GINGER: FUNCTIONAL HERB

INTRODUCTION
Ginger (Zingiberofficinale Roscoe)belongs to the familyZingiberaceae(Wagner,
1980) and genus Zingiber. Other names of ginger are African ginger, Black ginger,
Cochin ginger, GanJiang,Gegibre, Ingwer, Jamaican ginger, and Race ginger.
Turmeric, cardamom, and galangal are other notable members of the ginger
family. The English botanist William Roscoe (1753-1831) gave the plant the name
Zingiber, derived from a Sanskrit word singabera which means horn-shaped due
to the protrusions on the rhizome (Katzer, 1999). The genus includes about 85
species of aromatic herbs from East Asia and tropical Australia.Ginger is an erect
perennial plant growing from one to three feet in height. The stem sticks up
about 12 inches above ground and is surrounded by the sheathing bases of the
two-ranked leaves. It produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom
into yellow flowers. Ginger grows horizontally, laterally flattened with branching
pieces,a configuration known as rhizome. The whole rhizome has a firm, striated
texture. It is 5 to 15cm long, 1.5to 6cm wide, 2cm thick and depending on the
variety can be yellow, white, or red in color.Warm, humid climate is the most
ideal for ginger cultivation. It grows best in rich soil and shady places. Ginger can
be grown both under rain fed and irrigated conditions. It is usually cultivated
vegetatively, meaning pieces of rhizome are planted in the soil and each sprouts
to form a new plant. Modern micropropagation is also being used where new
plants are cloned from cells taken from a single plant. The cloned offspring are
then planted out in a field. Carefully preserved seed rhizomes are cut into small
pieces of 2.5-5.0 cm length weighing 20-25 g, each having one or two good buds.
The seed rate varies from region to region and depends upon the adopted
method of cultivation. Worldwide, over 25 varieties of ginger are grown. Zingiber,
ISR- Varada 2, Suprabha, Suruchi, Suravi,Himagiri, IISR Mahima, IISR Rejatha, Rio-
de-Janerio, Nadia,and China are some of the important cultivars grown across the
world (Shasikaran et al, 2008). Ginger is also grown as a decorative plant.
Patterned foliage, deliciously perfumed flowers in a rainbow palette of colors and
surprising seedpods make the ginger plant an interesting and noteworthy

i
ornamental plant.Cautleya, Globba, Roscoea, Kaempferia, and Siphonochilusare
grown for ornamental and medicinal purpose but not for spice (Branney, 2005,
Byers, 1999).Soft root, bacterial wilt, leaf spot, nematode pests, shoot borer, and
rhizome scale are some common diseases that can infest ginger. The pests affect
both the ginger plant and rhizomes. When the leaves turn yellowand start
withering gradually, it indicates that crop is ready to harvest. Depending on the
variety and their intended use it takes about 8 to 9 months after planting.

Fresh ginger might be harvested about 5 months after planting. Preserved ginger
are usually dug up 5 to 7 months after planting, before they are fully mature but
while they are still tender and mild. Dried ginger, mature rhizomes with a full
aroma, flavour, and pungency, are harvested 8 to 9 months after planting. The
essential oil content within rhizomes increases with age, so plants used for this
might be harvested even later. Harvesting is done either by hand with a spade or
digging fork or by mechanical diggers. The clumps are lifted carefully and the
rhizomes are separated from the dried up leaves, roots and adhering soil. They
are immediately scalded, or washed and scraped, to prevent sprouting. Mature
ginger roots are fibrous and nearly dry. For seed material, bold and healthy
rhizomes from disease free plants are selected immediately after harvesting and
stored properly in pits under shade. Depending on the variety and location where
the crop is being grown the yield of dry ginger is 19-25% of fresh ginger
(Shasikaran et al, 2008). Ginger is grown throughout South Eastern Asia, China
and in parts of Japan, Austria, Latin America, Jamaica and Africa. India is the top
producer of Ginger, followed by China, Indonesia, Nepal and Thailand, but the
most expensive and high quality varieties come from Jamaica, Australia, and
South India (Gilani and Gayur, 2005, Ali and Gilani, 2007).

