may be able to help your eyes
and protect against vision loss.

Just say to yourself, “Now Eye See.”

Make eye care a priority and talk to an eye care professional today.
Learn more at NOWEYESEE.com.
 © 2021, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
NOW EYE SEE is a trademark owned by Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
August 2021 OPH.21.07.0014
E X P L O R E | PLANET POSSIBLE

This month, appreciate

your loved ones—and the
environment—with gestures P L A N E T
designed for lasting impact.
For more stories about how
to help the planet, go to
natgeo.com/planet.
BY CHRISTINA NUNEZ

Say It With Seeds

Instead of traditional
greeting cards, get
plantable ones that will
transform your Valen-
tine’s Day message into
blooms of garden color.

Choose the Flowers

Without the Foam
Before you grab that
bouquet, take a peek at
the base: Many arrange-
ments are packed with
floral foam, a crumbly
plastic that often ends
up in waterways. Avoid it
when possible—and never
wash it down the sink.

Let Love Take Root

Most of the cut flowers
sold in the United States
are imported, meaning
they’ve probably flown
more miles than you have
lately. A locally grown
plant is an eco-friendly and
longer-lasting alternative.

Sweet and Sustainable

Farming the cacao beans
used in chocolaty treats can
have a bitter side: razed
forests and mistreated,
underpaid labor. To confirm
that the cacao meets envi-
ronmental, social, and
sustainability standards,
look for the seal of third-
party certifiers such as
the Rainforest Alliance.

Sow Joy, Skip Plastic

Don’t buy seedlings and
the disposable plastic
containers that come
with them. Start plants at
home. The Old Farmer’s
Almanac has a handy cal-
endar that tells you when:
almanac.com/gardening/
planting-calendar.

PHOTO: REBECCA HALE, NGM STAFF

 E X P L O R E

INNOVATOR
ISAIAH NENGO
BY HICKS WOGAN PHOTOGRAPH BY MARK THIESSEN

In his native Kenya, he

recruits students to help
unearth human history.
Nairobi-born Isaiah Nengo was in high
school when he found his life’s work,
on a trip to the National Museums of
Kenya. A lecture that day by renowned
paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey
captivated Nengo. After college he vol-
unteered there, and Leakey helped him
get into a Ph.D. program at Harvard
University.
Nengo began fieldwork in the
mid-1980s in western Kenya, where
the first fossil he excavated was the
pelvis of a 17-million-year-old ape. “I
didn’t know at the time just how lucky
I was,” he says, laughing. In 2014 he
led an expedition in Kenya’s Turkana
Basin that discovered the most com-
plete fossil skull of an ape ever found, a
13-million-year-old ancestor of today’s
apes and humans. The team gave the
skull’s owner the nickname Alesi, from
the Turkana word for “ancestor.”
Nengo teaches at New York’s Stony
Brook University and Kenya’s Turkana
University College. He also runs a mas-
ter’s program in human evolutionary
biology that was launched at Turkana
University in 2017. Aiming to build local
expertise and research capacity, the
program has admitted eight students
so far, all Kenyans, six of them women.
Nengo would like to add students from
neighboring countries in future years.
“Training Africans from East Africa
is not charity,” he says. “It’s actually
essential to the science.” j

The National Geographic Society has

funded the work of paleoanthropolo-
gist Isaiah Nengo since 2018. Learn more
about its support of Explorers researching
history and culture at natgeo.com/impact.
E X P L O R E | THROUGH THE LENS

The
Conflict
Zone
WHEN HUMANS AND CHIMPS
CLASH IN A UGANDAN
VILLAGE, A PHOTOGRAPHER
S E E S F E A R , G R I E F —A N D
U LT I M AT E LY A C C E P TA N C E .

STORY AND PHOTOGRAPHS

B Y RO N A N D O N OVA N

through the window of an

I TO O K T H I S P H OTO G R A P H Yosemite National Park, marine mammals off the
abandoned home in a village in western Uganda. As I coast of Africa, and wild chimpanzees in Uganda’s
watched, one wild chimpanzee entered the yard, then Kibale National Park. Primatologist Richard Wrang-
another. Though they stared hard at the windows, ham’s long-term research project there sought to
I knew they couldn’t see me behind the mirrored understand wild chimpanzee behaviors, and possible
glass—and I was glad. human and environmental impacts.
During past fieldwork, I’d been around scores of For most of 2011, I followed chimps that had been
wild chimpanzees and shadowed them at close range. habituated to human presence, gathering data
Yet until this photo assignment in 2017, I had never throughout the day. They were trusting animals after
tried to hide from chimps. I had never even imagined decades of neutral encounters with their observers.
writing such a sentence. Having never been fed or directly hurt by a person,
That was before I met the Semata family and saw they were indifferent to me.
firsthand how depleted land and forest, and scarce But as Wrangham’s Kibale research confirmed,
food and crops, can unleash competition between behavior—human and chimpanzee—will change
primates, those inside houses and those outside. as circumstances demand. Like us, chimps adapt to
exploit new food sources if existing ones disappear.
remember, I’ve felt at home
F O R A S LO N G A S I C A N Also like us, chimps are omnivores that defend their
in the natural world. After college I worked for eight home territory from other groups of their species.
years as a field biologist, studying spotted owls in Chimps understand aggression: Throw a rock at a

30 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 Wild chimpanzees
whose natural
habitat has shrunk
approach a home
in Kyamajaka.

habituated chimp, the chimp will often throw one basis. These chimps are in competition with their
back. Unless you are larger or outnumber them, human neighbors. The native forests that supported
chimps that have been chased may chase you. And the chimps have been cleared for farming, so they
provided the opportunity, chimps will hunt for meat. now feed primarily on human-grown crops. They go
on evening food raids near homes before returning
in western Uganda as
S I X Y E A R S A F T E R I ’ D WO R K E D to the sliver of forest where perhaps 20 mature trees
a field biologist, I returned as a wildlife and conser- are their refuge from the human world.
vation photographer. My assignment for National The forays don’t stop there. The house where I took
Geographic, with writer David Quammen, was to tell this picture belonged to the Semata family—farmer
the story of human-chimpanzee conflict. Omuhereza, his wife, Ntegeka, and their four young
Though the village of Kyamajaka isn’t far from the children. To live there was to feel constantly at risk
Kibale research project, the chimps around Kyama- of attack by chimps, Ntegeka told me. She described
jaka are habituated to humans in a different way. how the animals would show up in their front yard
They are wary of the people they encounter on a daily and peer into their windows, scaring the family.
The unthinkable occurred on July 20, 2014. As
The National Geographic Society, committed to illuminat- Ntegeka worked in the garden, she kept the chil-
ing and protecting the wonder of our world, has funded
dren with her. But in an instant when her back was
Explorer Ronan Donovan’s work since 2014. A Montana-based
wildlife photographer, Donovan is also a filmmaker, an artist, turned, a large chimp grabbed her toddler son,
and a mountaineer. Mujuni, and ran. Villagers who gave chase found

F E B RUA RY 2 0 2 2 31
E X P L O R E | THROUGH THE LENS

the two-year-old’s eviscerated body stashed under a on two legs grabbed a fistful of vegetation and shook
nearby bush. He died en route to a regional hospital. it while striding toward the house. As he picked
Months became years, and the chimp raids contin- up speed, he reached the house at a run, dropped
ued. Finally, the Sematas broke. Though the house the branches, leaped into the air, and pounded the
was their prized possession, in August 2017 they side of the house with his heels in quick succession.
abandoned it. I visited shortly after they moved into Bah-boom! The entire house shook.
temporary lodgings—cramped, no garden, but also The group’s biggest male, the one I presumed to
no aggressive wild apes. be the alpha, stood and swung his arms, warming up
The Sematas’ losses embodied the worst of the for his show of prowess. He broke into a run, picked
human-chimp conflict that National Geographic up a softball-size rock along the way, and hurled it.
sent Quammen and me to document. My images Skipping once off the ground, the rock slammed
would help tell that story. But I also hoped they might thunderously into the house. My heart raced as I
honor the human tragedies and spur change, such as photographed this behavior. I knew the chimps
moving the chimps, to end this conflict. were only shadowboxing their reflections,
Omuhereza and Ntegeka gave me their but it did feel like an attack. Eventually, as
empty home’s key and permission to take UGANDA the daylight faded, the chimps returned
photos there. To get in, I had to push my Kyamajaka to their tiny forest and I was able to leave
shoulder against the door, which hadn’t Kampala the house.
been opened in months. Several win- Lake I was eager to share the images with my
dowpanes were broken—by the chimps, Victoria National Geographic colleagues, and those
Ntegeka had said. As I stood in the dark officials who preach peaceful coexistence,
and dusty room, I thought of Mujuni’s but I worried about showing the images to
grisly fate and wondered whether his parents had the Sematas, for fear of stirring up their grief and pain.
relived it every time they’d seen chimp faces at On my last visit with them, in November 2017,
the windows. Ntegeka asked if I had photos of the chimps. Reluc-
Officials of local governments and international tantly I presented the image below, on my phone. She
NGOs have urged the farmers here to learn to live began to laugh—and laugh—finally pausing to say,
alongside chimpanzees—but do they know what “My God, they look like humans.” I pulled up more
that’s like? I wanted to capture some sense of how the photos. “I know all of them, aside from the babies.
Sematas felt inside their home during chimp visits. Look at that baby; it’s light-skinned,” she said, chuck-
ling. Then the family proudly showed me their new
I WA L K E D F RO M O N E window to the next, waiting for plot of land and the large pile of bricks that would
chimps to arrive. I saw a single chimp sitting quietly become their new home. They were rebuilding. And
at the edge of the yard. Soon more came, also quietly. with Ntegeka’s laughter, I felt they had moved on in
Then the mood changed. A teenage male standing more ways than one. j

Gathering outside the family’s abandoned house, the chimpanzees see their reflections in the windows as a challenge.

NGM MAPS
N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C F E B R UA RY 2 0 2 2

Notre Dame Revival . . . . P. 36

Extraordinary Fish . . . . . . . P. 72
K2 Winter Climb . . . . . . . . . P. 80
Plants in Detail . . . . . . . . . . . P. 102
Sudan’s Future . . . . . . . . . . . P. 110

F EAT U R E S

HOW CAN CROP S WITHSTAND

102 THE PERILS OF CLIMATE CHANGE?

MICROGRAPHS, LIKE THIS ONE
O F A C O R N TA S S E L F L O R E T,
INVITE US TO LOOK CLOSER
FOR SOLUTIONS.

IMAGE: ROBERT DASH

Notre Dame

The jagged wound torn towering spire fell

in Notre Dame’s heart through the stone
by the April 2019 fire vaulting, crushed a
that destroyed its spire modern altar, and left
and roof is seen from a hole fringed by
above. The cathedral’s charred roof timbers.
After the Fire

The iconic Paris cathedral’s restoration will

honor its medieval roots—and the once vilified
architect who saved the church in the 1800s.

BY ROBERT KUNZIG
PHOTOGRAPHS BY TOMAS VAN HOUTRYVE
GRAPHICS BY FERNANDO G. BAPTISTA

37
First came
the rescue.
Now, the
restoration.
It took more than two
years after the fire just
to remove the burnt
timbers and other
debris and to shore
up the vaults and
buttresses against a
catastrophic collapse.
Now scaffolding fills
the cathedral, and the
restoration is finally
beginning. The first
step: cleaning all
surfaces of dust and
toxic residue from
the lead roof, which
melted in the fire.
Inside, most
of what’s holy
or beautiful
is unscathed.
Burning roof timbers,
large blocks of lime-
stone, and 800-plus
tons of oak and lead
from the spire all
crashed into Notre
Dame. And yet no art
of historical signifi-
cance was damaged
and very little of the
stained glass. “It was a
miracle,” says conser-
vator Marie-Hélène
Didier. Side chapels
like this one—Our Lady
of Seven Sorrows—will
get a cleaning and res-
toration, which most
needed before the fire.
From outside, wire surrounds the
site. But the church has
the sorrows recovered from trauma
before. In 1831, from
of Our Lady this vantage point
across the Seine,
are glaring. Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
watched a mob attack
Scaffolding and a giant it. Later he directed
crane now mock the the first restoration of
cathedral’s aspiration Notre Dame, preserv-
to loftiness; a metal ing the landmark the
wall topped with razor world knows today.
 The fire in 1831
spared the
Cathedral of Notre
Dame itself. The
rioters scrambled
up the roof and
toppled a giant
iron cross; they shattered stained glass, took axes to a statue
Charles Barbero of
Carpenters Without
Borders puts a finishing
touch on a replica of
one of Notre Dame’s
of Jesus, smashed one of the Virgin Mary. But roof trusses. The
they were really after the archbishop of Paris, volunteer group built
the truss in a week
who wasn’t there—and so they sacked his pal- using only medieval
ace, which stood south of the church, facing the tools, hewing each
Seine River. Then they set fire to it. The palace beam from a single oak
log. The oak frame-
is gone now. A 250-foot-tall construction crane work destroyed in the
stands on that spot. fire is to be restored as
There’s a drawing of the scene that night, it was—with an assist
from sawmills.
February 14, 1831, viewed from the Quai de
Montebello, across the Seine. It was made by
Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc—the man
who, 13 years later, would undertake a 20-year
restoration of the cathedral. Viollet-le-Duc was
only 17 when he witnessed the mob attack. In his
hasty pencil sketch, agitated stick figures swarm

44 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
the palace, hurling furniture and other valuables is about to begin. In more ways than one, Ville-
out the windows and into the river. Behind all neuve owes his current mission, the fight of his
that stands Notre Dame, then six centuries old. professional life, to his ingenious predecessor,
In 1980, also at age 17, Philippe Villeneuve Viollet-le-Duc.
saw an exhibit about Viollet-le-Duc at the Grand “He invented the restoration of historic mon-
Palais. He knew he wanted to be an architect— uments,” Villeneuve said. “That didn’t happen
he was already building an elaborate model of before. Before, people repaired them, and they
Notre Dame—but he didn’t know you could spe- repaired them in the style of their day.” Or they
cialize in historic buildings. Today he’s one of didn’t repair them, and tore them down.
35 “chief architects of historic monuments” in In 19th-century France, a government first
France, a profession most famously embodied established institutions to grapple systemati-
by Viollet-le-Duc. Villeneuve has directed resto- cally with a question that concerns us all: What
ration work at Notre Dame since 2013, and with part of the past is worth preserving and trans-
terrible urgency since the spring of 2019, when mitting to posterity? What duty do we owe the
a fire ripped the top off the cathedral. The build- creations of our ancestors, what strength and
ing has been stabilized at last; reconstruction stability do we draw from their presence—and

