Proceedings of the 34th Chinese Control Conference

July 28-30, 2015, Hangzhou, China

Vehicle to Grid Technology:A Review

Yimin Zhou1 , Xiaoyun Li1
1. Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, P. R. China, 518055
E-mail: {ym.zhou, xy.li}@siat.ac.cn

Abstract: At present, vehicle to grid (V2G) technology has been received widely attention since a large amount of electric
vehicles entering into the market gradually. The electric vehicle (EV) as a specific electricity load, can be used as a mobile storage
device to participate load adjusting in the power grid and to provide platform for the renewable energy sources coordination. The
management strategies for V2G and the involved key issues are analyzed in details, such as battery weary, bidirectional charger
and charging stations via the centralized control, autonomous control and battery management strategies. Besides, the economic
benefits from both the power grid & EV owners and research development directions are discussed in the paper.

Key Words: Vehicle to Grid, Electric Vehicles, Optimal Control Management, Sequential Battery Control, Key Issues

1 Introduction
The actual operational efficiency of the current power grid
is unsatisfying due to high cost and heavy energy waste,
which is brought by the daily load demand fluctuations and
regulation of voltage and frequency from the power grid [1].
When the energy demand exceeds the base load power plant
capacity, the peak load power plant has to be put into op-
eration since the power grid itself has not enough electrical
energy storage and sometimes spinning reserves will partic-
ipate as well. When the power demand is lower than the out-
put of the base load of the power plant, the unused energy
will be wasted in vain. Besides, the regulation of the voltage
and frequency of power grid will greatly increase the power
grid operating costs.
The concept of V2G (Vehicle-to-Grid) is proposed to Fig. 1: The schematic diagram of V2G
solve the above problems [2], where its core idea is to use a
large amount of storage energy of electric vehicles (EVs) as
the buffer for power grid and renewable energies, as shown
nate the charging/discharging behaviours between vehicles
in Fig.1. When the network load demand is too high, the en-
and grid so that it will not affect the power grid operation
ergy stored in EVs can be fed back towards the grid. When
and constrain the normal use of automobiles. V2G technol-
the network load demand is low, the unused power in the
ogy embodies the energy flow among the EVs and grid with
grid can be stored in the EVs so as to avoid waste. The EV
mutual, real-time, controllable and high speed characteris-
users can thus buy electricity from the grid when the price
tics [5].
is low and sell the electricity towards the grid with higher
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Sec-
price so that certain benefits can be obtained from this trade
tion 2 summarizes the methods of V2G technologies, togeth-
behaviour [3].
er with the effect of large-scale EVs to the grid. The involved
The plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and pure
key issues for V2G are discussed in Section 3. Conclusions
electric vehicles (PEVs) are gradually entering into the mar-
and future work are given in Section 4.
ket [4]. According to the statistical data, there are nearly 20
hours per day for the vehicles in still state, during which pe-
riod it represent idle asset. If there are enough amount of
these vehicles, their total battery capacities can be regarded 2 Methods of V2G Technologies
as a buffer for the power grid and renewable energy systems.
However, the electric vehicles can not access to the grid From the grid perspective, it is necessary to disperse the
freely and unmanageably. It would cause serious damage to EVs charging load reasonably to avoid the conventional grid
the grid with large amount of charging demand from the EVs peak-load periods so as to reduce their impact on the power
if the gird is in peak-load periods. As for the vehicles, in ad- grid and other unnecessary construction investment on trans-
dition to provide ancillary services for the grid, they should mission grid and distribution grid which can ensure the co-
satisfy the daily routine driving requirements. Therefore, it ordinated development of electric vehicles and power grid.
is necessary to investigate the V2G technology to coordi- Therefore, EVs charging has to be regulated or controlled
to achieve peak shaving and valley filling due to their daily
consumption demand with the application of effective eco-
This work is supported by the Shenzhen Science and Technology Inno-
vation Commission Project Grant Ref. JCYJ20140417113430574 and the nomic measures or technical measures, which is the concept
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.61271005). of ordered charging.