BACK GROUND OF STUDY

HISTORY, POPULAR AND TRADITIONAL USES

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Ginger is native to Southeastern Asia (Wagner, 1980). It is mentioned in ancient
Chinese, Indian, and Middle Eastern periodicals and has long been valued for its
aromatic, culinary, and medicinal properties (Langner, 1998). Confucius wrote
about ginger in his Analects and the Greek physician Dioscorides listed ginger as
an antidote to poisoning, as a digestive, and as being warming to the stomach in
De MateriaMedica (Langner, 1998). Many religious holy books—the Quran, the
Talmud, the Bible, Ayurveda, CharakSushutra, Vagbhatta and CharakDutta—have
mentioned ginger (Gajnavi, 1996, Hrdayam of Srimadvagbhat, 1999). The
medicinal properties ofginger were known in ninth century in Germany and
France and in tenth century in England. Records suggest that ginger was highly
valued as an article of trade during the 13th and 14th century in England; one
pound of ginger had the same worth as that of sheep. Ginger migrated westward
to Europe by Greek and Roman times. History shows that ancient Romans
imported ginger from China almost two thousand years ago. By the middleAges it
was a very popular spice in the Mediterranean region and had spread throughout
other countries. Medieval writing from many European countries indicates that
ginger was a standard ingredient in recipes for the kitchen and the apothecary
(Widmaier, 1986). In an attempt to make it more available, Spanish explorers
introduced ginger to the West Indies, Mexico,and South America in the 16th
century and these areas began exporting this precious herb back to Europe.

Ginger plants grown in pots were carried abroad onlong sea voyages to prevent
scurvy. The Eclectic physicians of the 19th century relied on ginger to induce
sweating, improve the appetite, and curb nausea and as a topical counterirritant.
Ginger is an integral part of Ayurveda, the traditional medicine of India, and is
known as sunthi in Ayurveda (Hrdayam of Srimadvagbhatt, 1999). It was used to
block excessive clotting of blood in arteries and veins, to reduce cholesterol, and
to fight against arthritis. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) ginger is
considered a pungent, dry, warming herb to be used for ailments triggered by
cold and damp weather. It was also used as a digestive aid and antinausea
remedy and to treat bleeding disorders, rheumatism, baldness, toothache,
snakebite, and respiratory conditions. The Romans added ginger to the oil in
lamps to render an aroma in the air. Meanwhile in England ginger was added to

iii
spice up beer. The Greeks wrapped ginger in bread and ate it after meals as a
digestive aid. Subsequently, ginger was incorporated directly into bread and
confectionaries such as gingerbread. As ginger resembles fingers, pregnant
women in China are advised to avoid ginger during pregnancy, as they might give
birth to babies with more than five fingers. But after birth a woman may take it
for strength, to clean out all poison from her body, and to protect the newborn
(Wong, 2001). In Malaysia and Indonesia, ginger soup is given to new mothers for
30 days after their delivery to help them sweat out impurities. In Arabian
medicine, ginger is considered an aphrodisiac. Some Africans believe that eating
ginger regularly will help repel mosquitoes and women of central Africa make
belts of ginger roots to attract the attention of their husbands. Ginger flowers are
traditionally worn by Hawaiian dancers (Gilani, 2005).

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
Ginger is consumed worldwide as spice, flavoring agent, garnish, medicine, and
food preservative and is used either fresh, in a fresh paste, or dry, in a dry
powder. Fresh ginger can be substituted for dried ground ginger, although the
flavors of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat different. Powdered dry ginger is
typically used as a flavoring for recipes such as gingerbread, cookies, crackers and
cakes, ginger ale, and beer. The fragrance of ginger is penetrating and aromatic. It
tastes spicy, hot, and biting and is an integral part of almost all the cuisines of the
world. The pungent, spicy sweetness of ginger adds a unique taste to many
recipes ranging from sweet to savory. In the subcontinents (India and Pakistan)
ginger is called Adrak(localname) and is an essential ingredient of many dishes.