N OT R E DA M E A F T E R T H E F I R E 45
Some damage stones in the vaults
along the central hole
done by the left by the spire. The
fire, which got as hot
fire was as 1400°F, ate into the
tops of some vaults
insidious. and into the two-foot-
thick limestone walls
Wearing respirators to above them, peeling
shield themselves from off inches of stone and
lead dust, rope techni- creating internal fis-
cians prepare to use sures. Some stones will
plaster to secure loose need to be replaced.
 the light to flood in. Jealous Italians named it
“Gothic,” by which they meant “barbarian,” but
the French style conquered Europe. In the tall
light, people felt the presence of God.
By the early 19th century, though, Notre Dame
was in trouble. Decades of attack and neglect,
beginning even before the Revolution of 1789,
had left it dangerously dilapidated. Victor Hugo
was so incensed, he set an entire novel around
the cathedral, folding a polemic on abuse of his-
tory into a potboiler about a repressed priest, a
hunchbacked bell ringer, and the girl they both
desired. Notre-Dame de Paris was published in
1831, the month after the archbishop’s palace was
burned down. All over France, ancient church
buildings seized during the revolution were
being plundered for the stones. Hugo helped
start a movement that said, Enough. Viollet-le-
Duc was swept up in it.
He saved Notre Dame. He rebuilt buttresses
Notre Dame always had and stained glass, replaced statues demolished
gargoyle rainspouts,
but its purely decora- by revolutionaries, and added more: The cathe-
tive grotesques sprang dral’s beloved grotesques are his. And when he
from the 19th-century built a new wooden spire, 50 feet taller than the
imagination of Viollet-
le-Duc. He added 54 medieval original, he added larger-than-life cop-
to the upper gallery per statues of the Twelve Apostles in steps up
encircling the towers its base. Eleven looked outward, watching over
on the west facade.
the city; the 12th was St. Thomas, the Apostle
who doubted. Viollet-le-Duc gave Thomas his
own face and had him gaze up at the spire, his
masterwork. He was a nonbeliever who saved
the queen of French cathedrals.
when, on the contrary, do they become a lead Now that church, a house of worship for more
weight, preventing us from projecting our- than 800 years, is being saved again. It’s being
selves into the future, from creating a world of saved after a half century in which the practice
our own? The question is one each of us faces of Catholicism in France has collapsed, while the
in microcosm, in our work and in our life. Each number of tourists has exploded. In Villeneuve’s
of us has a service des monuments historiques in office behind the cathedral, in the second story
our head, struggling to decide what to hold on of a stack of modular containers, the desk faces a
to and what to toss, which change to resist and print of Viollet-le-Duc’s 1843 drawing of the west
which to embrace. It’s just we’re often not very front of Notre Dame. A trickle of congealed lead
conscious of it. And we’re often not conscious from the roof, melted by the 2019 fire, is wedged
of our stake in the preservation decisions made into a corner of the frame. Since the night of
by governments—of how old buildings touch us. the fire, it has been Villeneuve’s intention to
Until they are threatened. rebuild the church exactly as Viollet-le-Duc left
In its day, Notre Dame was revolutionary. It it, including the lead roof and the “forest” of
was built in the late 12th and 13th centuries, as massive oak timbers that supported it.
France was becoming a nation, and Paris, its “We are restoring the restorer,” he said.
capital, the largest city in Europe. Notre Dame A little before seven on the evening of April 15,
was the first grand masterpiece of a new French 2019, as Villeneuve was racing from his home on
architecture—one in which pointed arches and the Atlantic coast to catch the last high-speed
flying buttresses allowed the walls to be soar- train for Paris, I was in a taxi crossing the Seine.
ing and thin, the windows to be enormous, and The traffic was crawling. My wife looked out the

48 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 City extent 12th-century Paris
OISE AISNE today City extent
Limestone
Paris Seine
R.
Paris quarry
Bercé
Forest Île de la Cité 2 mi
2 km

e
in
FRANCE

Se
Sourcing the stones and wood
Île de la Cité was an important center of city life when construc-
tion began on Notre Dame in the 12th century. Back then, stone
came from quarries that now lie beneath modern Paris. For
today’s renovation, limestone of similar geologic composition
is being quarried in Oise and Aisne, while centuries-old trees
are being felled in the Bercé Forest and elsewhere in France.

window. “Is Notre Dame burning?” she asked. Dame, got through the firefighters’ perimeter,
The patch of flickering orange on the roof made most of the precious artifacts had already been
no sense. I’m sure they’ll put it out soon, I mut- extracted and placed in the yard. “It looked like
tered. Moments later we saw the flames shoot a big flea market,” she said. Late that night, she
up the wooden spire and engulf it. escorted some of the treasures in a city van to
a vault at the Hôtel de Ville. The linen tunic of
St. Louis, the 13th-century king and crusader,
V E RYO N E I N F R A N C E R E M E M B E R S was on Didier’s lap. Next to her, her boss held

E where they were when Notre Dame

burned that April night—in that
way, though no one died, it’s like
9/11. Bernard Hermann, a retired
photographer, was in his garret on the Place du
the Crown of Thorns.
President Emmanuel Macron was at the Élysée
Palace, where he had just recorded a televised
national address for that evening responding
to the “yellow vests”—the protest movement
Petit Pont, facing the cathedral. A book of his, against his government. He canceled the speech
called Paris, km 00—on French maps, distances and rushed to the cathedral. Notre Dame is “our
are measured from a zero point in front of Notre history, our literature, our imagination … the epi-
Dame—consists of photographs taken from his center of our life,” he said, speaking into the TV
windows. “The drama of Notre Dame was for cameras. “This cathedral, we will rebuild it, all
me the end of the world,” Hermann said. “I was of us together.”
thunderstruck. I closed the curtains.” Dorothée Chaoui-Derieux, a conservator who
Jean-Michel Leniaud, a historian of architec- oversees archaeological digs in Paris, read the
ture, was at a reception at the Palace of Versailles. news on Twitter as she made dinner for her three
He rushed back to Paris and watched the drama. children. She’d never taken them to Notre Dame,
“People were crying. People were praying. People she realized. It didn’t occur to her that she’d be
were kneeling in the street,” he said. spending nearly every day for the next two years
Six miles to the west, Faycal Aït Saïd, who now in the empty cathedral, sifting through debris—
operates the crane that towers over the wounded what she calls vestiges—that Notre Dame itself
cathedral, was finishing his shift on an even would become an archaeological site.
taller crane, building a new office tower. Alone As the church was still burning, TV networks
in the sky at 425 feet, he saw the giant plume of offered talking heads. “Stupidly, I stayed in front
smoke on the horizon, beginning to drift west. of the TV, even though I live in Paris and should
By the time Marie-Hélène Didier, the culture have gone to see it,” said Philippe Gourmain,
ministry conservator responsible for Notre a forestry expert. With rising fury, he heard

ROSEMARY WARDLEY, NGM STAFF. SOURCE: INSPECTION GÉNÉRALE DES CARRIÈRES N OT R E DA M E A F T E R T H E F I R E 49

From the Dame’s new spire—a
faithful reproduction
ashes of the in oak and lead of the
one built by Viollet-
old, a new le-Duc, which was
destroyed in the fire.
spire will rise. The new spire will be
erected piece by piece
By 2024, if all goes through the hole in the
according to plan, a stone vaulting left by
drone in this position the old one. Mean-
would be hovering just while, white canopies
above the tip of Notre block the rain.
Gargoyle
19th century

NOTRE DAME IN 21ST-CENTURY LOSS

THE 14TH CENTURY Fire broke out under the roof o
cathedral on April 15, 2019, and
The cathedral was Bells, encased in
two towers, her- for 15 hours. The roof and spire
commissioned in lost, but firefighters saved the
1163 by a landowning alded activities
throughout the day. ing and precious relics.
clergy with power
over much of Paris.
By the 1300s, the city Fearsome and whim- The medieval spire, dis-
had become France’s sical, grotesques, or mantled in the 1700s,
royal, judicial, and chimeras, are 19th- was replaced with a
intellectual center. century additions. taller one in the 1800s.

The 28 colossal stat-

ues of biblical kings
were beheaded in
the French Revolu- ROSE
tion and replaced in WINDOW
the 19th century.

CHOIR

AISLE
TRANSEPT
NAVE

AISLE

Chapels between
the 16-foot-deep
buttresses were
added after 1225.

A Divine Ambition
Notre Dame Cathedral has endured for more than eight centuries. Built
1840s to ’60s, MAJOR RESTORATION
In 1831, The Hunchback of Notre Dame revive
interest in the site. Renovations (in green) by
to reflect the church’s spiritual reach, its audacious, towering walls and architects Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc
and his early partner, Jean-Baptiste Lassus,
buttresses remain as much a marvel today as they were in the Middle Ages. reflect their interpretations of medieval style
 GOTHIC GRANDEUR,
12TH CENTURY
Seine
Master masons design
Royal Sainte-Chapelle
Palace Île Saint- the cathedral, drawing on
Île de la Cité Louis their expertise with stone
and wood. It’s built on
Notre Dame
of the what’s considered to be
Point of view de Paris
burned shown below sacred land of former
were sanctuaries.
build-
1,000 ft
N 250 m

MEDIEVAL ISLE TRANSEPT TREADWHEEL

The Seine flows around a small CRANE
island that once held a prison, a royal
residence, and several churches.
COMPRESSION
FORCES

Variations in con-
struction methods
FLYING suggest that the
BUTTRESS
north and south walls
are made by different
teams of builders.

FLIER

Buttresses flank the

building to stabi-
lize the tall walls;
they transfer forces
outward and down,
toward the ground.
BUTTRESS

ARCHBISHOP’S Intricately cut and

PALACE painted windows
depict seasonal and
spiritual duties.

TEMPORARY
WALL

The foundation
contains stones
repurposed from
fourth-to-12th-
century churches
on the site.

200 YEARS OF CONSTRUCTION

ed 1163-1182 1182-1220 1225-1350

y Construction Services are The nave,
begins with held in the choir bell towers,
the curved as the transept and spire are
e. choir walls. is being built. finished.

FERNANDO G. BAPTISTA, TAYLOR MAGGIACOMO, ROSEMARY WARDLEY, EVE CONANT, AND PATRICIA HEALY, NGM STAFF; MATTHEW TWOMBLY
 1 Sequence of the Roof Medieval
reconstruction origin 19th century

Temporary
roof 1
4
A Faithful 2
2

Restoration 3

Preservationists, architects, and other experts The 66-pound

spent nearly two years after the April 2019 fire copper rooster
was found crum-
investigating the best methods to save the pled on a side
cathedral. Modern machinery will assist, but roof; a new one
will replace it
traditional methods, materials, and hand fin- Collapsed
at the top of
area
ishes will ensure the result closely matches its the spire.
previous state. Work will begin with the spire,
then move to the roof and vaults, with the goal
of completing the restoration by 2024.

New scaffolding provides

support and creates plat-
forms for skilled craftspeople
to reach each level. A second,
temporary roof will shield
the reconstruction.

TRADITIONAL ROOFING
PREPARING THE BEAMS
Lead will be used once
Medieval timbers in the nave and
again to cover the roof,
choir will be replaced with beams cut
spire, and sculpted
from individual, green oak logs and
ornamentation. It’s
finished with hand axes. Beams for the
long-lasting and
19th-century transept and spire will be
easily molded.
cut at sawmills from dried logs.

ICONIC SPIRE ROOF RE-CREATION

The old spire crashed Architects plan to rebuild Lead is
through the ceiling the complex medieval shaped
over iron
vault. The new one “forest” of oak roof sup-
forms.
will re-create Viollet- ports, which consisted of
le-Duc’s 19th-century, robust primary trusses BATTEN
Medieval 19th century BOARDS
sculpturally detailed backed up by simpler
model. secondary ones.

Stone Stone Wooden

arch vault brace

A wooden spire Teams of carpen-

that rises some ters in France and
300 feet from the Phase the U.S. devised
ground will be built full-scale truss
in multiple phases, models referencing LEAD
starting with a medieval framing ROOF
cross-bracing base. techniques.
Platform
Panel
Scaffolding
thickness

1/8 in

Reinforcing the vault

Vaults are supported
by temporary wooden
braces, individually mea-
sured to fit each space. Copper statues were Viollet-le-Duc had
taken down just his face sculpted
days before the fire onto the Apostle
to restore the badly Thomas, the patron
degraded metal. saint of architects.

SECONDARY
APOSTLES TRUSSES

PRIMARY
Restored color
TRUSSES
Green patina due
to weathering
 EVANGELISTS

CLUES IN STONE
Heat damaged 30 percent
of the top area of the
walls (orange lines). When
limestone is heated, it
changes color, revealing
different levels of damage.

Core
Level of sample
thermal stress
Undamaged stone
Crack Holes
Cracks
Thin, light
stones were
used as web-
482° Fire bing between
Grout
932° the arches.
1292°F

Restoring the arches Hard, dense Fixing the stone

More than 80 percent stones were Experts drill small holes
of the fallen stones used for arches, into cracked stones,
the skeleton of A layer of gypsum
were recovered. They’ll insert pins, and fill them
the building. plaster laid as a fire
be repaired, or new with specialized grout
stop in the 1800s
stones cut to original as reinforcement.
slowed the 2019 fire.
specifications.

1 Stones are cataloged

and scanned as three-
dimensional images.

Cameras

FRAGILE ART
Lead residue will be
dusted off of Notre
Dame’s 130 stained-
glass windows, barely
damaged during the
2 Models, 3D printed, test fire. The uppermost
the probable position of 25 windows were
each stone in an arch.
removed to prevent
accidental breakage.

SOURCES: LINDSAY S. COOK, BALL

STATE U.; MAXIME L’HÉRITIER,
AISLE PARIS 8 U.; STEPHEN MURRAY,
COLUMBIA U.; TONYA M. OHNSTAD,
LORENZO DE ALMEIDA, CATHOLIC
3 New stones will be cut U. OF AMERICA; ROXANE ROUSSEL;
DANY SANDRON ET AL., NOTRE
to replace those lost or
DAME CATHEDRAL, 2020; PHILIPPE
structurally unsound. VILLENEUVE, MINISTÈRE DE LA
CULTURE; LABORATOIRE DE
RECHERCHE DES MONUMENTS
HISTORIQUES: THIERRY ZIMMER;
CHOIR AURÉLIA AZÉMA, DELPHINE
SYVILAY (METAL); WITOLD NOWIK,
MARIE PARANT (PAINTING);
CLAUDINE LOISEL, BARBARA
TRICHEREAU (STAINED GLASS);
LISE CADOT-LEROUX, JEAN-DIDIER
CROSSING MERTZ (STONE); EMMANUEL
AISLE MAURIN (WOOD)
3D MODEL: CHANTIER SCIENTIFIQUE
NOTRE-DAME DE PARIS; CNRS;
AISLE FRENCH MINISTRY OF CULTURE;
TRANSEPT
GEA; LIFE 3D; MAP; THE LATE
ANDREW TALLON, VASSAR
COLLEGE
MURAL PHOTO: JOSEPH ANDALORO
NAVE

THE SOUND OF HISTORY Before REVIVING MURALS

The “voice” that reverberated 32 ft Preservationists tested myriad
After
from the grand organ was silenced solvents in the lab. They found a gel
after lead dust settled within the Saint-Ferdinand that could be applied to vacuumed
instrument. An effort to carefully chapel mural murals to rid them of lead and
clean its 8,000 pipes is under way. pollution without damaging them.
 AFTER THE pundits opine that the timber framework in Chaoui-Der
2019 FIRE Notre Dame’s attic would never be rebuilt—that that the de
Experts evaluate France lacked the oak trees and the savoir faire. It was lega
and secure the Gourmain manages forests all over the country. would have
Rope technicians rappel
from a temporary platform, structure. Lasers
removing damaged material. scan for damage. By 11 p.m. he was on the phone with a friend at dozens of t
Even the smallest the National Forest Office, hatching a plan to Research L
pieces of material collect the needed wood through donations. sent the bu
TEMPORARY
are analyzed.
Around that time, Villeneuve reached the director Th
ROOF
parvis, the square in front of the cathedral; he’d Because
been on the train and off-line when Viollet-le- ger of colla
Duc’s spire collapsed. The next day, climbing the controlled
north tower to inspect the damage, he spotted respirators
the copper rooster that had perched on top of the through th
spire. Sailing free, it had landed on a side roof. A anything th
photo in Le Parisien showed the beaming archi- or be of hist
tect clutching the crumpled bird to his chest. pieces of w
“When I arrived on the parvis, I was dead. detailed co
Now I’m in a coma,” he told me. “In rebuilding “All that
the cathedral, I’m rebuilding myself. I’ll be bet- before,” Zi
Hazmat crews clear
toxic lead from sur- ter when it’s finished.” In September, with the was in our
faces, dismantle reconstruction soon to begin, Villeneuve had a increased k
warped scaffold-
ing, and catalog drawing of the spire tattooed onto his left arm, period in w
fragments. from the elbow to the wrist. It took tw
and remov
Gaulle Air
N T H E S U M M E R O F 1 9 9 8 , a Columbia 25,000 squ