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2.1 The state-of-art of V2G V2G is achieved via the optimal power configuration to put
In China, V2G is a relatively new technology, as an im- EVs working in the appropriate discharging power status and
portant part of smart grid, the research is still in the initial the objective is written as:
stage [6]. The research on V2G mainly focuses on the fea- N
 N
sibility analysis, the overall structure and function of each i=1 SOCi
PD = Pi ; min(SOCi − ) (1)
component. Application problems have been studied in [7] i=1
N
that EVs can participate in power grid peak shaving so V2G
modelling is established for further research. Paper [8] de- where Pi denotes the appropriate feed power of each EV;
scribes the EV charging schemes in mobile mode and park- N is the number of EVs participating the V2G. The SOC
ing mode. The minimization of delay of charge and peak-to- optimal power strategy based peak shaving feedback can
average ratios objectives in two different charging modes are improve the feed power current efficiency of the batteries,
discussed, especially for the decrease of the load from grid which could benefit the duration of batteries and ensure the
in parking mode. maximum remainder capacities of each EV as much as pos-
Paper [9] analyzes the EVs impact on the grid structure sible.
in 2020, 2030 in different regions of USA. The results show The load valley filling purpose can also be achieved via
that clean power plant, fuel generator, and distributed energy power configuration of EVs and V2G similarly denoting as
power have to be developed to cope with the large-scale EVs the minimum power difference between the nominal power
charging demand. Besides, demand response of V2G has to of V2G charging station and those of the assembled EVs:
be used to guide the EVs charging/discharging behaviours N

during off-peak periods. ε = min(PD − Pi ) (2)
The penetration of PHEVs could continuously increase i=1
the charging load in distribution grid. Two charging methods
with the aid of wind energy are developed to reduce the peak One optimal objective for the regulated EVs charging is to
loads via scheduling the daily charging [10]. The heuris- minimize the load fluctuation variance:
tic algorithm is used to model and analyze the grid with the T n
1 
objective of least investment and energy consumption[11]. min { ( (Lm,t − μD ))2 } (3)
Similarly, primal dual interior point method and particle t=1
T m=1
swarm algorithm [12]-[14] are used to optimize the objec-
tives, i.e., users benefit maximization, minimized grid load where μD is the average load at T time interval; Lm,t is the
fluctuation and peak load, and minimized distribution grid load of node m at T moment. Several constraints for the
loss and voltage offset for both the power supply and user system grid loss, node voltage, current calculation and the
supply consideration. Furthermore, by the aid of V2G, pow- grid load should be considered to adjust the load distribution
er can be flowed bidirectionally for intelligent control so as [11].
to reduce the grid pressure together with the distributed en- As for the centralized V2G, intelligent charger can be built
ergy resources [15]. As it can be seen, the research on V2G on the ground which would save the investment cost. At
is still at its starting stage, there are still a lot of basic work the same time, due to the unified scheduling and centralized
to be explored. management, it can achieve the overall optimization. For
example, it can calculate the optimal charging strategy of
2.2 The methods of V2G realization each vehicle via advanced algorithm so as to guarantee the
It is feasible to realize V2G by the use of EVs batteries. lowest cost and optimal power usage.
Due to the diversities, different usages, various power sup-
ply modes, there are different methods for the realization of 2.2.2 Autonomous V2G methods
V2G.
As for the autonomous V2G, the EVs are often scattered
everywhere, which is unable to carry out centralized man-
2.2.1 Centralized V2G implement methods agement [17]. Thus the intelligent charger is adopted on the
vehicles, and they can realize V2G automatically based on
The so-called centralized V2G refers to schedule the gath- the reactive power demand, price information issued by the
ered energy of EVs in certain regions according to the grid grid or electrical characteristics of power output interface
demand in order to control the charging/discharging proce- (such as voltage fluctuation) with the combination of auto-
dure of each EV with specific management strategies. For mobile own state (such as battery SOC).
instance, parking lots are built for the purpose of V2G [16]. The power load characteristics of each region are quite
The peak load adjusting during EV charging is decided by different and the EVs number varies as well, where the u-
the grid scheduling system and V2G charging station coor- nited scheduling is not appropriated for the dispersed EVs.
dinately, which will be assigned in real-time based on the Through hierarchy divisional control, the control structure
online grid status. Then V2G is used for the EVs orderly of the grid and EVs can be divided into three level: power
charging and intelligent management inside the charging s- transmission scheduling, distribution system scheduling and
tations. The assigned power requirement PD from the grid EV control center. V2G is used to optimize energy, load reg-
scheduling system is regarded as the basis of the V2G peak ulation and spinning reserves via an aggregator, which can
adjusting, and battery SOCs (State-of-Charge) of each EV increase additional system flexibility and peak load shaving
are used as evaluation index in the allowable power range. but lower charging cost to the customers [18].