Fresh ginger is one of the main spices used for making pulse, vegetablecurries and
meat preparations. Fresh as well as dried ginger is used to spice tea and coffee,
especially in winter. In Burma, it is consumed as a salad dish called Gyinthot,
which consists of shredded ginger preserved in oil, and a variety of nuts and
seeds. In Indonesia, a beverage called wedangjahe is made from ginger and palm
sugar. In the Philippines, it is brewed into a tea called salabat. In Vietnam, the

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fresh finely chopped leaves can also be added to shrimp-andyam soup
(canhkhoaimỡ) as a top garnish and spice to add a much subtler flavor of ginger
than the chopped root. In China, sliced or whole ginger is often paired with savory
dishes such as fish, and chopped ginger root is commonly paired with meat, when
it is cooked. In Japan, ginger is pickled to make BeniShoga and gari or grated and
used raw on tofu or noodles. It is also used to make candy called Shoga no
satozuke. In the traditional KoreanKimchi, ginger is finely minced and added to
the ingredients of the spicy paste just before the fermenting process (Kim et al,
2005).In the Caribbean, ginger is a popular spice for cooking and making drinks
such as sorrel, a seasonal drink made during the Christmas season. Jamaicans
make ginger beer both as a carbonated beverage and also fresh in their homes.
Ginger tea is often made from fresh ginger, as well as the famous regional
specialty Jamaican ginger cake.In Arabic, ginger is called Zanjabil, and in some
parts of the Middle East, ginger powder is used as a spice for coffee and for milk.
In the Ivory Coast, ginger is ground and mixed with orange, pineapple, and lemon
to produce a juice called Nyamanku. Yemenite Jews add ginger powder in Hawaij,
a spice mixture used mostly for soups and coffee (Roden, 1996).

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF GINGER

Chemical Composition

Ginger contains approximately 50% carbohydrates, 9% protein and free amino

acids, 6-8 % fatty acids and triglycerides, 3-6% ash, and 3-6% crude fiber (on dry
matter basis) depending on variety, geography, and climatic conditions (Leung,
1984, Tang, 1992). Some African ginger varieties contain 5.98 and3.72g /100
proteins and fat (Shrin Adel, 2010). Soluble and insoluble fibers are also found in
ginger. Ginger is a good source of essential micronutrients such as potassium,
magnesium, copper, manganese and silicon. Potassium and manganese help to
build resistance to disease andprotect the lining of heart, blood vessels and
urinary passages. Silicon promotes healthy skin, hair, teeth, and nails and helps to

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assimilate calcium. Small amount of vitamins A, E and some amounts of B-
vitamins and Vitamin C are also found in ginger rhizome (Adel and Prakash, 2010).

Phytochemical Composition

Ginger is a complex substance consisting of more than 60 compounds (Srivastava

et al, 2000). The ginger rhizome contains an essential oil and resin known
collectively as oleoresin. The composition of the essential oil varies according to
the geographical origin, but the chief constituentsaresesquiterpene
hydrocarbons, which are responsible for the characteristic aroma. Gingerole is the
main phenolic compond and once degraded gives shogaols, zingerone, and
paradol. Zingerone and shogaols are found in small amounts in fresh ginger and in
larger amounts in dried or extracted products. Zingerone is also produced from
gingerols during this process; this compound is less pungent and has a spicy-
sweet aroma. Smaller amounts of other sesquiterpenoidsbisabolene, geranyl
acetate, terpeneol, terpanes, geraniol, alpha pinene, limonene, zigerbene,
batabeasabolene, alpha paradol, farnesene, and monoterpenoid fraction (β-
phelladrene, cineol, and citral) have also been identified. Ginger contains a special
group of compounds called diasyleheptanoids, which includesgingerenone. A very
small amount of curcumin is also found in ginger. In addition to that it also
contains small amounts of alkaloids, tannins, carotenoids, saponins, flavonoids,
steroids, and cardinolides (Shrin Adel, 2010).The composition of fresh ginger oil
contains more oxygenated compounds compared to dry ginger oil, making it more
potent than dry ginger oil. There are more hydrocarbon compounds in dry ginger
oil compared to fresh ginger oil. Monoterpene compounds are more active than
sesquiterpene compounds. Dry ginger oil also has higher content of
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and they are reported to have less activity compared
to oxygenated compounds (Srivastava, et al, 2000 and Sinha, et al, 1990,
Sasidharan and Menon, 2010). Ginger oil (GEO) has beencharacterized to have a
high content of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, including β-sesquiphellandrene
(27.16%), caryophyllene (15.29%), zingiberene (13.97%), α-farnesene (10.52%)
and ar-curcumin (6.62%) (ElBaroty et al, 2010).