I
Custom-crafted
wooden braces
support stone University art historian named Ste- The bits of w
buttresses and phen Murray took me into the attic chunks of s
prevent them
from pushing at Notre Dame. It was gloomy even in been saved
walls inward. bright daytime. As we walked through It was gruel
the lattice of roughly hewn oak beams, the exhilaratin
curved tops of the church’s soaring limestone expect to ex
vaults spread like gray elephant backs beneath While th
our feet. Dust pooled in the hollows. From below, cleared, th
Workers remotely
inside the church, I’d never imagined this back- against cav
control robots to stage world—the world of the cathedral builders. found that
collect charred
fragments from
At the crossing of the transept and nave, I looked weighing o
the ground. up into the intricate wood skeleton of the spire. walls were
SAFETY
NET
Last summer I stood once again at the same mere 56-m
location. But this time I was on scaffolding, them. From
DAMAGED looking down into the giant hole the spire made carpenters
MATERIAL
All surfaces are when it crashed through the stone vaults. The of the vau
ROBOT vacuumed. A latex top of it punched a second hole in the nave; a wood brace
mask is applied and
delicately peeled third formed at the north end of the transept. technicians
off, removing lead. As the fire raged through the forest, triangular a time, the o
trusses of oak, 32 feet high, toppled like dom- about to ren
inoes onto the vaults, and debris fell through A sagging, t
the holes. At the crossing, charred wood and further dam
FIVE-YEAR RESTORATION
stone were piled around four feet high on the COVID s
2019-2020 2021-2024 2024 cathedral floor. in spring 2
Scaffolding is Timber fram- Major work, Within days of the fire, even as Macron was already shu
taken down by ing for roof including roof
hand to prevent and spire is and vaults, is to promising that Notre Dame would reopen in workplace
collapse. installed. be complete. time for the Paris Summer Olympics in 2024, precaution

60 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 rieux and her colleagues had decided of showers in the container that serves as a locker
bris couldn’t simply be carted away. room has divided the site into dirty and clean
lly protected heritage material that domains. Workers repeatedly negotiate that
e to be sorted by professionals. Soon border every day, stripping naked and chang-
them descended on the church. The ing into protective clothing to go to work, then
Laboratory for Historical Monuments doing the reverse—and showering and washing
ulk of its 34-member staff, deputy their hair—each time they leave, even for lunch.
hierry Zimmer told me. Visitors follow the same procedure. Disposable
the damaged vaults were still in dan- underwear and jumpsuits are provided.
apsing, the scientists used remote- Even Emmanuel Macron has submitted to
robots to collect the debris. Wearing this. I have that on good authority—that of the
to keep out the lead dust, they sorted five-star general whom the president called out
e material in a side aisle, picking out of retirement the day after the fire, asking him to
hat might inform the reconstruction manage the cathedral’s reconstruction.
torical interest. Tree rings in the larger
wood, for example, offer clues to the
onstruction sequence of the church. EAN-LOUIS GEORGELIN had come
stuff we’d never gotten our hands on
mmer said. “Now, unfortunately, it
hands.” A small silver lining will be
knowledge of the cathedral and the
which it was built.
J up through the infantry. He’d been
chief military adviser to one pres-
ident and chairman of the joint
chiefs to another. Macron entrusted
him with Notre Dame for two reasons, Georgelin
Photographer Tomas
van Houtryve cap-
tured the 19th-century
grotesques, or chime-
wo years to get all the debris sorted said: The general is a devout Catholic, one who ras, with 19th-century
ved to a warehouse near Charles de knows his psalms in Latin—he recited one for equipment: under a
rport. The stuff sprawls there over me—and he has the political savvy and author- dark cloak, on glass
plates, with a wooden
uare feet, on 20-foot-high shelving. ity to get the cathedral reopened by 2024. That camera he picked up in
wood too small to be studied, the tiny will require navigating French bureaucracy. a Paris antique shop.
tone, the dust and ash—even that has Georgelin presides over an établissement public,
, for now, in hundreds of storage bags. a public entity set up specifically to restore Notre
ling work, Chaoui-Derieux said—but Dame, using 840 million euros in donations,
ng, a “human adventure” she doesn’t including 30 million from donors in the U.S.
xperience again. Restoration projects normally are managed
he floor of Notre Dame was being by the culture ministry. Some people from to check for soot. “Nothing was destroyed!”
e walls and vaults had to be secured that milieu consider the general’s involvement she exclaimed, meaning none of the treasures
ving in. An engineering study had peculiar and the 2024 deadline unrealistic. Is or valuable artworks. The modern altar at the
t without the lead roof and timbers it? I asked Georgelin. He cheerfully batted away crossing was crushed, but the iconic Virgin of
on them and tying them together, the the question. Paris, a 14th-century stone statue, still stood a
frighteningly vulnerable to wind; a “I see, monsieur, you have been contaminated few feet away, dusty but unharmed, with rub-
ile-an-hour gust could have toppled by those who believe the president of the repub- ble at her feet. At the monuments lab, Claudine
m 2019 through the summer of 2021, lic should not be interfering in the reconstruction Loisel, the stained-glass specialist, told me that
shored up flying buttresses and some of Notre Dame,” he boomed. “You have been con- just a few pieces of glass on three small panels
lts, nestling custom-fit, multi-ton taminated by the party of slowness.” Georgelin had been knocked out by the tip of the spire.
es under each one. Meanwhile, rope is a good-humored alpha type, a man who, as The rest were fine.
s were dismantling, one steel tube at he talks over you in a parade-ground voice and In all, the church lost its spire, its roof and
old scaffolding—Villeneuve had been hazes you with satirical formalities, does it all rafters, and a few of its stone vaults. That’s
novate the spire when the fire struck. with a self-aware grin. plenty—but not too much to be fixed by 2024,
tangled mess, it threatened to fall and The damage to the church, Georgelin said, Georgelin said.
mage the church. is severe but contained. I’d been struck by that Unlike most people I spoke to, he sometimes
shut the site down for two months myself—by how untouched much of it seemed, attended Mass at Notre Dame before the fire.
2020. The pervasive lead dust had when you looked past the scaffolding that now On that dreadful evening, the general was at
ut it down for six weeks in 2019, after fills most of it. Marie-Hélène Didier was sur- home in Paris, watching on TV and crying, “like
inspectors decided that initial safety prised too when she walked through on the day everyone.” He heard people saying they wouldn’t
ns were inadequate. Since then, a line after the fire, running her finger over the walls live to see Notre Dame restored. That’s why the

N OT R E DA M E A F T E R T H E F I R E 61
 The Twelve
Apostles got
out of Paris
just in time.
Four days before the
fire, statues of the
Apostles fortunately
were removed from
the spire and shipped
to Socra, a restoration
company in Périgueux.
The copper cladding
was as thin as cigarette
paper in some spots,
says metal specialist
Olivier Baumgartner
(working here on St.
Matthew). He and his
colleagues avoided
making the cladding
too smooth: “It must
exude authenticity.”
 No other
construction
site is quite
like this one.
People working on the
restoration will tell
you: It’s the project
of a lifetime. The
pandemic slowed
things down, and
lead-safety procedures
are aggravating. But
sometimes “there were
just five or six of us in
the cathedral,” says
archaeologist Doro-
thée Chaoui-Derieux.
“That will never
happen to us again.”
For the next three
years Notre Dame will
be buzzing with
workers, and then
worshippers and
tourists will return.
president’s promise to the nation was necessary, something architecturally new at Notre Dame—
Georgelin said—and as for the five-year dead- a “contemporary gesture,” he called it. “We should
line, if Macron hadn’t set it, architects and other have confidence in the builders of today,” he said,
arty types would have stretched the work to 15. “and we should have confidence in ourselves.”
The general turned his eyes to the ceiling and Builders responded gleefully: Suggestions for
emitted a tuneless whistle, to illustrate what glass roofs and crystal spires and spires of light
head-in-the-clouds time-wasting looks like. poured in from all over the world. One architec-
tural studio proposed a greenhouse on the roof.
Another suggested replacing the roof with an
S FOR THE CHIEF ARCHITECT of open-air swimming pool.

A historic monuments … I have

already explained to him mul-
tiple times, and I will tell him
again … that he should shut his
trap.” That was Georgelin speaking about
Villeneuve wanted desperately to nip all this
in the bud. He would not participate in building
a modern spire, he said. That’s when Georgelin
tried, a little clumsily, to shut him up. But the
wacky proposals helped make Villeneuve’s case;
Philippe Villeneuve to a committee of the French everyone could agree the cathedral shouldn’t
National Assembly in November 2019. become an aboveground pool. By the summer
The two men were probably doomed to clash. of 2020 the general, the president, and the
Georgelin is used to not taking guff as he gets national heritage commission had all approved
things done. As a chief architect, Villeneuve is Villeneuve’s plan. Notre Dame is to be rebuilt as
used to a lot of latitude. Georgelin wears suits it was, in its “last known state”—the state it was
and double-breasted blazers that conceal, one left in by Viollet-le-Duc.
assumes, no tattoos. Villeneuve is an intellec- It was a triumph of orthodoxy: Rebuilding
tual in jeans, rumpled jacket, and granny glasses. to the last known state is what French restor-
He’s an emotive man who personalizes the crisis ers generally do. The Venice Charter, created in
and wears his heart on his sleeve, almost liter- 1964 at an international conference of special-
ally. He has good reason to feel the situation at ists, codifies that approach, in which the goal
Notre Dame intensely. of historical restoration is not the most beauti-
It’s not his first brush with such a disaster. “My ful building but the most “authentic” one—the
career has been marked by fire,” he told me. On one that preserves all its layers of history. The
the day of his promotion to chief architect of his- impulse sounds academic, but it’s also emo-
toric monuments, in 1998, Villeneuve learned tional. Rebuilding identically, especially after a
that a medieval church in his department, the disaster, is “a powerful symbolic act; it’s a cathar-
Charente-Maritime, had been set ablaze by light- tic act,” said Leniaud, the historian. “It’s the only
ning. It became his first commission. On the day way to grieve. It’s very important to grieve.”
fire found Notre Dame, he’d been working at his The irony is that Viollet-le-Duc, who had
other main project, the 15th-century town hall watched Notre Dame be attacked, showed no
of La Rochelle—which also had been devastated such restraint (especially after the death of his
earlier by fire, also as Villeneuve was restoring partner, Jean-Baptiste Lassus, left him alone in
it. That happened in 2013, shortly before he got charge). His goal was not to rebuild Notre Dame
picked for Notre Dame. exactly as it was but to build the ideal cathedral.
No evidence has emerged connecting either He completely redid some walls around the
fire to the restoration work. The Paris police crossing because he didn’t like the way they’d
have not released results of their investigation at been altered in the 13th century. He demolished
Notre Dame; an electrical short circuit is a prime the 18th-century sacristy and replaced it with a
suspect. But Villeneuve still feels the burden of neo-Gothic one. He honored Gothic architects
having to redeem the tragedy. by trying to become one—and with the spire,
“He has risen to the occasion,” said Jacques the consensus is, he outdid himself. With some
Moulin, the chief architect who’s restoring the other liberties he took, not so much.
nearby Basilica of Saint-Denis. “He has been able For a century after his death, Viollet-le-Duc
to transcend himself. That’s a rare ability.” But was vilified by the monuments establishment
it put him at cross-purposes with the president. he himself had helped establish. “When I was
After the fire, Macron publicly encouraged a kid at architecture school, a restoration by

66 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
Viollet-le-Duc meant a total mess,” Moulin said.
At Notre Dame, Viollet-le-Duc painted decora-
tive murals in all 24 side chapels; in the 1970s,
the 12 chapels of the nave were scraped back to
bare stone. But by then, the rehabilitation of the
great man’s reputation was just about to begin—
and the exhibition that 17-year-old Villeneuve
saw in 1980 was a turning point. “All at once we
went from a diabolical Viollet-le-Duc to a Viollet-
le-Duc who is practically a saint,” Moulin said.
Today most French restorers wouldn’t think
of undoing anything Viollet-le-Duc did. Moulin
thinks that’s a shame. He believes in preserving
history too—but trying to fix a building once and
for all in its “last known state,” he said, amounts
to declaring that history has ended for that
building: “It’s the definition of death.” And it
may not be what’s best for preservation. If the
roof of your cathedral has just burned off, Mou-
lin argued, it doesn’t make sense to rebuild the Like Viollet-le-Duc’s
rafters out of wood. spire, taller and more
That argument was heard—and dismissed—at ornate than the
medieval original, his
Notre Dame. The forest and the spire will indeed addition of the chimeras
be built of wood, though with more fireproofing reflected his ambition:
and with fire-suppressing misters. The details not just to restore Notre
Dame as it had been
are still being worked out. but to create the ideal
Gothic cathedral.

through
N 2 0 19, T H E F I R E R AG I N G

I the oak timbers got so hot—almost

certainly more than 1,400 degrees
Fahrenheit—that it ate into the adja-
cent limestone walls and into the
tops of some vaults. Two stone specialists at the
from inhaling lead that night, unless you were
standing right by the fire, was “negligible,”
monuments lab, geologist Lise Cadot-Leroux and said Jérôme Langrand, a doctor and toxicolo-
conservation scientist Jean-Didier Mertz, trained gist who directs the Paris poison center at the
as rope technicians so they could inspect the Lariboisière–Fernand-Widal hospital. The real
damage. Mertz showed me some foot-long cores danger with lead is that it will be ingested acci-
they extracted from the two-foot-thick stones. dentally over time, especially by children, via
The surface of some stones turned to powder, and contaminated dirt in parks or playgrounds or
fissures formed inside, causing as much as four dust that settles inside homes. Alexander van
inches to peel off. But most of the blocks appear Geen, a Columbia University scientist who
to have remained thick enough to do their job, walked around Paris spooning dirt samples into
Mertz said. He and his colleagues developed a paper bags, estimated that about a ton of lead
technique for sealing the fissures by injecting a had fallen within a kilometer of the church.
lime slurry. For the stones that need replacing, But there’s no evidence it caused significant
scientists are searching for good matches north poisoning, Langrand said. He and his col-
of Paris; the city has grown over the medieval leagues analyzed blood from 1,200 children in
quarries, which were then on its outskirts. the affected area. They found concentrations
Most of the 507 tons of lead in the roof and above the “level of concern” in a little over
spire simply melted and rained into the church, one percent—about the same as in the French
but the heat was intense enough to launch population at large (and much less than in the
lead particles into the smoke. The danger U.S.). In every case, moreover, an investigation