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 Yutaka Ota and his co-workers proposed a distributed au- the direct service object is the micro grid instead of grid net-
tonomous V2G method to realize the energy intelligent s- work to provide support for the distributed energy sources
torage [19]. The controllable EVs can be regarded as au- and power supply for relevant load. The economic benefits
tonomous distributed smart storage devices for load frequen- from micro-grid including EVs, wind power, micro turbines
cy control. and other renewable energy resources can be analyzed via its
Based on the time-of-use charging prices and the EVs fixed investment and operational cost, where the optimiza-
driving patterns, a time division control strategy is proposed tion index of the microgrid is to acquire the least operational
in [20]. One day (24 hours) could be divided into red, blue, cost C:
green such intervals and the charging behaviours of EVs can N

be encouraged or restrained during these different time inter- min C = Csys + (Ci,f uel + Ci,buy − Ci,sell ) (5)
vals for the purpose of peak shaving and valley filling. i=0
Another worthy mentioned is the microgrid based V2G re-
where Csys is the system equipment cost, Ci,f uel is the fu-
alization [21]. A diagram of microgrid based battery power
el cost, Ci,buy , Ci,sell are the electricity purchase and sale
plant is shown in Fig.2. According to the American Electric
costs, respectively. Under the constraints of power balance,
Reliability Technology Solution Federation, the micro grid
wind power output, micro turbine output and EVs output are
is defined as a system composed of load units and common
used to solve the minimization.
micro powers, which can simultaneously provide electricity
EVs are integrated into the residential power supply net-
and heat. The internal power of the microgrid is mainly con-
work including wind, solar such distributed energy resources
trolled by the electronic devices/components responsible for
and connectd them to the external large grid [22]. It can use
the energy conversion. Compared to the external grid net-
EVs to support renewable energy for the power supply to
work, micro grid is a single controlled unit to meet the re-
residential and commercial users.
quirement of electricity quality and safety for the end-users.

2.2.3 V2G realization based on battery pack replace-

Microgrid ment
Wind Controllable micro
PV
generator energy resouces The principle of this method is similar to that of the cen-
Distribution
Power tralized V2G but with different management strategy. S-
exchange Load
grid point ince the battery packs are used for the replacement, certain
percentage of the batteries should be kept in full capaci-
Storage Charging/discharging ty. It combines the advantages of conventional charging and
station equipment
fast charging, which compensates the defects of insufficien-
t mileage of the electric vehicles in certain degree. There
Battery packs are a large amount of batteries in the charging station, and
Power plant
V2G method with battery pack replacement can greatly sat-
isfy the grid scheduling demand plan. However, it is urgent
Lack of Battery distribution station F charged
Fully
capacity to design the united standards for batteries and charging in-
terfaces [23].
Fig. 2: The schematic diagram of microgrid based battery Currently, ‘centralized charging and battery replacement’
power plant mode is adopted by the transit system. To satisfy the battery
replacement requirement and practical demand, the EV bat-
teries in the system can be assigned based on certain ratio to
The objective of the optimal scheduling model is to mini- the buses. Only batteries stored in the charging station can
mize the expectation of the power generation cost: participate in V2G. In order to improve the efficiency of bat-
tery cluster, ‘progressive mode (in order)’ is adopted for the
min E(Fall )

n w 
ne n
mt
management according to the bus timetable for the battery
s.t. P+ Pwi + Pei + Pwti = L + D unloading moment determination [24]. The relationship of
i=1 i=1 i=1 cycle number of charing/discharging and the actual capaci-
(4)
Pwi,min < Pwi < Pwi,max
ties of EV batteries is kept in power function [25]:
Pei,min < Pei < Pei,max
Pmti,min < Pmti < Pmti,max αn = α0 − αnb (6)