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ABSTRACT
HEALTHBENEFITS
Ginger is a potential herb used worldwide for its immense
phytotherapeutic properties. In Ayurveda it is known as
Mahaaushdiwhich means use of this herb improves body
functions and helps to eliminates toxins from the body
(Nadkarni, 1976). Modern scientific research has revealed that
ginger possesses numerous therapeutic properties including
antibiotic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects, an ability to
inhibit the formation of inflammatory compounds, and direct
anti-inflammatory effects. Besides this, ginger is also effective
against some kinds of cancers, stimulatesblood circulation,
controls blood pressure and hypertension, helps in lowering
cholesterol, and is associated with combating heart problems.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Digestive System
1.1. Gastrointestinal Relief Historically, ginger has a long
tradition of efficacy in alleviating symptoms of

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gastrointestinal disorders. In herbal medicine, ginger is
regarded as an excellent carminative (a substance which
promotes the elimination of intestinal gases) and
intestinal spasmolytic (a substance which relaxes and
soothes the intestinal tract). It reduces colon spasms and
cramps, is excellent for nausea, vomiting, and motion
sickness, stimulates production of digestive juices, helps
bowel disorders, and acts as a colon cleanser. Ginger has
a sialagogue action, stimulating the production of saliva,
which makes swallowing easier (Bhagyalakshmi and
Singh, 1988). In addition to that, it acts as an appetizer
and stomachic. The main stomachic constituents present
in ginger are zinzibereine and gingeirol.
A famous Ayurvedic drug trikatu, which is used against
digestive disorders, contains ginger as the main
constituent (Malhotra et al, 2003). Ginger acts as a
purgative. Fresh ginger helps to remove constipation
while dry ginger powder is a fecal astringent, meaning it
dries up the watery portion of the feces and causes
constipation (Malhotra et al, 2003).
Dyspepsia

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Ginger stimulates the flow of saliva, bile, and gastric
secretions and therefore is traditionally used to stimulate
appetite, reduce flatulence, colic,and gastrointestinal
spasms, and generally act as a digestive aid (Blumenthal
et al, 2000). Gingerols inhibit the growth of Helicobacter
pylori associated with dyspepsia, peptic ulcer disease,
and the development of gastric and colon cancer
(Mahady et al, 2005).

Anti-ulcerogenic
Frequent use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAID) like Aspirin, Indomethacin, and Reserpine may
cause gastric ulcer and hypothermic restraint stress.
Many studies have proven ginger is a cytoprotective and
anti-ulcerogenic agent. The main anti-ulcerogenic
constituents present in ginger are 6 gingesulfonic acid, 6
gingerol,6 shogoal,beta-sesquiphellandrene,beta-
bisabolene,gingesulfonicacid,curcumene, and 6
gingglycoprotein A, B and C(Yamahara et al, 1988). Of the
antiulcerogenic constituents, 6 gingesulfonicacid is the
most potent. These constituents protect gastric mucosa
against alcohol, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs,and hydrochloric acid (Yamahara et al, 1992).In

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mice, zingiberene and gingerol significantly reduced
gastric ulceration xperimentally induced by ethanol and
hydrochloric acid (Yamahara et al, 1988).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

1. What are the side effects of ginger tea?
2. What to know about ginger for diarrhea?
3. How ginger can help with a cold?
4. Is drinking ginger water good for health?
5. What are the benefits of drinking ginger tea?

Theoretical Framework
Respiratory System
Ginger can be used for throat infections and to relieve
congestion in sinusitis. It reduces fever in colds and flu and
suppresses a dry, irritating cough in laryngitis by increasing
human bronchial smooth muscle cell (BSMC) migration and
proliferation and reversing phthalate ester-mediated airway
remodeling. Moreover, (6)-shogaol, (6)-gingerol, (8)-gingerol,

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and (10)-gingerol, which are major bioactive compounds
present in ginger, suppress phthalate ester-mediated airway
remodeling, which shows that ginger is capable of preventing
phthalate ester-associated asthma.
Circulatory System
Ginger stimulates circulation, may help prevent heart attacks,
has natural blood thinning properties, lowers blood cholesterol
levels, cleanses and stimulates blood supply, prevents internal
blood clots, may prevent TIA’s (mini strokes), acts
therapeuticallyto reduce hypertension, and preventsoxidation
of LDL which contributes to cholesterol deposits on artery
walls. Ginger has a tonic effect on the heart, and may lower
blood pressure by estricting blood flow in peripheral areas of
the body. Further studies show that ginger can lower
cholesterol levels by reducing cholesterol absorption in the
blood and liver.
Cardiovascular Effect
Fresh ginger exhibits hypotensive properties by endothelium
dependent (cholinergic) and endothelium-independent (CCB)
vasodilator pathways. Fresh ginger extract lowers blood
pressure through cholinergic and calcium blocking (CCB)
properties and posseses a combination of cardio-suppressant
and cardio-stimulant action in experimental animals.
Cholinergic compounds are known to cause a fall in blood