N OT R E DA M E A F T E R T H E F I R E 67
 A monument
from another
time is braced
for a new day.
In the aftermath of
the fire, some wanted
Notre Dame to be
reborn with a new
look, a contemporary
one that would put the
stamp of our age—and
of the fire itself—on
the cathedral. Others,
those closest to the
monument, just
wanted it made whole
again. The fire “was an
accident,” conservator
Marie-Hélène Didier
says. “You forget. You
try to forget.”
 spire and the sculpted ornamentation of Notre
Dame’s roof. Lead already covers the Panthéon,
the Invalides, and other monuments, Villeneuve
said; why should the cathedral be the only vic-
tim of “the madness of these lead fundamental-
ists”? Rainwater running off the new roof will be
captured and filtered.
Villeneuve also plans to rebuild the timber
framework exactly as it was. It had two distinct
parts. When Viollet-le-Duc rebuilt the spire, he
replaced the framework of the transept, and not
in a medieval way—the beams were cut at indus-
trial sawmills. Villeneuve will do the same. Last
winter, Gourmain coordinated the donation of
1,200 oaks from all around France. The largest,
oldest ones had been planted just before the
French Revolution by royal foresters who were
safeguarding the navy’s supply of ship masts.
Those trees will serve as the base of the spire.
In the 19th century, The attic timbers of the nave and choir were
these neo-Gothic different: They were mostly original, from the
beasts watched over 13th century. In September 2020, a group called
a city in upheaval,
as wide boulevards Carpenters Without Borders reconstructed one
were being punched of the triangular trusses in front of the cathedral,
through medieval to demonstrate the feasibility of rebuilding the
neighborhoods. Beasts
and boulevards now framework the medieval way. François Calame,
are symbols of Paris. an ethnologist and carpenter who founded the
group, took me to see that truss where it’s now on
display, outside a medieval fortress in Normandy
called Château de Crèvecoeur. It consists of a
dozen beams—each hand-hewn from a single
revealed that the children routinely were oak, no more than a foot across.
exposed to other sources of lead. Many Paris Medieval carpenters worked their wood green,
balconies, for example, have lead floors. and so did Carpenters Without Borders. They
Still, no amount of lead in the blood is con- followed the grain, keeping the heart at the cen-
sidered safe, and lead roofs pollute the environ- ter. That gave some of the beams a gentle curve,
ment whenever they’re worked or rained on. In but it made them stronger. The trusses at Notre
February 2021, a science advisory board to the Dame stood for more than 800 years before their
health ministry, of which Langrand was a mem- luck ran out.
ber, recommended that France ban lead in new Calame pulled from the trunk of his car the
roofs and that alternatives to its use in historical tool of choice: a doloire, a broadax with a head
restoration be found. The Paris city council by flared like a trumpet. He took a few skillful
then had voted to demand that Notre Dame not whacks at a log, then let me have a go. The ax,
be reroofed in lead. he warned, was sharp enough to inflict serious
None of this has diminished Villeneuve’s injury if aimed poorly, which seemed a distinct
determination. To be endangered by a lead roof possibility. My first blows glanced off the log
on Notre Dame, both he and Georgelin insisted, with an alarming clang, but then I landed a few.
children would have to climb onto it and lick it. Thin wedges of fresh wood flew into the air.
“Lead is an absolutely essential element in In Calame’s view, historical restoration should
the construction,” Villeneuve argued. Sure, the be about restoring lost skills as well as damaged
Cathedral of Chartres has a copper roof—but buildings—and not just for the benefit of carpen-
copper turns green, and Paris roofs are gray. ters. The reason Notre Dame’s “forest” left such
Most are zinc, but only lead could reproduce the an impression on people who saw it, he thinks, is

70 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
that a message was passing across the centuries “Notre Dame is not a museum,” Patrick Chau-
from the master artisans who made it. vet, the cathedral’s rector, insisted. Before the
“The framework was 800 years old. It’s gone. fire, some 3,000 people came to Mass on Sun-
But I think that if we rework it the way it was days—but 10 to 12 million tourists visited each
worked, in the same manner and with the same year. Many had scant knowledge of Christianity.
materials, the message can be transmitted,” “How can they be touched by the grace of this
Calame said. “You’ll be able to feel it.” place?” Chauvet asked. “How can the beauty of
Villeneuve was impressed by the demonstra- this place perhaps at least interrogate them on
tion by Carpenters Without Borders. To save the meaning of their lives?”
time, he said, sawmills will trim the logs for the The plan, he said, is to re-curate the visit.
nave and choir, but the beams will be finished by When the church reopens, visitors will be ush-
hand with doloires. Construction of the spire will ered in a new loop past redesigned side chapels.
come first, however. Viollet-le-Duc had to break Proceeding from north to south—from darkness
a hole in the vaults so he could build his spire to light—they’ll encounter first the Old Testa-
from the inside. Villeneuve has a head start: The ment, then the New, so as to “enter progressively
hole is already there. into the mystery of God,” Chauvet said.
Will that succeed? Thanks to the huge res-
toration budget, the cathedral should at least
the bishop
A U R I C E D E S U L LY, be looking sharp. Work that ordinarily would

M of Paris who commissioned

Notre Dame in 1163, was the
son of peasants. While the spire
strained toward heaven, Sully’s
aspirations were worldly as well: He was showing
have stretched over decades is planned for the
next three years. The entire inside of the church,
including all the chapels and paintings and most
of the stained glass, will be cleaned—a sparkling
rebirth. If, as Georgelin thinks, “the beauty of
off his power to his rivals, as well as the king. The Gothic architecture is one of the best proofs of
tower on the archbishop’s palace looked like a the existence of God,” then God will have risen to
castle battlement. The cathedral’s west facade fight another day in France. The fire won’t have
was even more massive. been for nothing.
“In the medieval city, it was completely dom- That April evening, my wife and I were with
inant, crushing,” said Bernard Fonquernie, who old friends on their first trip to Paris. After
as chief architect restored the facade in the dinner on the Right Bank, we decided to walk
1990s, removing decades of car exhaust and back to where we were staying on the Left.
pigeon poop. I was living in France then and The banks of the Seine were lined with people
remember that rebirth—how the walls glowed watching Notre Dame burn. Crossing the Île
when the scaffolding came down. Saint-Louis, we stepped over a hose the fire-
Construction of the cathedral was financed fighters were laying to pump water from the
mostly by donations from ordinary people, said river. On the Pont de la Tournelle, we stopped
art historian Dany Sandron of the Sorbonne. near an impromptu choir, softly singing hymns
Their experience of the church was not that to Our Lady. I’ve admired that view, along the
of Catholic Mass-goers today. Milling about in Seine toward the apse of Notre Dame, dozens
the chairless nave, they couldn’t see and could of times. I can’t imagine what it would be like
barely hear the services held by the resident can- for it to be gone forever.
ons, eight times a day, behind a wall in the choir. “It was beautiful—one must stress the beauty
In the side chapels, chaplains whispered some of the fire,” said Leniaud. “It was magnificent.
120 Masses a day, but those too weren’t really for But once it’s beautiful, afterward it’s ugly.
the living; they were for the affluent dead, who There’s only the ruin. At first, there’s only black-
had endowed Masses in perpetuity in hopes of ness, darkness, death.” Until it comes back to life
boosting their souls out of purgatory. again, as it must. j
Nevertheless, ordinary people flocked to
Notre Dame. They sometimes slept on the floor Paris-based photographer Tomas van Houtryve
before an altar, dreaming of miraculous cures used his 19th-century camera to explore the
hidden history of the American West in his
for painful diseases. Catholic faith was vital to book Lines and Lineage. Environment editor
most French people then. It isn’t now. Robert Kunzig lived in France for 12 years.

N OT R E DA M E A F T E R T H E F I R E 71
BY

NATA S H A
D A LY
PHOTOGRAPHS
BY

ANGEL
FITOR

The unique
diversity
of cichlids
in Africa’s

THE
oldest lake
could help
unlock the
secrets of
evolution.
72
ADAPTERS
 Emperor cichlids,
believed to mate only
once, watch over their
thousands of offspring,
called fry. Adults can
grow to almost three
feet, making them
the largest of the
nearly 250 cichlid
species endemic to
Lake Tanganyika.

PREVIOUS PHOTO

Baby Haplotaxodon
microlepis scramble
for safety in their
mother’s mouth. Like
many cichlid species,
they’re mouth brood-
ers: Both parents carry
babies orally and let
them out to feed,
recalling them at the
first hint of danger,
until the young strike
out on their own or
become too big to fit.
N
finger. Some spend their lives searching for and defending
is ordi-
N OT H I N G A B O U T C I C H L I D S
nary. In Lake Tanganyika alone,
at the divide between Central and
East Africa, roughly 250 species
evolved from a single ancestor
over 9.7 million years.
Some are the size of a preschool-
er; others, no longer than a pinkie

the perfect shell or building elaborate sand stages on which to

attract a mate. Others thrive in harems. Many are doting par-
ents to their young fish—though sometimes they eat their own
eggs. In a clear example of explosive diversification, cichlids
(SICK-lids) have adapted to fit almost every niche in the lake. 
The majority of cichlids there are found nowhere else, and
they offer scientists clues to unlocking the secrets of evolu-
tion. It’s an urgent endeavor: Animals are going extinct before
we’ve learned how they came to exist.
The fish face myriad threats: Urban development degrades
their water; gill net fishing depletes populations. The most
beautiful are coveted for the aquarium trade; many die
in transport.
Cichlid expert Walter Salzburger, at the University of Basel in
Switzerland, hopes that growing scientific interest in the fish
will spur conservation efforts. “Protecting cichlids,” he says,
“means protecting the entire ecosystem of this ancient lake.” j

A F R I C A

Lake
Tanganyika

NGM MAPS
Shell wars
A female Neolampro- from other males then
logus brevis emerges becomes a full-time
from her home—a job. Below, males fight
deserted snail shell— over a shell via mouth-
while her mate stands to-mouth combat.
guard. “What rules Fighting cichlids will
their behavior is terri- lock jaws until one tires
torialism,” says Angel and gives up. Cichlids
Fitor, who has been are constantly on alert;
photographing cichlids photographing them
in Lake Tanganyika means spending hours
for 20 years. To immobile in the water.
attract a mate, male “I’ve spent entire
cichlids first must have weeks just waiting in
an empty shell—a front of a shell for a fish
limited commodity— to show up,” Fitor says.
for the couple to live “It borders on insanity,
in. Defending the shell I know!”

THE ADAPTERS 77
For featherfin cichlids
(Cyathopharynx foae),
all the world’s a stage.
This male has carried
55 pounds of sand,
mouthful by mouthful,
to construct a 26-inch-
wide, circular bower.
By morning, when he’ll
shimmer in the sun,
he’ll dance vigorously
across his stage,
hoping to attract a
mate. Dozens more
will do the same for
passing females that
judge the dances and
the bowers—where
couples will mate.
Rising more than two
miles from the base of
its glacier to its sum-
mit, Pakistan’s K2 is
known as the Savage
Mountain. For every
four climbers who
make it to the top and
back, another dies
trying. No one had
summited it in winter.
Says Nirmal “Nims”
Purja, “We were try-
ing to show the world
that the impossible
was possible.”
SANDRO GROMEN-HAYES
 D R I V E N BY N AT I O N A L P R I D E ,
A N A L L - N E PA L I T E A M D I D W H AT M A N Y T H O U G H T
WA S I M P O S S I B L E : S U M M I T T H E WO R L D ’S
S E C O N D H I G H E S T M O U N TA I N I N W I N T E R .

BY FREDDIE WILKINSON

A
CLIMB

FOR
HISTORY

81
82 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 With a historic winter
summit of K2 in his
sights, Nims wills his
oxygen-starved body
upward. He and nine
fellow Nepalis endured
unpredictable winds,
subzero temperatures,
and numerous deadly
hazards to climb the
infamous peak at a
time when conditions
were at their harshest.
It was a feat many
had thought couldn’t
be achieved. Nims
increased the difficulty
by climbing without
bottled oxygen.
MINGMA DAVID SHERPA

A C L I M B F O R H I STO RY 83
SWALLOWED
BY
THE
EMPTY
BLACK
NIGHT, Porters assemble K2
Base Camp on the
Godwin Austen Glacier,
in the heart of the
Mingma Gyalje Sherpa tried to focus the shaky Karakoram Range.
orb of his headlamp on his next few steps, but The site serves as a
the cold overwhelmed his thoughts. Clad in logistical hub and rest
station between forays
a bulky down suit, with another down jacket up the mountain, but
underneath, plus two layers of long underwear brutal conditions often
and breathing bottled oxygen, he should have make life there miserable.
SANDRO GROMEN-HAYES
been OK. But in all the peaks he’d summited,
all the blizzards and frigid gales he’d weathered,
he’d never felt temperatures quite like this—a
piercing, otherworldly cold.
He could sense his body shutting down. His
left side bore the brunt of a stout wind, with
each gust sending icy tendrils slicing through
everything he wore. But his right foot was espe-
cially worrisome. It had tingled, then burned,
and finally ebbed into numbness, a precursor to

84 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
serious frostbite. That, he knew, was a sign his hand, or just too deep in their own suffering, to
body was prioritizing blood flow to warm vital answer, he thought.
organs, sacrificing the extremities to preserve Even in the milder summer months, K2, the
the core. And this was all happening before he’d second highest peak on Earth at 28,251 feet, is
even crossed into the so-called Death Zone—the among the world’s deadliest mountains. Though
region above 8,000 meters (26,247 feet)—where it’s more than two football fields shorter than
the lack of oxygen can cause climbers to hallu- Mount Everest, getting to its summit requires a
cinate, retain fluid in their lungs, and lose their much higher degree of climbing skill and almost
instinct for self-preservation. no margin for mistakes. American climber George
Mingma G.—as he’s known—keyed his radio, Bell, after failing to summit in 1953, declared, “It’s
his mind momentarily made up to turn around. a savage mountain that tries to kill you.” The nick-
“Dawa Tenjin? Dawa Tenjin?” he called, but only name has stuck, in part because for roughly every
the whining wind answered. He could make out four climbers who make it to the top and back
the dim lights of several teammates trudging in down, another one dies in the attempt.
a broken line up the low-angle snow above him. But now, almost four weeks after the winter
Everyone must be too focused on the tasks at solstice, when the Northern Hemisphere tilts