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pressure by activation of muscarinic receptors located on the
epithelium of blood vessels (Furchgott and Zawdski, 1980).
Furthermore, the pungent components of ginger, namely 6-
gingerole, 8-gingerole, 10-gingerole and 6-shogoal, exhibit a
vasodilator effect through a combination of a nitric oxide
releasing and calcium antagonist mechanism. Ginger also
contains saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids, amino
acids/peptides, secondary amines, and alkaloids. These
compounds demonstrate hypotensive and vasodilator
properties and could be the causative agents in thereduction in
blood pressure (Gilani et al, 1994, Ajay et al, 2003).
AntithromboiticActivity
Ginger has been shown to exhibit antithrombotic activity
because it inhibits platelet aggregation and thromboxane –B2
(TXB2) production in vitro. Besides this, gingerdione has been
shown to inhibit the production of 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic
acid (5-HETE) and prostaglandins-F2(PGF2) from arachidonic
acid.Shogoal appeared to be a preferential inhibitor of 5-HETE
formation, whilegingerol and dehydroparadol favored the
inhibition of cyclooxygenase (Nurtjahja-Tjendraputra et al,
2003, Thomson et al, 2002).
Nervous System
Alzheimer’sDisease 6-Gingerol attenuates amyloid-induced
oxidative cell death via fortifying cellular antioxidant defense

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systems. Amyloid is involved in the formation of senile plaques
(Tiraboschet al, 2004, Ohnishi, and Takano, 2004), the typical
neuropathological marker for Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and has
been reported to cause apoptosis in neurons via oxidative
and/or nitrosative stress.
6-Gingerol pretreatment can protect cytotoxicity and apoptotic
cell death such as DNA fragmentation, disruption of
mitochondrial membrane potential, elevated Bax/Bcl-2 ratio,
and activation of caspase-3. 6-Gingerol isalso known to
suppress intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen and/or
nitrogen species and to restore depleted endogenous
antioxidant glutathione levels. In addition, 6-gingerol treatment
up-regulates the mRNA and protein expression of antioxidant
enzymes such as glutamylcysteine ligase (GCL) and heme
oxygenase-1 (HO-1), the rate limiting enzymes in glutathione
biosynthesis and heme degradation, respectively.Therefore, 6-
gingerol exhibits preventive and/or therapeutic potential for
the management of AD via augmentation of antioxidant
capacity (Lee et al, 2011).
Anti-InflammatoryProperties
Ginger is useful in treating inflammation, pain, and rheumatism.
The anti-inflammatory properties of ginger have been known
and valued for centuries (Mascolo et al, 1989, Young, et al,
2005). It is believed that consuming ginger regularly can reduce

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pain level and increase mobility in osteoarthritis or rheumatoid
arthritis patients. Although no one single constituent seems to
be responsible for the anti-inflammatory effects of
ginger,shogaol has exhibited the most potent antioxidant and
antiinflammatory properties which can be attributed to the
presence of its alpha,beta-unsaturated ketone moiety. The
carbon chain length has also played a significant role in making
10-gingerol the most potent among all the gingerols. An
acetone extract containing gingerols, shogaols, and minor
compounds like gingerenone A, [6]-gingerdiol,
hexahydrocurcumin, and zingerone have been shown
synergistically to produce dose-dependent antiinflammatory
effects (Young et al, 2005).

Ginger can modulate the biochemical pathways of

prostaglandin synthesis through inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1
and cyclooxygenase-2 andleukotriene biosynthesis through
inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase. Thus, it functions as a dual
inhibitor of eicosanoid biosynthesis (Grzanna, et al, 2005). This
pharmacological property distinguishes ginger from
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. The dual inhibitors of
cyclooxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase may have a better
therapeutic profile and have fewer side effects than non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. One of the features of

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inflammation is increased oxygenation of arachidonic acid
which is metabolized by two enzymic pathways—the
cyclooxygenase (CO) and the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO)—leading to
the production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes respectively.
Amongst the CO products, PGE2, and amongst the
5-LO products, LTB4, are considered important mediators of
inflammation. Ginger extract and Alpinagalanga inhibits the
induction of several genes involved in the inflammatory
response (Grazanna, et al, 2005). These include genes encoding
cytokines, chemokines, and the inducible enzyme
cyclooxygenase-2. In one experiment Srivastava and Mustafa
(1992) utilizedpowdered ginger to treat 56 patients of different
musculoskeletal disorders (28 with rheumatoid arthritis, 18
with osteoarthritis, and 10 with muscular discomfort) against
their afflictions. Amongst the arthritis patients more than three-
quarters experienced to varying degreesof relief in pain and
swelling. All the patients with muscular discomfort experienced
relief in pain. None of the patients reported adverse effects
during the period of ginger consumption which ranged from 3
months to 2.5 years.

The investigators suggested that at least one of the

mechanisms by which ginger shows its ameliorative effects
could be related to inhibition of prostaglandin and leukotriene

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biosynthesis (i.e. it works as a dual inhibitor of eicosanoid
biosynthesis).Another mechanism used by ginger compounds
to inhibit inflammation is attenuation of NF-kappaB-mediated
iNOS gene expression. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), a
proinflammatory enzyme responsible for the generation of
nitric oxide (NO), has been implicated in the pathogenesis of
inflammatory diseases. Gingerols have anti-inflammatory
properties in vitro. The active phenolic constituent, 6-gingerol,
can inhibit the production of nitric oxide, a highly reactive
nitrogen molecule that quickly forms a very damaging free
radical called peroxynitrite. The resulting peroxinitrites are
responsible for inflammation, pain, and associated diseases. 6-
gingerolincreases blood supply to the damaged areas and
speeds up the healing and detoxification process. Udea et al,
(2010) investigated the ability of ginger extract to induce an
immune response in RAW-264 cells after repeated oral
administration to mice. They revealed that ginger extract
augmented the serum corticosterone level and gradually
induced tolerance and antiinflammatory activity in mice.
Several oral administrations of squeezed ginger extract
augment the immune resistance, but the repeated
administration led to an anti-inflammatory effect. The effect of
ginger on immune response can be reversed by oral
administration period and by some host factors.It has been
identified that serum corticosterone levelssignificantly

xvi
increased after oral administration of ginger extract over 1-5
days. This augmentation may have been the cause of TNF-α
inhibition which was observed after repeated administration of
ginger extract. Corticosterone has been reported to decrease
the cytokine production and further the immune response. The
phosphoestrase-4 inhibitor has been reported to decrease TNF-
α production and has shown dramatic anti-inflammatory
efficacy that was dependent on release of corticosterone from
adrenal glands (Pethipher et al, 1996).

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Table 1. Active Chemical Constituents of ginger

Phenols Volatile oils

Sesquiterpenes Others

Gingerols and shogoals bisapolene, 6-dehydrogingerdione,

zingiberene, galanolactone,
gingesulfonic
zingiberol,
acid, zingerone, geraniol,
sesquiphellandrene, neral,

monoacyldigalactosylglycerols

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 curcurmene ,

gingerglycolipids

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Ginger and Migraine
Migrainesare a recurrent episodic disorder characterized by
headache associated with other symptoms such as nausea,
sensory sensitivity, muscle pain, and cognitive dysfunction.
Migraine headaches are fundamentally different from tension
headaches that are caused by accumulated stress and
constriction of muscles in the neck, head, and face. It is thought
that migraine headaches are caused by a cycle of dramatic
constriction of the arteries that supply the brain with blood and
nutrients. This constriction is followed by rapid dilation, then
again by constriction, during which nerve pathway changes and
brain chemistry imbalances cause the blood vessels to become
inflamed. It leads to the instability of blood vessels in the brain
and to a Ginger and Migraine Migrainesare a recurrent
episodic disorder characterized by headache associated with
other symptoms such as nausea, sensory sensitivity, muscle
pain, and cognitive dysfunction. Migraine headaches are
fundamentally different from tension headaches that are

xviii
caused by accumulated stress and constriction of muscles in the
neck, head, and face. It is thought that migraine headaches are
caused by a cycle of dramatic constriction of the arteries that
supply the brain with blood and nutrients. This constriction is
followed by rapid dilation, then again by constriction, during
which nerve pathway changes and brain chemistry imbalances
cause the blood vessels to become inflamed.