A C L I M B F O R H I STO RY 85
 B
farthest away from the life-giving warmth of the of groundbreak-
Y 2 0 2 0 T H E N OT I O N
sun, the conditions on the mountain are some of ing mountaineering achievement
the harshest on the planet. The windchill tem- seemed like an anachronism. Mid-
perature on its upper reaches can drop to minus way through the past century, all
80 degrees Fahrenheit—roughly the same as the of the world’s highest summits—
average temperature on Mars. the 14 mountains that top 8,000
And yet, this was a moment Mingma G. had meters—had been climbed. First
been dreaming about. Even as he laboriously came Nepal’s Annapurna I in 1950, then Ever-
kicked his numb right foot into a patch of ice est and Pakistan’s Nanga Parbat in 1953; the rest
in a desperate attempt to stave off frostbite, he fell in succession until Tibet’s Xixabangma was
knew some of his teammates were fixing sec- claimed in 1964.
tions of rope to the mountain using an array of It was a fevered run of nationalistic efforts,
ice screws, pitons, and snow pickets, building a and though all the mountains were in Asia,
secure trail to follow toward the summit. European teams claimed the majority of these
For most experienced mountaineers, the prizes. And while virtually every expedition of
thought of climbing K2 in winter was lunacy. Six this era relied on local ethnic groups, including
serious expeditions had attempted the feat, but the Sherpas, Tibetans, and Baltis who trans-
none had come close to the top. There seemed ported gear to the Base Camps and carried loads
to be too many challenges to overcome: unpre- up the mountain, the true contributions of these
dictable hurricane-force gusts that could blow indispensable partners rarely were acknowl-
a string of roped climbers off in an instant; fall- edged in the history books.
ing rock and ice that roared down like artillery; With these landmark first ascents accom-
lung-starving, mind-muddling thin air; and the plished, Polish mountaineer Andrzej Zawada
deep, unforgiving cold. Even the most resolute came up with a new challenge. All the eight-
and experienced teams had withered under the thousanders had been climbed in summer,
brutal conditions, the pressures and dangers during the most favorable conditions. More
often causing them to implode with personal difficult, he reasoned, would be to climb them
conflicts and leadership issues. in winter, their harshest season. Zawada led an
In the final months of 2020, some 60 climbers expedition that put two climbers on the summit
arrived at the foot of K2 on the remote Godwin of Everest in the winter of 1980 and set Poland on
Austen Glacier in Pakistan’s part of the Kara- a historic string of winter firsts. One by one, the
koram Range, all seeking the last remaining eight-thousanders fell, but Pakistan’s peaks stub-
prize in high-altitude mountaineering—and argu- bornly resisted winter mountaineers well into
ably the toughest of them all. But for Mingma G. the 21st century. Located eight degrees of latitude
and his nine teammates, all Nepalis, the expe- north of the Nepali peaks, the Karakoram Range
dition offered more than just personal glory. It is notably colder and windier in winter. It took 31
was a chance for them to prove that Nepal—a attempts before Nanga Parbat finally was climbed
nation defined by some of the world’s biggest in 2016, leaving only K2.
mountains—could achieve what many thought Although overshadowed by Everest in the
was impossible. popular media, K2 is considered a far greater
Now, as Mingma G. surveyed his situation, the challenge by serious mountaineers, partly
path to K2’s elusive summit seemed tantalizingly because of its extreme remoteness. When the
within reach. But at what cost? He knew firsthand British survey team recorded the first elevations
how a severe injury could forever alter his life. His in the Karakoram in 1856, they replaced their
father, also a mountain guide, had lost all but two survey designations with local names. K1, for
of his fingers to frostbite when he’d removed his example, was known by the local name Masher-
gloves to tie a foreign client’s bootlaces on Ever- brum. But since K2 isn’t visible from the closest
est. What if one of his teammates lost a limb or village, Askole, a week’s trek from the peak’s
was killed? Would the summit be worth it? For base, it hadn’t been named.
Mingma G. and the members of the expedition, After four days’ hiking over rough terrain, K2
even with a clear understanding of the risks and comes into view from the south, its iconic pyra-
the deadly cold seeping into their bones, the midal form rising like an arrowhead pointed at
answer was unanimous. the heavens. Climbers quickly note its steepness,

86 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 M
MANY NEPALI five feet nine
I N G M A G . S TA N D S
inches, tall for a Sherpa. He’s 33,
broad-shouldered, and often wears

MOUNTAINEERS his hair in a thick mop extending

past his collar that is vaguely remi-
niscent of a 1970s rocker. He tends

HAD BEEN PART to look people in the eye when he

speaks and has a way of cutting directly to the
point that seems to add weight to his words.

OF GROUNDBREAKING He grew up in Rolwaling, a narrow valley west

of Everest. It’s far from the bustling Khumbu
Valley, yet Rolwaling has produced some of

CLIMBS, BUT NO the most renowned Sherpa mountain guides.

Mingma G. grew up listening to his father and
uncles, all of whom worked as guides, tell tales

ALL-NEPALI TEAM of Mount Everest around the kitchen stove on

cold winter nights. The stories they told weren’t
so much about the foreign mountaineers who

HAD CLAIMED flooded Nepal each spring as they were about

homegrown heroes such as Pasang Lhamu
Sherpa, who in 1993 became the first Nepali

A HISTORIC woman to summit Everest and died on her way

down, and his first cousin Lopsang Jangbu
Sherpa, who assisted climbers during the 1996

FIRST ASCENT disaster made famous by the book Into Thin Air
and then tragically died four months later.
In 2006, when Mingma G. was 19, his uncle

ON ITS OWN. took him on his first expedition to Mansalu. The

next year, Mingma G. summited Everest while
working for a French outfitter, and by 2011, he
was organizing and leading his own expeditions.
Those were difficult years. From 2001 to 2008,
Nepal was gripped by a violent Maoist insur-
especially near the top, which means that any rection, and many international mountaineers
mistake is magnified to near-fatal consequences. stayed away. Competition to guide the few who
Trip over your crampons or clip into an unsecured dared to come to Nepal was intense.
line by mistake, and it’s unlikely you’ll stop falling In the winter season of 2019-2020, Mingma G.
before hitting the glacier thousands of feet below. cobbled together his own attempt to claim the
Because the margin for error is even further first winter summit of K2 with three paying cli-
reduced in winter, success, or really survival, ents. Life at Base Camp—which at 16,272 feet
comes down to logistics—planning for the worst sits nearly 1,800 feet higher than Mount Whit-
conditions and nightmarish scenarios. Colossal ney, the highest point in the continental United
peaks, such as Everest and K2, are rarely climbed States—was itself a severe trial. “If we washed
in a single linear push. Rather, teams generally our clothes, then it takes more than a week to
move up and down the mountain, acclimatizing get it dry unless we dry them on gas heater or
to higher altitudes while setting up a network stove,” he wrote to mountaineering journalist
of fixed ropes and camps stocked with critical Alan Arnette.
gear, such as oxygen bottles, tents, and ropes. In After arriving at Base Camp, Mingma G.
recent years, the notion of a faster, lighter style caught an upper respiratory infection and had to
of alpinism has prevailed, but K2 in winter calls withdraw from the expedition. But it wasn’t long
for an old-school group effort: Individuals must before he began thinking about trying again.
haul several heavy loads over dangerous terrain. And then COVID-19 struck. Tens of thousands
It demands old-fashioned teamwork. of guides, porters, and cooks were out of work

A C L I M B F O R H I STO RY 87
A SUMMIT IN THE
DEADLIEST SEASON
Savage
K2’s sum
stream
tempe
Skilbrum 80°F an
24,147 ft a hund
7,360 m
Summa Ri typical
Pakistan’s 28,251-foot behemoth, K2, is the world’s second 23,957 ft at the t
7,302 m
highest mountain, behind only Mount Everest. But K2 requires
far more technical skill to climb. Of the world’s 14 peaks higher
than 8,000 meters (26,247 feet), it was the only one never to
have been summited in winter. In December 2020, some 60
climbers from around the world gathered at Base Camp on
the Godwin Austen Glacier to try it. Two Nepali teams, led by
Nirmal “Nims” Purja and Mingma Gyalje “Mingma G.” Sherpa,
joined forces for the push up K2’s southeast face and Abruzzi Angel
Spur—rendered here from satellite imagery by the German 22,497 ft
6,857 m
Aerospace Center. On January 16, 2021, the 10 Nepali climbers
claimed K2’s first winter summit, the first all-Nepali record on
one of the top 14 peaks.

Nera
20,978 ft
6,394 m
Negrotto
Pass

2018
Cesen
because

Nirmal “Nims” Purja Mingma Gyalje Sherpa

Waiting for a window

Other teams have attempted win-
ter summits but lacked the few
days of clear weather required to
reach the top and come down.
Some were never able to get
above Base Camp.

Base Camp
Reached by Nepali
team Dec. 18, 2020
16,274 ft u te
4,960 m ro
en
es
C

The summit of K2
sits 11,191 ft (3,411 m)
above Advanced
Base Camp.

Empire State
Building
 K2
28,251 ft
8,611 m Nepali team reaches summit
Jan. 16, 2021

Succeeding as a team
Previous winter attempts, includ-
ing Denis Urubko’s 2018 solo
e peak summit push, failed. Having 10
Bottleneck climbers to haul supplies and take
mmit juts into the jet Traverse
. In winter, windchill turns leading the way allowed the
ratures can reach minus Nepali team to summit as a group.
e
nd winds can gust up to
l

red miles an hour. Snow Polish international

k

ly is scoured off the face expedition high point

c

top of the mountain. (hidden) via North A forced detour

i

E
Ridge route, 2003
S

G 7,650 m The Nepali team stayed on the

D standard Abruzzi Spur route until
I
R Russia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, 2019 they reached an impassable cre-
7,634 m
D O vasse. They had to backtrack,
Camp IV M turning the climb from Camp III
Pulpit Poland (Urubko solo attempt), 2018 Jan. 15 E
7,600 m 24,934 ft to Camp IV—usually three hours—
7,600 m into an eight-hour trek.
R
U
T P Forced
S detour
S
E
W Poland expedition
H Russia, 2012 high point, 1988
T 7,200 m N O R
T

7,300 m T H
S

U Camp III E A
A

O Spain, 2019 Jan. 14, 2021 S T

E

7,200 m
S 23,622 ft
H

7,200 m R
T

I D
U

O G
S Nims’s second Camp II E
- Jan. 13, 2021
H 23,130 ft
T 7,050 m
U
O
S
Mingma G.’s second Camp II
Dec. 29, 2020
22,638 ft
6,900 m

8 Polish team attempts

route, turning around Mingma G.’s first Camp II
e of dangerous rockfall Dec. 28
House’s Chimney 22,178 ft
6,760 m

Nims’s first Camp II

(wiped out by storm)
Dec. 29
21,654 ft
6,600 m

Camp I
First reached
Dec. 21
20,013 ft
6,100 m

Abruzzi Spur
route

Danger from above

Climbers on the Abruzzi Spur
must contend with extremely
steep inclines, as well as falling
rocks and ice, which are responsi-
ble for many serious injuries and
deaths on the mountain.

SCALE VARIES IN THIS PERSPECTIVE.

THE DISTANCE FROM BASE CAMP TO ADVANCED BASE CAMP IS 2.7 MILES.

SOREN WALLJASPER, NGM STAFF

MOUNTAIN TERRAIN RENDERING: GERMAN AEROSPACE CENTER (DLR)/DFD-WIS
PHOTOS: MARK FISHER

Advanced Base Camp, Dec. 21 SOURCES: MINGMA GYALJE SHERPA, AMERICAN ALPINE JOURNAL, 2021;
17,060 ft KRZYSZTOF WIELICKI; BERNADETTE MCDONALD; JAN KIELKOWSKI,
5,200 m K2 AND NORTHERN BALTORO MUSTAGH; STEVEN SWENSON
 THE CHALLENGE OF WINTER
After climbers summited all 14 of the world’s 8,000-meter peaks, they turned
across the Himalaya. Within weeks of return-
ing from K2, Mingma G.’s entire year of guided
expedition
one of the
to the next challenge: ascending them in winter, when winds and tempera- climbs evaporated, leaving him with no income season. Th
9,000 m
tures are at their worst and favorable weather windows are less predictable. and a small business to support. He tried to talk disastrous
Beginning in the 1980s, Polish climbers pioneered this pursuit, claiming 10
a few friends into another attempt on K2, but mits poste
8,000-meter winter firsts. Before 2021, six expeditions had attempted K2 in
winter. The most successful barely got within half a mile of the top. nobody wanted to spend the $10,000 for a permit any clients
just to reach Base Camp, plus tens of thousands expedition
Mt. Everest more to mount a no-frills effort. climbers fr
1953 1980
29,000 ft
Mingma G. considered dropping the idea, but and the Un

O
Mt. Everest was first Mt. Everest was first 8,800 m
something gnawed at him. Tenzing Norgay, a
Summit

summited in 1953. summited in the Spain

2019
winter in 1980 by Sherpa, was one of the first two people to stand on
a Polish team. Russia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan
2019 top of Everest, and though he was a national hero
28,500 ft Polish international Russia Poland with his photo proudly displayed in countless
2003 2012 2018
Nepali homes, he had shared the achievement
elevation

Poland
K2 1988 with Edmund Hillary of New Zealand. Nepali
1954
8,600 m climbers had been part of other groundbreaking
1955 1986 Failed winter attempts on K2
Kanchenjunga
Nepal, 2021 climbs, but none had ever claimed a truly historic
28,000 ft Nepali team completes first ascent all on his or her own. first major
Lhotse 1988 last winter summit
1956
“When I went through Wikipedia, there was full day of
Makalu
1955 2009
no Nepalese flag on the winter 8,000-meter list,” to reach Ca
Mingma G. says. “I realized if we lose K2, we’re attempt on
Reign of the Poles
In 1980 Krzysztof Wielicki and a team of Poles First winter ascent 8,400 m
going to lose all the 8,000-meter peaks.” a shortage
27,500 ft summited the first “eight-thousander” in winter— claimed by Polish team He knew he’d have to spend the money, even Mingma
Everest. Wielicki later described his approach: “One
does not combat a mountain; one struggles against
First winter ascent claimed if it meant mortgaging the piece of land he’d matizing a
by non-Polish team
adversities ... snow, hurricane winds, and exhaustion.” bought in Kathmandu, which represented most another Ne
of his savings. He was able to recruit two broth- special for
In 2016, after 31 attempts, ers, Kilu Pemba and Dawa Tenjin Sherpa, both Nirmal “Ni
27,000 ft Nanga Parbat became the 13th
Dhaulagiri I of the eight-thousanders to
older than he, with wives, teenage children, and met before
Cho Oyu 8,200 m
1954 1985 be summited in winter. decades of high-altitude experience. introductio
1960
1956
Manaslu
1985 But their families had reservations. “It was hands once
1984
Nanga Parbat
1953 2016 very difficult for me to convince the wives of Kilu not necessa
1950 Annapurna I Pemba and Dawa Tenjin,” recalls Mingma G., That was
26,500 ft 1987 Gasherbrum I
1958 2012
Broad Peak who is unmarried. “They said, ‘If our husbands of a record
1957 2013
1956 2011 die, then we’re going to come stay in your home climb all 14
1964 Xixabangma 2005 Death Zone
8,000 m and you need to feed us.’ That made me a little The media
Gasherbrum II Year of ascent
crazy … and very worried.” from relativ
There was another problem. After years of In truth,
back-to-back expeditions and the demands of bit of rivalr
Northern exposure running his own business, Mingma G. faced a ers in their
K2 Broad Peak
26,414 ft Situated in the Karakoram Range, K2 startling realization for a Sherpa: He was out of in one of th
28,251 ft 8,051 m
8,611 m is the northernmost eight-thousander
Gasherbrum II and bears the brunt of storms sweeping shape. As he waited in Kathmandu for the pan- But they h
26,358 ft
8,034 m down from Siberia. Its higher latitude demic to subside, a family member began coaxing was reserve
Askole Gasherbrum I means less barometric pressure and
Nanga Parbat
26,509 ft
8,080 m less oxygen, making a climb more him out for hikes and bike rides. “I lost many kilos and funny
26,657 ft difficult and dangerous. and started feeling strong again,” he says. his social m
8,125 m
Mingma G. wasn’t the only Sherpa with K2 in first on K2
H