It leads to the instability of blood vessels in the brain and to a

Cataract Ginger not only prevents and cures diabetes but it is
also preventive in the progression of cataracts. The aqueous
extract of ginger possesses both antiglycating activity and ALR2
(aldolase reductase) inhibition (Saraswat et al, 2010, Saraswat
et al, 2008). Regular consumption of ginger delays the
progression and maturation of cataracts. This could be
attributed to its ability to prevent the multiple changes
associated with the accumulation of AGE (i.e., reduction in the
carbonyl stress, inhibition of osmotic stress by reducing the
activity of polyol pathway, and prevention of oxidative stress)
(Saraswat, 2009).5.2.2. Hypertension Angiotensin I converting
enzyme (ACE) is a metellopeptidease that catalyses two
reactions, leading to constriction of blood vessels and hence
blood pressure regulation (Schmaier, 2002).Ginger exhibited
relevant ACE inhibitory activities indicating potential anti-
hypertension activity likely related to non-phenolic compounds
(Ranillaet al, 2010).

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Immune System
The active constituents of ginger function as
immunomodulators by increasing the body’s immunity through
their antimicrobial and free radical scavenging properties.
Ginger extract raises the thymus index, spleen index, and
percentage of phagocytosis significantly, thus improving
immunologic function(Kathi, 1999, Schitteket al, 2001). Ginger
cannot only be warming on a cold day, but can also help
promote healthy sweating, which is often helpful during colds
and flus. A good sweat may do a lot more than simply assist
detoxification. Sweat contains a potent germ-fighting agent
that may help fight off infections.
Antimicrobialand AntifungalProperties
Ginger extract and several of its constituents exhibit
antimicrobial activity in vitro and in vivo and antischistosomal
activity (Akoachereet al,2002). Chemical constituents of ginger
such assesquiterpenes, diarylheptenones, gingerenones A, B
and C, and isogingerenone B, have shown antifungal activity
invitro. It has been proposed that lipophilicity or
hydrophobicity and chemical structure of essential oils or their
main compounds such as the presence of functional polar
groups and aromaticity could play an important role in the
antimicrobial activity (Faraget al, 1989b; Dawet al, 1994).
Antibacterial

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Ginger extracts have antibacterial effects against both gram-
positive and gram-negative bacteria such as Clostridium,
Listeria, Enterococcus, Staphylococcus,Streptococcus,and
Haemophilus species
Antiviral
Ginger has been found very effective against the flu virus, due
to its warm and bitter property. Several sesquiterpenes, but
especially betasesquiphellandrene, isolated from ginger hasalso
been shown to have antirhinoviral activity in vitro (Denyeret al
1994). AntiparasiticProperty Gingerol (5.0 ppm) completely
abolished the infectivity of Schistosoma spp. (blood flukes) in
animal studies (Adewunmi et al 1990). Zingibain,another
bioactive compound, dissolves parasites and their eggs
As an Antioxidant
Ginger spares SOD (superoxide dismutase)–an important anti-
oxidant, catalase which is essential for breaking down
potentially harmful hydrogen peroxide in the cells to
glutathione peroxidase. SOD also acts on hydrogen peroxide
and helps maintain integrity of cell membranes (Brock, 2007)
Cancer
Ginger constituents are regarded as chemopreventive dietary
agents exhibiting inhibition of cyclooxygenase and
lypoxygenase (LO) activities, induction of apoptosis, and

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antitumerogenic effects. Ginger inhibits 5-LO enzymes, the only
food for prostate cancer cells.
Colorectal Cancer
As suggested by Cancer Prevention Research, gingerols, the
main active components in ginger, inhibit the growth of human
colorectal cancer cells (Bode et al, 2003). In another
experiment, Bode et al (2001) studied the effect of 6-paradol
and 6-gingerol on the cell proliferation and DNA synthesis of
HL-60 cells. They observed that their cytotoxicity was
associated with induction of apoptosis and/or inhibition of
activator protein-1(AP-1).
Ovarian Cancer
Ovarian cancer is often deadly since symptoms typically do not
appear until late in the disease process, so by the time ovarian
cancer is diagnosed, it has spread beyond the ovaries. More
than 50% of women who develop ovarian cancer are diagnosed
in the advanced stages of the disease. Invitro experiments have
shown that ginger kills ovarian cancer cells by inducing
apoptosis (programmed cell death) and autophagocytosis (self-
digestion). Ginger extracts have been shown to have
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor effects on cells
(Rhode et al, 2006).
Breast Cancer

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Ginger has been found to significantly inhibit mammary
tumorigenesis and tumor growth in laboratory mice when fed
in drinking water. gingerol, a component of ginger, has been
shown to inhibit cell adhesion, invasion, and motility in ER-
negative (estrogen independent) human breast cancer cells in
the laboratory (Lee et al, 2007).
Hence, ginger appears to have promise in fighting breast cancer
and is safe to include in the diet.
Other Uses
Ginger is on the Food and Drug Administrations (FDA) list of
generally recognized as safe (GRAS)(Alternative Medical
Review, 2003).
ReducesCoughand Cold
Ginger also acts as an expectorant. It is believe to control
common cold
and flu symptoms. Ginger juice with honey is a common home
remedy for cough. Rhinovirus is among those viruses which are
responsible for common cold. The dried ginger has been found
very effective against this virus.
PreventObesity
Ginger acts as fat and cellulite burning food. Invitro studies in
Japan show that zingerone, an active component of ginger,

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prevents fat storage in rats by increasing fat burning and by
reducing the absorption of fat from the small intestine.
As a MeatTenderizer
Ginger rhizome has been investigated as a source of plant
proteolytic enzyme (Thompson et al, 1973,Ziauddinet al, 1995).
The ginger protease is a thiol proteinase with an optimum
activity at 60°C. Rapid denaturation of the enzyme occurs at
70°C.

As a Food Preservative
Ginger and some other herbs like cinnamon are used as a
food preservative and can increase food safety and shelf
life of fatty and processed food products. El-Baroty et al
(2010) reported that cinnamon and ginger essential oils can be
used as a preventer of cellular damage due to spoilage bacteria
and fungi.
Thermogenic
Ginger has traditionally been used in Asia as a warming remedy
to treat
chills associated with colds and flu. The shogaol compounds of
ginger
significantly inhibited serotonin (5-HT) induced hypothermia in
rats. Within

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30 minutes of oral administration, ginger raised the body
temperature of rats by 0.5°C(Kanu et al, 1992).
Regulate Menstrual Irregularities and Dysmenorrhea
Ginger is useful when taken internally, if menstrual pain is due
to ischemic cramp (lack of uterine blood supply) (Alternative
Medical Review, 2003). It is also good in the form of hot
compresses for abdominal cramps, headaches, and joint
stiffness.
POSSIBLE INTERACTIONS
Ginger may alter the effects of some prescribed and
nonprescribed
medications. If blood-thinners such as warfarin (Coumadin) or
aspirin, diabetes medicines,or high blood pressure
medicines are being taken ginger therapy is not
advisable.Ginger may lower blood sugar, raising the risk
of hypoglycemia or low blood sugar, and may lower
blood pressure, raising the risk of low blood pressure or
irregular heartbeat. Ginger therapy is also not
recommended in children less than two years (Heck et al,
2000 and Vaes et al, 2000).

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CONCLUSION
Ginger is a rhizomatous plant grown throughout South-eastern
Asia and China and in parts of Japan, Austria, Latin America,
Jamaica, andAfrica. Ginger has been used as a spice and
medicine in the Indian subcontinentsince ancient times. Its
medicinal values have been known for centuries.It is the most
widely used condiment, flavoring, and garnishing agent. The
herb serves as a stimulant and carminative and is used in
dyspepsia and colic. It is known to have blood thinning and
cholesterol lowering properties, due to which it is used in
treating heart diseases.The major phenolic compounds and
essential oils act as potent antioxidant and exhibit free radical
scavenging properties. The antimicrobial properties are due to
the presence of componentssuch as thymol, eugenol, 1, 8‐
cineole, α‐ and β‐pinenes linalool, and α‐terpineol. Ginger tea is
considered a good home remedy for cold. The herb can also
used to treat arthritis, diarrhea, motion sickness, diabetes,
bronchitis, and rheumatism. It is a remedy for nausea due to
seasickness, morning sickness, and chemotherapy. Overall,
ginger is a versatile herb with phenomenal phytotherapeutic
and medicinal properties. It would be difficult to find a place or
nation on this globe that has not been benefited through this
extraordinary aromatic herb.

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