Islamabad his sights. A trio of brothers—Mingma, Tashi Neverthe

I Lakpa, and Chhang Dawa Sherpa, the principal down and
owners of Seven Summits Treks—realized that Even thoug
M Dhaulagiri I Annapurna I Mt. Everest Kanchenjunga
Pakistan was one of the few mountaineering des- the mounta
26,795 ft 26,545 ft 29,032 ft 28,169 ft
8,167 m 8,091 m 8,849 m 8,586 m
ASIA
A Manaslu Xixabangma Lhotse tinations still open in the high mountains of Asia. tized, they
26,781 ft 26,335 ft 27,940 ft
MAP L 8,163 m 8,027 m 8,516 m By charging fees below those of Western out- two teams c
AREA
I N D I A A fitters, Seven Summits Treks had established the camp ju
N E
Y A itself as one of the most successful Sherpa-owned covered tha
P A L Cho Oyu Makalu
New Delhi
Kathmandu 26,864 ft 27,838 ft
8,188 m 8,485 m SOREN WALLJASPER, NGM STAFF. TERRAIN: ERIC KNIGHT
SOURCES: AMERICAN ALPINE CLUB LIBRARY; BERNADETTE MCDONALD; NASA
n companies and routinely fielded
e largest groups on Everest each AS GELJE TOLD English pub. “Everything has a backup plan. My
backup plans have backup plans, man.” When
hat March, contemplating its own Mingma G.’s team arrived at the party, Nims
year of cancellations, Seven Sum-
d inquiries on social media to see if JOKES AND promptly uncorked a bottle of whiskey.
“When we finished that one, we started feeling
s might be interested in a winter K2 a little dizzy,” Mingma G. recalls. “Then Nims
n. It quickly booked one in full, with
rom Russia, Spain, Ireland, Turkey, DEEJAYED THE opened another one, and then another one, and
then another one.” Soon everyone was dancing
nited Kingdom. and discussing the weather and the plan.

the first calen-

N D E C E M B E R 2 1 , 2 0 2 0, NEW YEAR’S EVE Nims is not an ethnic Sherpa but a Magar—an
indigenous ethnic group from the middle hills
dar day of winter, Mingma G. and his of Nepal. He grew up in Chitwan, a low-altitude
two teammates started up K2. Sev-
eral days later, they were camped at PARTY, AN IDEA district, more famous for elephants and tigers
than snowy mountains. At 18 he enlisted in the
22,600 feet, below a section known Gurkhas, a British military regiment of Nepali
as the Black P yramid—a near-
vertical mass of crumbling rock, the STARTED TO soldiers that exists as a vestige of the British
Empire. Along with becoming a mountain
technical challenge. It would take a guide, joining the Gurkhas is one of the best
precise climbing with heavy packs
amp III, the launchpad for a serious PERCOLATE BETWEEN professional opportunities available to ambi-
tious Nepali men: Gurkhas receive pay on par
the summit. But they had a problem: with British soldiers and have the right to gain
of rope.
G. knew that several teams were accli- THE NEPALI British citizenship.
After six years in the Gurkhas, Nims joined the
at the camps below them, including Special Boat Service, a unit akin to the U.S. Navy
epali team led by a flamboyant former
rces soldier turned climber named TEAMS: WHY NOT SEALs. “We’ll just say I have been deployed in
sensitive areas, that’s it,” he said in a 2019 inter-
ims” Purja. Mingma G. and Nims had view. But he discusses his military experiences,
e, briefly. “We didn’t have any formal
ons,” Mingma G. says. “We just shook JOIN FORCES? including a firefight in which he was shot in the
face, in more detail in his recent book.
e, and I said, ‘I’m Mingma G.’ … It was “In the special forces, the things you are
ary for him to introduce himself.” doing … you feel invincible,” Nims muses. “But
s in 2019, when Nims was in the midst then when I went to the mountain, it was very
d-setting six-month, six-day blitz to clear that nature has bigger things to say.” In
4 of the world’s 8,000-meter peaks. They all wanted K2 for themselves. 2019 he resigned from the military to become a
a had taken notice, and Nims went The next day, everyone descended all the professional mountaineer and pursue his dream
vely unknown to social media darling. way down to Base Camp to recover. A gray sky project: climbing all 14 of the eight-thousanders
the two men couldn’t help but feel a seemed to filter all the color from the glacier, and in seven months. The idea had been bandied
ry. Both were extremely capable lead- a persistent wind raked streams of ice crystals about before, but nobody seriously had under-
r physical primes, who were experts among the flapping tents. It was December 31, taken the challenge.
he world’s most dangerous pursuits. and with a bad forecast in the offing, it was time Dubbing his effort Project Possible, Nims
ad very different styles: Mingma G. to get some rest—if that was possible in such an recruited a crack crew of Nepali guides to help
ed and no-nonsense; Nims was brash inhospitable place. prepare routes and climb with him, much like
and, true to form, had announced to That evening, Nims dropped by Mingma G.’s a Tour de France team deploys riders to pace
media followers his objective to be the mess tent to invite the rival team to a New Year’s their leader. After summiting one mountain,
in winter. celebration. At first, Mingma G. wasn’t in the he headed straight to the next, sometimes via
eless, Mingma G. figured he’d radio mood to go, but Nims sent two teammates to helicopter, which allowed him to maintain his
ask Nims if he had rope to spare. persuade him to join the festivities. acclimatization to higher altitudes. And he made
gh Nims’s team had just arrived on Stripped of his high-altitude gear, Nims cuts ready use of bottled oxygen and in some places
ain and the men weren’t yet acclima- a youthful figure, his smooth cheeks and thin relied on ropes fixed by other teams, which pur-
y volunteered to carry some up. The wisps of facial hair belying his 37 years. The for- ists argued cheapened the achievement.
chatted over tea the next morning at mer soldier prides himself on being prepared. Now, more than a year later, his K2 team
ust below the Black Pyramid and dis- “That’s one thing you learn in the army, mate,” included a core veteran of that group, Mingma
at neither had brought foreign clients. he says, his speech peppered with the slang of an David Sherpa, a sprightly 31-year-old guide who

A C L I M B F O R H I STO RY 93
94 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 At dawn, members of
the Nepali team leave
Base Camp for the final
three-day ascent. Dan-
gerous weather kept
the climbers hunkered
down at Base Camp
for weeks, but a fore-
cast of milder weather
gave them hope for
making history.
SANDRO GROMEN-HAYES

A C L I M B F O R H I STO RY 95
Hurricane-force winds
blew away tents and
supplies that climb-
ers had painstakingly
hauled up to Camp II,
a crucial rest stop en
route to the summit.
The climbers were
safe, but losing the
camp was a blow. “I
am devastated,” Nims
posted on Instagram
from Base Camp. “Now
I have to reassess and
replan everything.”
ELIA SAIKALY

serves as Nims’s chief deputy. The old man of displaying a Buddhist sense of detachment
the new team was Pem Chhiri Sherpa, a 42-year- toward life’s trials, but the profession takes a
old Rolwaling Sherpa with 20 years of Everest heavy toll. In addition to the physical pain—
experience. Nims also recruited Dawa Temba faces burned by frostnip, arthritic joints, and
Sherpa and Mingma Tenzi Sherpa, both highly chronic back problems—they’d all lost friends
experienced mountaineers. The last team mem- and relatives to mountaineering. The past seven
ber was the youngest: Gelje Sherpa, a 28-year- years had been particularly cruel. An avalanche
old guide with an infectious sense of humor. in 2014 killed 16 of the most experienced Sherpas
As Gelje told jokes and deejayed the New on Everest and brought the climbing season to a
Year’s Eve party, an idea started to percolate halt, and in 2015 an earthquake killed 19 people
between the two teams: Why not join forces? As at Everest Base Camp and about 9,000 across
Pem recalls, the benefits were obvious: “It sped the entire country. Now the pandemic had cost
up the work, and we started working together. It them another year’s work. They also knew the
became easier because we all were Nepalese.” bitterness that comes with a thankless job. “Few
Sherpas who work in mountaineering have foreign clients acknowledge our help, describing
a reputation for generally being easygoing, us merely as nameless high-altitude porters or

96 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 history,” Nims would explain later. “It was a
no-brainer to team up.”
Mingma G. woke up on New Year’s Day with
a foggy hangover. Despite the subzero tempera-
tures, he had fallen asleep in his tent without
crawling into his sleeping bag. Soon he heard
Nims’s voice on the radio, inviting him back to
his camp for tea. They had more plans to discuss.

S
that a moun-
H E R P A S L I K E T O S AY
tain must allow a team of climbers
to reach its summit and return
unharmed. It’s the reason every
Himalayan expedition performs a
Puja ceremony: to ask the mountain
deities for permission to climb and
for safe passage. But during the first two weeks
of 2021, it was abundantly clear that K2 was not
ready to welcome any humans near its apex.
Hundred-mile-an-hour winds scoured the
mountain for days and plunged temperatures
well below zero at Base Camp, forcing everyone
to hunker down in their tents.
When the winds let up slightly, Nims’s team
made a quick foray up to Camp II to check on
their gear. “It was a wreckage sight,” Nims wrote
on Instagram. Gear they’d left for the summit
push—sleeping bags, battery-heated insoles for
their boots, spare mittens, and goggles—had
all blown away.
But weather reports predicted the winds
would calm beginning on January 14. Back at
Base Camp, more gear was quickly rounded up,
and another Nepali, Sona Sherpa from Seven
Summits Treks, joined the group to help bring
it up. Meanwhile, Nims and Mingma G. reass-
essed their schedule for reaching the summit.
pretending that we don’t exist,” Mingma G. says. Rather than spend a frigid night at Camp IV, the
“It’s like they think we don’t read their articles.” traditional high camp pitched at roughly 25,000
And then there were the growing tensions, as feet for a summit bid, the Nepalis planned to
Nepali outfitters wanted more of the lucrative reach the top in a single day from Camp III. If
guiding business that for years was dominated everything went well—a huge if—they could
by foreign companies. “We are the local people, summit on the 15th.
and we know more than the foreign guide ser- Later, some climbers at Base Camp would
vices do,” Mingma G. says. He acknowledges accuse the Nepalis of hiding their plans to main-
that there is fierce competition among Nepali tain an all-Nepali summit team, an accusation
outfitters, but “90 percent of foreign climbers, Mingma G. doesn’t shy away from. “When there
they only trust foreign companies.” is a football World Cup, do you ever want your
Claiming the first K2 winter summit would country to lose?” he explained in an interview
serve notice that Nepalis were taking their with ExplorersWeb. “No, never. And the team
rightful place not just as participants but and the coach always keep the strategy secret to
also as leaders in the mountaineering world. make those wishes possible. We were the same
“We wanted to have one for ourselves, for on K2 this time.”

A C L I M B F O R H I STO RY 97
98 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 Finally clear of the
Bottleneck, the
last major obstacle,
members of the team
begin heading up
the summit ridge for
their final push. Just
below the top, the
10 Nepalis would link
arms and hike up the
crowning slope to com-
plete the landmark
climb together.
MINGMA DAVID SHERPA

A C L I M B F O R H I STO RY 99
 By the evening of the 13th, as the Nepalis
reached around 23,000 feet, the secret was
out and several parties started up the moun-
tain after them. The next morning, while those
teams rested at Camp II in a biting wind, the
Nepalis pushed upward to just below Camp III.
“The weather played a big game,” Mingma G.
says. “Below Camp III, there was big wind, and
above Camp III, there was no wind at all.”
On the 15th, Mingma G. and three others set
out to fix ropes above Camp III, toward a section
known as the Shoulder, but as they navigated
their way up the seemingly endless snow slopes,
a maze of crevasses—human-swallowing cracks
in the glaciated terrain—blocked their way. Just After reaching K2’s
short of reaching the traditional spot for Camp IV, summit in winter, the
first all-Nepali team to
they encountered a huge crevasse, forcing them claim an 8,000-meter
to backtrack for hours to find a way around it. climbing record cele-
It was the type of exhausting, morale-breaking brates at Base Camp.
“We did it for Nepal,”
setback that often drives mountaineers to aban- Nims says. The climb-
don an expedition, but Mingma G. and the others ers whose names
pushed on. After finding a section of hardpack—a will be etched into
the mountaineering
snowbridge—across the crevasse field, they fixed record books are
lines all the way to the Shoulder. (top row, from left)
They returned to Camp III and joined the rest Pem Chhiri Sherpa,
Mingma David Sherpa,
of the team for a few hours of fitful rest. “It was Gelje Sherpa, Dawa
a different kind of cold,” Gelje remembers. “It Temba Sherpa, (middle
made you very thirsty. It was hard to digest the row, from left) Dawa
Tenjin Sherpa, Nirmal
food you ate.” “Nims” Purja, Mingma
Sometime after midnight on the 16th, the Gyalje Sherpa, Sona
team began to gear up to leave Camp III. For the Sherpa, Kilu Pemba
Sherpa, and (front)
first time on the mountain, each man donned Mingma Tenzi Sherpa.
an oxygen mask for the summit push, all except SANDRO GROMEN-HAYES

one. Nims had decided to answer his critics by

climbing the Savage Mountain in winter with-
out oxygen, a landmark achievement on top of
a landmark achievement—if he could pull it off.
“I wasn’t fully acclimatized. I had frostnip on At last, the first rays of dawn hit most of the
three fingers,” Nims says. “If you don’t really mountaineers on the Shoulder, warming their
know your ability, your capacity, you could ruin bodies. The wind dropped, and despite the still
it for everyone.” arctic temperatures, it was a perfect day. Above
In small groups, the mountaineers began loomed the final crux of the route, the Bottle-
following the route up the lines Mingma G. neck—a frozen couloir beneath an overhanging
had laboriously fixed to the Shoulder. His hard- wall of ice known as a serac. Beyond the couloir,
fought effort paid off. What took eight hours the the climbers would face easy slopes leading to
previous day now took only three in the dark, but the summit, but if a portion of the serac col-
a vicious wind had kicked up. lapsed while one of them was in the Bottleneck,
Feeling alone and sensing the onset of frost- it likely would be fatal to anyone below it. As if
bite, Mingma G. was on the verge of calling off to remind the climbers of the danger, ominous
his summit attempt. But when no one answered refrigerator-size ice blocks lay scattered in a field
his radio call, he resorted to his last option: beneath the couloir.
kicking his feet into the ice to keep them warm. Mingma Tenzi and Dawa Tenjin led the team
“Amazingly, it worked,” he says. through the treacherous passage, fixing lines

100 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
behind for the others to follow. As they worked planet, the climbers coalesced into a single group.
their way up, small rocks clattered down the Reaching the summit together had been Nims’s
couloir, occasionally striking someone’s helmet. idea, and when all 10 had gathered, they linked
There was little to do but carry on. arms and began trudging upward. Slowly, they
As the group neared the summit, neither found their voices, and as if in a dream, the words
Mingma G. nor Nims was in front. That job of the Nepali national anthem came to them:
had fallen to Mingma Tenzi, a 36-year-old rope- Woven from hundreds of flowers ...
fixing specialist with a cheerful smile and a gold A shawl of unending natural wealth ...
tooth. He led the team for the last few hours A land of knowledge and peace, the plains,
and could have reached the top ahead of the hills, and mountains tall ...
others, but he stopped just below the summit. Unscathed, this beloved land of ours,
One by one, the mountaineers steadily moved O motherland Nepal. j
up to join him. Nims labored heavily in the frozen
empty air, taking two or three breaths for every Author and mountain guide Freddie Wilkinson
wrote about the National Geographic and Rolex
step. As the sun twinkled on the gentle crest of Perpetual Planet Everest Expedition for the
snow draped over the second highest point on the July 2020 issue.

A C L I M B F O R H I STO RY 101
 TEXT AND IMAGES BY ROBERT DASH

Seen under a microscope, the seeds, leaves,

and flowers of food plants invite reflection on ways to help
agriculture respond to climate threats.

GROWING
A GREENER
FEAST

S U N F LOW E R disease. Geneticists are against erosion, con-

studying the plant’s serve water, and reduce
large genome to learn pesticide use.
F LO R E T how it thrives in stress-
ful environments. Seed
700x m a g n i f i c at i o n
collectors are preserv- These images were
ing wild varieties as a made with a scanning
Spiky pollen grains hedge against future electron microscope,
cover one of the many climate stress. Farmers which uses electrons
small flowers that may also sow sunflow- instead of light to capture
make up a sunflower’s ers as part of a mix fine detail. The results
head. Sunflowers of cover crops, which appear in black and
can be resistant to are planted between white. Robert Dash is an
drought, increased main harvests to pro- educator and photogra-
heat, soil salinity, and tect soil quality, guard pher based near Seattle.

102
 C A R ROT Excessive heat causes will also lose nutritional
stress to carrots that value. Researchers are
LEAF ultimately makes the crossbreeding carrots
roots bitter and woody. with wild varieties to
As temperatures and increase the plants’
300x m a g n i f i c at i o n ozone levels rise, carrots resilience to drought.
 B LU E B E R RY Blueberries are increas- gated. Crops are also at
ingly threatened by risk from the spotted-
SEED unpredictable frosts wing drosophila, a fruit
and drought, though fly native to Asia that
researchers think the harms young berries and
300x m a g n i f i c at i o n problems can be miti- prefers warmer weather.
 HOP
LEAF
240x m a g n i f i c at i o n

Hops are crucial for

brewing beer. But in
Washington State’s
Yakima Valley, one
of the world’s largest
hop-growing regions,
reduced snowpack
and shrinking Cascade
Range glaciers gener-
ate less water for hop
farms. Some beer-
makers are looking to
hardier wild varieties
from the Southwest,
and some brewer-
ies are experimenting
with Florida hops.

KALE
ANTHER
240x m a g n i f i c at i o n

The anther is the

pollen-bearing part of
a kale flower. Demand
for kale surged after it
was branded a super-
food in the 2010s, but
crops grown on a large
scale, including kale,
can have dire environ-
mental effects. More
food producers are
embracing methods
described as regener-
ative agriculture—such
as reducing tilling and
planting cover crops—
that combat erosion
and return more
carbon to the soil.

106
 OLIVE grow luscious olives. produced. Spanish
These perennial trees growers are also plant-
BUD are capable of long- ing cover crops to
term carbon sequestra- help surrounding soil
tion; the International capture carbon. But in
80x m a g n i f i c at i o n
Olive Council says they recent years, an inva-
absorb 10 kilograms sive bacterial disease
The flower buds of the of carbon dioxide has taken a toll on
arbequina olive tree per liter of olive oil Mediterranean groves.
 HEMP

LEAF
170x m a g n i f i c at i o n

Industrial hemp is an
incredibly versatile
crop. Hemp seeds are
a rich source of protein
and fiber. Insulation
made from hemp is
touted as a zero-carbon
building material
because it locks in CO2
captured by the plant.
Researchers are explor-
ing other possible
climate-friendly
uses, from fuel to
bioplastics.

108
 L AV E N D E R

BUD
300x m a g n i f i c at i o n

Protective branching
hairs that hold aromatic
oil glands cover a lav-
ender bud. Lavender
is widely used to flavor
foods and add scents
to cosmetics. Perennial
plants, such as lav-
ender, hazelnut, and
Kernza grain, live for
many years; farming
perennials can help
build the soil, feed pol-
linators, and reduce the
need for yearly tilling.
 YOUNG SU DANESE ARE DRAWING INSPIRATION FROM

110
T H E PA S T W H I L E D E M A N D I N G A B E T T E R F U T U R E .

SUDAN’S
BY KRISTIN ROMEY

PHOTOGRAPHS BY
NICHOLE SOBECKI

RECKONING
 PREVIOUS PHOTO
Ahmed Ibrahim Alkhair
(at far left), wrapped
in the first flag of inde-
pendent Sudan, and
Awab Osman Aliabdo,
with the current flag,
At the base of Jabal take in the view from
Barkal, a sacred Jabal Barkal. Sudan’s
mountain and World 2019 revolution ousted
Heritage site, workers its Islamist dictator
dig to uncover one and stirred hopes for
of Africa’s great civ- democratic rule. But
ilizations. Variously after a military coup
known as Kush or last fall, the nation
Nubia, the kingdom now teeters between
was long depicted as the possibility of
a mere appendage of peace and the threat
neighboring Egypt. of more violence.
Schoolchildren visit
the pyramid tombs
of Kushite kings
and queens at the
ancient capital of
Meroë. Under the
dictatorship of Omar al
Bashir, Sudan’s school
curriculum ignored
or suppressed the
country’s non-Muslim
heritage and its roots
in sub-Saharan Africa.
 ON A MONDAY
MORNING IN
LATE OCTOBER
OF LAST YEAR,
SUDAN’S LATEST
REVOLUTION
WAS CRUMBLING.
It had been just two and a half years since the
30-year Islamist dictatorship of Omar al Bashir
fell in April 2019. The nation’s military-civilian
Sovereign Council was steering away from the
legacy of the accused war criminal and three dark Fans of Sudanese
decades of repression, genocide, international hip-hop artists attend
sanctions, and the secession of South Sudan. a music festival in
Khartoum after the
But around noon on October 25, 2021, just revolution loosened
weeks ahead of a planned transition to civilian Islamist restrictions
control, the future of the African nation took on pop culture and
dress, including mod-
another turn. The chair of the Sovereign Council, ern hairstyles now
Lt. Gen. Abdel Fattah al Burhan, dissolved the worn by many young
government and put the civilian prime minister people in Sudan.
under house arrest. The general called it a state
of emergency, but the Sudanese people recog-
The National nized it as a coup and turned out by the hun-
Geographic Society, dreds of thousands to protest in the country’s
committed to illuminat-
ing and protecting the capital, Khartoum, and beyond.
wonder of our world, As befits a 21st-century regime change, it all
supports Explorer and played out in real time on social media, and I
photographer Nichole
Sobecki’s work in Africa. watched raptly from my laptop half a world
ILLUSTRATION BY JOE MCKENDRY away. I had been following Sudan since before
the coup and the revolution, covering the work out, repeated endlessly in a series of cell phone
of National Geographic Society grantees who photos and video clips: A young woman dressed
were excavating archaeological sites in the coun- in traditional white Sudanese dress stood atop
try’s north. My first reporting trip was during the a car, her finger pointing to the dimming sky,
final paranoid months of Bashir’s rule, a time chanting with the crowd: “My grandfather is
marked by food and gas shortages, restricted Taharqa, my grandmother is a kandaka!”
internet access, and multiplying military check- I was stunned. This wasn’t a chant support-
points. Our expedition team had quietly mapped ing a political group or social movement. The
out an escape route to the Egyptian border in protesters were declaring that they were the
case Sudan plunged into chaos. descendants of the ancient Kushite king Taharqa
When the Bashir government toppled in the and the Kushite queens and queen mothers
spring of 2019, the images unspooling across known collectively as kandakas. These royal
Twitter and Facebook were remarkable: A sea ancestors led a great empire that reigned from
of young men and women gathered in peaceful northern Sudan and once stretched from what
defiance of the regime, demanding a different is now Khartoum to the shores of the Mediter-
world for their generation. One scene stood ranean Sea.

SUDAN’S RECKONING 117

 nea n Sea
te rra
di
Me River
Alexandria Nileelta
D
I
LOWER SINA
EGYPT Cairo
Memphis
Kushite capital of Egypt, EA

le
7th century B.C.

Ni
ST
ER
TERN
SHAPING THE FUTURE
N
WES UPPER D
RT
DESE EGYPT ES
R
Arab nationalism and Islamism E
R
T
e
have molded much of Sudan’s Under Kushite rule d
political present, particularly (ca 750–656 B.C.)
in the country’s arid north.
But many Sudanese are Thebes
Major Egyptian Aswan
turning to three millennia and Kushite
of cultural history to build religious center ASWAN
Area of Egyptian HIGH DAM Boundary
a new identity— one that dominance Lake claimed
balances ancient African her- (ca 1550–770 B.C.) Nasser by Sudan
itage with recent centuries LOWER
of Arab influence. NUBIA
T Abu Simbel
Y P A
E G Wadi Halfa
RNUBIANSERT
D E
A
Y A Area of
L I B H UPPER
Egyptian
dominance
A NUBIA

le
Ni
Nuri
S ANCIENT RICHES
Dongola Karima
Jabal Barkal Kushite Atbara
Sudan is home to more El Kurru Heartland Atbara
pyramids than Egypt. Evi- Ed
Damer
dence of settlements, burials, Napata Meroë
and temples flanks the length Early Kushite capital and Major
of the Nile; some sites hold religious center at the base of Kushite
more than one monument. Jabal Barkal, late 7th century B.C. city
N
Archaeological sites A Omdurman
3000 B.C. to A.D. 1400 D Khartoum Blu
Before 3000 B.C.
S U e
N
ile

Cataract POWERFUL PAST Wad Medani

The six cataracts along The Nubian kings of the Kushite
A D the Nile are granite out- Empire, once a vassal of Egypt,
W

C H
hi

croppings that obstructed gradually conquered their for-

te

traffic on the river in eign ruler beginning in 750 B.C., N

il e
antiquity. Some have been reviving Egypt’s art and architec-
submerged behind dams. ture and prevailing in Egypt Rabak
for nearly a century. Major
trading centers in the Kushite
heartland in the Nile Valley
linked African, Mediterranean,
and Near Eastern cultures.
El Fasher
L
DAR
FUR MARR
M T S.
A E NUB
A

H M T S.

A Nyala

S H SU
D AN N
U T
Boundary claimed EI SO
by South Sudan ABY
SCALE VARIES IN THIS PERSPECTIVE. DISTANCE FROM
R AL KHARTOUM TO CAIRO IS APPROXIMATELY 1,000 MILES.
CENTICAN
AFRUBLIC CHRISTINE FELLENZ, MATTHEW W. CHWASTYK, AND PATRICIA HEALY, NGM STAFF
REP SOURCES: ANCIENT NUBIA: AFRICAN KINGDOMS ON THE NILE, MARJORIE FISHER (EDITOR) AND THOMAS JAMES
(MAPS); MICHAEL IZADY, ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD AND VICINITY; PETER LACOVARA, ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
HERITAGE AND ARCHAEOLOGY FUND; GEOFF EMBERLING, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; DEREK WELSBY
 EUROPE
BETWEEN
TWO WORLDS
IA
S A H A R A
S

A
SUDAN

A F R I C A
Arab
League Sudan has long been shaped by outside
member powers that have prized its rich resources
states
and strategic location at the intersection of
the Middle East and sub-Saharan Africa. Since
gaining independence from Britain and Egypt
Sudan is one of 10 African
in 1956, the country has faced two brutal
nations that are members civil wars and the secession of South Sudan.
of the Arab League.

1550- Egypt rules

Nubia, known to
1896- Britain and Egypt
conquer Sudan
S 1069 B.C. ancient Egyptians 1898 and jointly
e as Kush. govern until 1955.
a
Port Sudan 750- Kushite kings
rule Egypt as
1955- First civil war
in the south
656 B.C. pharaohs of the 1972
25th dynasty.
1956 Sudan gains inde-
pendence from
A.D. 350 Kingdom of Kush
collapses.
Egypt and Britain.

543 Emissaries of 1964 Non-Muslim

Africans in south
Roman emperor Sudan revolt
Justinian intro- against Muslim
duce Christianity, government
giving rise to in the north.
a succession of

T REA Christian Nubian

ER I kingdoms.
1983- Second civil war
in south Sudan
Kassala 2005
640 Arab conquest
of Egypt; arrival
A DIVERSE MIX of Islam 1989 Omar al Bashir
takes power in
Arabic spread into the region with a military coup.
the rise of Islam in the seventh
century, but Sudan is still home to 652 Nubian-Christian

2003
forces repel Armed groups in
more than 500 ethnic groups and Arab invaders the western Dar-
over 400 languages. Most ethnic and negotiate a fur region revolt,
Nubians are concentrated in small truce, known as claiming neglect
pockets and primarily speak Arabic; the Baqt, which from Khartoum.
there are efforts to revive the endures 600 years.
Nubian language. The nomadic Beja
speak their ancient language, Beja.
1504 Last Christian 2008 International Crim-
inal Court issues
GRAND Nubian kingdom
ETHIOPIAN an arrest warrant
RENAISSANCE Arabs falls; Muslim sul- for Bashir for war
DAM tans rule Sudan. crimes in Darfur.

1822
EGYPT
2011
Mohammed Ali South Sudan
conquers Sudan becomes an inde-
and rules on pendent nation.
A behalf of the
IOPI Ottoman Empire.
ETH
Nubians 2019 Pro-democracy
Be

a revolution
1881
j

Mahdi Moham-
Others med Ahmed
2021
S U DA N leads revolt and Top generals seize
establishes the power, derailing
Arabs first Sudanese the transition to
nationalist gov- democracy and
ernment, a strict sparking massive
Islamic state. protests.
 The empire of Kush—known also as Nubia— name comes from the Arabic bilād al-sūdān, Shabaka, Shabataka, Taharqa, and T
was indeed once spectacular, but it was now or “land of the Black peoples.”) Since Sudan became Egypt’s 25th dynasty, often
mostly relegated to footnotes in books on achieved independence, it has been ruled by an as the Black pharaohs.
ancient Egyptian history. Even within Sudan, Arabic-speaking political elite. Following his victory over Egypt, Piy
few students growing up under the Bashir Before the 2019 revolution, an Islamist govern- to Jabal Barkal to expand the Amun
regime learned much of distant Kush. So why ment and membership in the Arab League made a scale never seen before, decorati
was the legacy of an ancient kingdom, little it advantageous for Bashir’s regime to present scenes of the Kushite conquest of its fo
known even among archaeologists, much less Kush not as a uniquely African phenomenon but nizers. Today the story of that conque
the average Sudanese, suddenly a rallying cry as a legacy of its powerful modern ally, Egypt, with depictions of Kushite chariotee
in the streets of Khartoum? and, by extension, a chapter in the history book down Egyptian troops—lies buried so
When I returned to Sudan in January 2020 to of the Near East. Kushite sites such as Jabal under the sand. What few scenes su
explore these questions, the postrevolutionary Barkal and El Kurru were marketed as quick, millennia were excavated and docum
capital felt energized. In Khartoum, where just exotic trips for Western tourists visiting the ruins archaeologists in the 1980s. Deeme
a year earlier women could be publicly flogged of Abu Simbel, just over the border in Egypt. ile for regular exposure to the elem

O
for wearing pants, young Sudanese were dancing were mostly reburied—a fitting metap
at music festivals and packing cafés. The city’s NCE THE SPIRITUAL center of the important ancient kingdom that has
thoroughfares and underpasses were embla- Kushite kingdom, Jabal Barkal is an cloaked in obscurity.
zoned with portraits of modern martyrs—some enormous 30-story sandstone mesa Why have so few people heard of
of the estimated 250 protesters killed during that erupts from the Sahara and starters, the earliest historical accou
and since the revolution—as well as murals of looms over the west bank of the Nile Kushites come from the Egyptians,
ancient Kushite kings and gods. near Karima, about 200 miles north to erase the humiliating conquest
Sudan’s unique location at the intersection of Khartoum. Some 2,700 years annals and presented Kush as just on
of Africa and the Middle East, and at the con- ago, King Taharqa inscribed his name atop this troublesome groups that disrupted the
fluence of three major tributaries of the Nile, sacred mountain, covering it in gold as a glitter- That narrative was left unquestio
made it an ideal locus for powerful ancient ing, triumphant rejoinder against his enemies. first European archaeologists to arriv
kingdoms—as well as a territory coveted by Today only traces of Taharqa’s inscription are in the 19th century. Poking around
more recent empires. In the modern era it fell visible to climbers. At the base of the mountain Kushite temples and pyramids, the
under Ottoman-Egyptian rule followed by are the ruins of the Great Temple of Amun, orig- the grand ruins to be mere imitation
British-Egyptian domination until 1956, when inally built by Egyptians who colonized Kush in tian monuments.
the Republic of the Sudan gained its indepen- the 16th century B.C. Over the five centuries that That view of the African kingdom
dence. Today its diverse citizenry includes more Egypt controlled Kush, the Amun temple was forced by the racism of most Western
than 500 ethnic groups speaking over 400 lan- rebuilt and refurbished by a who’s who of New “The native negroid race had never
guages and skews incredibly young: Roughly 40 Kingdom pharaohs: Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, either its trade or any industry worth
percent of the population is under 15. Ramses the Great. Assimilation was the order tion, and owed their cultural position t
Sudan is Africa’s third largest country; it’s of the day, and during that time Kushite elites tian immigrants and to the imported
also the world’s third largest Arab nation. (Its trained in Egyptian schools and temples. civilization,” remarked George Reisner
The remains of the Amun temple that visitors University archaeologist who underto
see today, however, come from a time after the liest scientific excavations of the royal
collapse of the New Kingdom and the retreat temples of Kush in the early 20th cen
of Egyptian power in Kush. By the eighth cen- To Sudanese archaeologist Sami Ela
tury B.C., Jabal Barkal had become the center of ner was as sloppy in method as he was
Napata, the Kushite capital from which a series in interpretation. In 2014, Elamin and
of local rulers consolidated power and turned archaeologists sifted a large mound of
KUSH’S HISTORY WAS the tables on their former colonizers. dirt from Reisner’s dig site at the ba

ERASED BY ANCIENT Piye, father of Taharqa, ascended the Kushite

throne in 750 B.C. He gathered his troops and
Barkal. “We found a lot of objects,” El
“We even found small statues of gods
EGYPTIANS, OVERLOOKED marched north into a weakened Egypt, seizing
temples and conquering towns until he com-
Elamin grew up in a village a few m
the nearby site of El Kurru, where
BY EUROPEAN manded all of Upper and Lower Egypt. With a other Kushite kings and kandakas w

EXPLORERS, AND territory that stretched from what is now Khar-

toum to the Mediterranean, Kush was for a short
When Elamin was a young boy, his g
would take him to El Kurru and expla
IGNORED BY MOST time the largest empire to control the region.
For a little more than a century, its kings Piye,
ruins were “the tombs of our grandfa
sight inspired Elamin to study arch
WESTERN SCHOLARS.
 Tantamani Khartoum and earn a graduate degree in Europe.

UNEARTHING
referred to He returned to Sudan and has been excavating
at Jabal Barkal and elsewhere for several years.
ye returned Now Elamin and a team of Sudanese and

THE KUSHITE
n temple to American archaeologists are searching for the
ing it with homes and workshops of ancient Kushites who
ormer colo- supported this spiritual capital for millennia.

WORLD
est—replete Jabal Barkal has long been a popular destina-
ers running tion for Sudanese who come during holidays to
ome 15 feet climb the mesa and picnic in the broad swaths
urvived the of shade it casts across the desert. In the past,
mented by Elamin says, visitors paid little attention to the
The pyramids of Kush command much attention, but
ed too frag- sprawl of ruins surrounding the magnificent
archaeologists rely on smaller discoveries—from
ments, they rock outcropping. But that’s changing.
figurines to ostrich-shell beads—to reveal the history
phor for an Elamin notes that he’s seen more locals visit-
and legacy of this long-overlooked African kingdom.
s long been ing Jabal Barkal and wandering its ruins. “Now
they ask a lot of questions about the antiquities
Kush? For and the history and the civilization,” he says.
unts of the Elamin and his colleagues are eager to engage
, who tried with their fellow citizens and present this dis-
from their tant chapter of history to a generation hungry
ne of many to learn. It’s an opportunity and responsibility
eir borders. as Sudanese archaeologists, he says, to bring
ned by the citizens together by showing them the efforts
ve in Sudan of even distant generations.

B
crumbling
y declared U I L T S H O R T L Y before the coun-
ns of Egyp- try gained independence in 1956
and inaugurated 15 years later, the
m was rein- Sudan National Museum is a cav-
n scholars. ernous, poorly lit space with no
developed climate control to protect artifacts
hy of men- from the relentless heat and dust
to the Egyp- of Khartoum. Most of the objects are housed
d Egyptian in old-fashioned wood-and-glass display cases
r, a Harvard alongside yellowing, typewritten labels.
ook the ear- But the museum is chock-full of treasures. A
l tombs and larger-than-life granite statue of Taharqa from
ntury. Jabal Barkal, broad-shouldered and expression-
amin, Reis- less, commands the museum’s entrance, and
s misguided massive statues of the Kushite rulers flank its
d a team of ground-floor gallery.
f excavated Tucked around the corner from Taharqa is
ase of Jabal one of the country’s most heralded artifacts:
lamin says. a glowering bronze head of Caesar Augustus.
s.” It’s believed to have been the war trophy of a
miles from one-eyed Kushite queen named Amanirenas,
e Piye and who battled the Romans in Egypt around 25 B.C.
ere buried. The museum label neglects to note, however,
randfather that the storied artifact is a copy. The original
ain that the was whisked off by colonial forces shortly after
athers.” The its discovery in 1910 and now resides in the
haeology in British Museum.

SUDAN’S RECKONING 121

 2

11
10
3

5 6 14

15
9

1. (Overleaf) Shabtis— 2. Amputated leg 4. Iron arrowheads, 6. Ceramic bowl, 8. Spindles for 10. Quartzite statue of 12. Archers’
statuettes crafted to bones of adult male, 7th-4th centuries B.C. 6th-4th centuries B.C. manufacturing textiles, Egyptian pharaoh Amen- rings, 6th-4
perform menial tasks in 7th-4th centuries B.C. 6th-4th centuries B.C. hotep II, 15th century B.C. centuries B.
the afterlife—from burial 5. Christian inscription 7. Arrowhead,
of Kushite king Nastasen, 3. Inscribed ceramic jar, in Greek, 10th-13th 6th-4th centuries B.C. 9. Gold leaf from tomb of 11. Storage jar, 7th cen- 13. Necklac
ca 315 B.C. 6th-4th centuries B.C. centuries A.D. King Nastasen, ca 215 B.C. tury B.C.-4th century A.D. 6th-4th cen
 18

12 17

13

19 20

21

23

16 22

’ thumb 14. Burial finds, including 16. Beads from Kushite 18. Ostrich-shell beads, 20. Decorated drinking 22. Fine redware bowl,
4th beads and animal teeth, burial, 4th century 2nd-7th century A.D. cup, 4th century B.C.-4th ca 1st-4th centuries A.D.
.C. 7th-4th centuries B.C. B.C.-4th century A.D. century A.D.
19. Prehistoric 23. Bronze alloy falcon from
e, 15. Ceramic plate, 17. Ceramic jar, stone hand axes, 21. Skull from Kushite burial, tomb of King Nastasen,
nturies B.C. 6th-4th centuries B.C. 6th-4th centuries B.C. 9000-3000 B.C. 4th century B.C.-4th century A.D. ca 315 B.C.

SUDAN’S RECKONING 125

RIGHT

Badeaa Osman Mustafa

and her granddaughter,
Menna Abdulhamid,
visit the remains of
an Egyptian temple
at the Sudan National
Museum, in Khartoum.
Around 40 percent
of Sudan’s population
is under 15, and many
young people are
rediscovering their
history as scholars try
to wrest the legacy of
Kush from the shadow
of ancient Egypt.

BELOW
Adherents of Sufism,
a mystical dimension
of Islam, perform the
dhikr, a ritual that can
involve drumming and
dance, at the tomb of
Sheikh Hamed al Nil,
in Omdurman. Sudan
is home to one of the
world’s largest Sufi
communities. Its lead-
ers wield powerful
influence, and some
Sufi orders supported
the popular uprising
that toppled Bashir.

126 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 know their history, they can protect it.”
Then I pose a delicate question: How do ethnic
groups living in areas of Sudan that never were
part of the Kushite Empire—tribes from the
Nuba mountains or Darfur, for example—react
when asked to rally around an ancient history
they don’t feel is theirs? Bashir’s regime was
notorious for exploiting ethnic and religious
differences to prevent the richly diverse coun-
try from uniting against the Arabized political
elite in Khartoum. Jahin furrows his brow and
pauses. “This is a good point. We need a lot of
work, really.”
Like many young Sudanese, Jahin rejects the
idea that “Arab” is a Sudanese identity. “If some-
one says, ‘My roots come from Saudi Arabia,’ or
something like that, I don’t believe it,” he says
firmly. “I believe that our roots are the same or
close together … In general, we are Sudanese.
That’s enough.”

T
H E I M A G E O F T H E R E VO L U T I O N A RY
kandaka, white-robed among the
protesters, raising her finger in the
sky as she invokes Kushite kings
and queens, has been memorialized
in street art across Khartoum and
around the globe. But when I meet
Alaa Salah during my second trip to Sudan in
early 2020, she’s unrecognizable in a burgundy
headscarf and dark clothes, sitting across from
me at a crowded open-air café on the bank of the
Blue Nile in the fading evening light.
At 23, Salah became a face of the Sudanese rev-
Outside the museum I meet Nazar Jahin, a olution, a role that would propel her from engi-
tour guide and member of Artina (“Our Art”), neering student to international figure invited
a student group organized during the 2019 pro- to speak before the UN Security Council on the
tests to support Sudan’s struggling cultural insti- role of women in the new Sudan. Through an
tutions. “The last government, really, they don’t interpreter, Salah tells me that growing up she
care about history,” Jahin tells me. Much of that was taught little in school about the history of
disinterest was the result of the former govern- ancient Kush and that she had to discover it on
ment’s hard-line interpretation of Islam. “We had her own. It was only a few years earlier that she
a minister of tourism who said that statues were traveled to see the fabled pyramids at Meroë. She
forbidden,” Jahin recalls, shaking his head. was astonished by what she saw: “We have a lot
But there are bright spots on the horizon, he of pyramids, even more than Egypt!”
says. The Italian Embassy and UNESCO pledged When the protesters on the streets of Khar-
funds in 2018 to refurbish the museum (a proj- toum began the chant “My grandfather is
ect now delayed by the pandemic), and since Taharqa, my grandmother is a kandaka,” Salah
the revolution more Sudanese are visiting the explains, they were expressing their pride in the
museum and sites like Jabal Barkal and the defiance and bravery of the ancient kings and
ancient capital of Meroë. queens. It made them feel as if they too belonged
“This is most important,” Jahin says. “Suda- to this ancient civilization of strong and coura-
nese have to know their history first. If they geous leaders, particularly for the women who

SUDAN’S RECKONING 127

The south flank of Jabal
Barkal looms above an
Islamic cemetery. Arab
Muslim elites have long
monopolized power in
Sudan, but marginal-
ized groups hope that
a new generation of
Sudanese will forge a
more inclusive future.
RIGHT

A Sudanese family
from Karima tours the
nearby tombs of El
Kurru, where some of
the earliest Kushite
leaders were buried in
the eighth century B.C.

BELOW

Boxing trainer Aya

Khalid playfully spars
with her seven-year-
old daughter, Taliya
Hashim, at their home
in Khartoum. Sudanese
women played a pivotal
role in the 2019 revo-
lution, but many fear
their presence will be
minimized in future
governments, whether
civilian or military.

130 N AT I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C
 O
in Khartoum,
N M Y L A S T F R I D AY
I cross the White Nile to the city
of Omdurman, where the tomb of
19th-century Sufi sheikh Hamed al
Nil lies in a cemetery bounded by
busy streets. Some 70 percent of
Sudanese consider themselves fol-
lowers of Sufism, a mystical expression of Islam.
The country’s Sufi orders often play an influen-
tial role in internal politics, and the Sufis who
marched from Omdurman to army headquarters
to join the 2019 protests helped oust the regime.
Each Friday at sundown, hundreds of follow-
ers of the Qadiriyya order gather at the cemetery
to perform the dhikr, a ritual that often involves
chanting and dance. As men in green and red
robes slowly slap their tambours in rhythm, the
crowd looks on and sways. The drumming picks
up pace, and the dancing and chanting begin. La
ilaha illa Allah. “There is no God but God,” the
crowd repeats, as clouds of frankincense and
dust rise in the air. The dhikr ends with a kinetic,
exultant release, and people disperse, some fol-
lowing the call to prayer to the mosque, others
wending their way through the cemetery.
Several graves are fresh and decorated in the
colors of the Sudanese flag. These belong to
some of the protesters killed during the revolu-
tion, students who announced in the streets that
they too were kings and kandakas, inheritors of
the complex legacy of a land where some of the
earliest empires intersected.
Watching students pay their respects at one of
the graves, I was struck by how fragile the new
Sudan felt, like a precious ancient vessel being
carefully excavated from the earth. Now the
coup has injected even more uncertainty into
played a pivotal role in the protests. “Whenever a nation and generation hungry for democracy
people see a young woman in the street fight- and stability.
ing for Sudan, going into the streets for Sudan, Most of the grand palaces and temples of
that means she’s brave, she’s very defiant,” she Kush disappeared long ago, looted for parts
explains. “She’s strong and a warrior, just like and swallowed by sand. But many monuments
the kandakas.” to the dead remain: the pyramids of kings and
In the nearly three years since the fall of Bashir, kandakas standing sentinel in the desert, the
however, the role of women has been increasingly tombs of sheikhs, and the tombstones of stu-
shunted aside. That was Salah’s main concern as dent protesters crowding urban cemeteries.
we spoke, to ensure that Sudan’s modern kanda- These monuments persist as regimes collapse
kas are safe and would have proper representa- and rebuild, telling anyone willing to listen: We
tion in any transitional government. Since our fought for this. We were once here too. j
interview, the coup—which, with the threat of
a return to a repressive regime, feels more like a Kristin Romey is the archaeology editor for
National Geographic. Photographer Nichole
counterrevolution—has made the situation for Sobecki covered cheetah trafficking for the
Sudanese women even more perilous. September 2021 issue.

SUDAN’S RECKONING 131

From the peak of Jabal
Barkal, young Sudanese
survey the capital of
Kushite ancestors as
they chart an uncer-
tain future. Can Sudan’s
ancient history become
a unifying force in a
land often divided
along racial and ethnic
lines? Change is in the
air, but no one knows if
it is real and enduring.
 INSTAGRAM
KARINE AIGNER
FROM OUR PHOTOGRAPHERS

WHO “Would you want to be that tiger?” asks Aigner. While

A Washington, D.C.–based in India in 2018, she witnessed a scene that plays
photographer focused on out in national parks around the world: wildlife tour
animals and their relation-
ships to humans
guides, sometimes driven by big tips, jockeying to
WHERE
get their clients the best views. This results in racing
Ranthambore National Park safari trucks that startle—and occasionally harm—
in northern India tigers and other species. People who don’t adhere to
WHAT tourism rules contribute to the problem. But so do
A Canon EOS-1D X with a those—herself included, says Aigner—who pursue
100-400mm lens
wild animal photography.
National Geographic is the most popular brand on Instagram, with more than 258 million followers.
This page showcases images from our accounts: @natgeo, @natgeotravel, @natgeointhefield,
@natgeoadventure, @natgeoyourshot.

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