where Pmti,min and Pmti,max are the minimum and max- where αn is the capacity-keeping rate (%) after n times;
imum power output of the wind generators, respectively. α0 , α and b are unknown parameters decided by the specific
Pei,min and Pei,max are the lower limit and upper limit of battery characteristics. A typical EV power plant model is
the V2G output power from EVs; L is the system loss, D to minimize the operational cost as part of micro-grid under
is the system load and P is the trade electricity capacity of the condition:
the grid network. PSO(particle swarm optimization) can be 
PBt = (Uit+ Pit+ − Uit− Pit− ) (7a)
used to solve the model optimization [14].
i∈Sc
The micro grid based V2G realization can assemble the

storage equipment of EVs to the micro grid. The main dif- s.t. − Nf0 · e0 ≤ Eit ≤ Ne0 · e0 (7b)
ference from the previous V2G realization methods is that i∈Sc

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(NiT − UiT− = NC ) (7c) 3.2 V2G based intelligent charging and discharging
i∈Sc from EV users’ perspective
The regulation for the EV energy storage power supply
is discussed from the grid point of view earlier, where the
where the first equation in Eq.7(a) is to define the exchange
direct beneficiaries are the power suppliers and service fa-
power between the power plant and the external grid, ‘+’
cilities without the interests of EV users consideration. In
denoting absorbing power and ‘-’ denoting developed pow-
addition, only the grid and the intermediate systems are dis-
er. Eq.7(b) describes the equivalent electric quantity limit-
cussed, but the involved V2G operation for each EV has not
s, where Nf0 and Ne0 are the number of full charged battery
been studied. It is necessary to discuss the intelligent charg-
groups and empty battery groups at initial stage. Eq.7(c) rep-
ing/discharging management strategy for each involved EV,
resents that the capacity from battery groups and the market
where the whole V2G procedure is described as follows.
capacity NC should be kept the same in certain cycle.
The intermediate system can provide reasonable energy for
Paper [26] proposed a strategy to solve the PV excess
the charging demand from the EVs and feed the EVs en-
power output via EV connection. Compared with the
ergy back to the grid based on the grid requirement [2][3].
pumped storage system, the EV power plant will have lower
These ancillary service and charging behaviours can not be
investment cost if there is enough battery replacement capac-
performed randomly, freely and unlimitedly, where the EVs
ity.
current and future status (i.e. battery SOC, future driving
plan, current location, current electricity bill and connection
time) should be considered to guarantee the optimal manage-
3 Key Issues Involved in V2G ment on the premise of normal driving demand satisfaction.
According to the investigation, EVs have a great poten-
3.1 V2G intelligent dispatch from the power grid per- tial to satisfy daily driving demands with similar driving be-
spective haviour [29]. An optimization of EV charging time is pro-
Evidence shows that appropriate power supply strategy of posed to save electricity cost up to 68%. V2G will affect the
V2G can minimize the electricity generation increment de- EV batteries, however, further research will investigate the
mand and infrastructure investment. How to regulate and energy prices and driving patterns of large amount of EVs
schedule the stored energy in EVs is an urgent problem to be with more intelligent charging strategies.
solved. Hutson and his co-workers put forward an intelligent
The essence of the problem is to schedule each V2G unit method to arrange the available energy storage from PHEVs
and other electric power generation units. The power genera- and EVs [30]. Binary particle swarm optimal algorithm is
tion units have different function in the grid: larger capacity adopted to calculate the optimal charging/discharging time
units are used to provide basic loads demand with cheaper periods in one day and the price curve from the California
price but slow response; smaller capacity units are generally ISO database is used to reflect the real price fluctuations.
used for peak load adjusting with more expensive cost but A monitoring and control system for EV operation as well
fast response speed. Therefore, V2G will decrease the re- as the business model utilizing EVs are developed in [31].
liance of the grid to the expensive generation units as much EV charging can be realized with the aid of renewable en-
as possible and reduce the use of reactive power compensa- ergy, and the EV status and nearby charging station such
tion devices based on the grid load state, renewable energy information can be obtained via the system for the conve-
status, available capacities of V2G units and the active and nience of users consideration. Benefits and costs from the
reactive power demand of each V2G unit so that a reasonable use of EVs are analyzed in [32], and the involved factors
electricity price can be given. including fuel expenses, electricity prices and battery costs
There are two types of methods to deal with the problem. are also discussed. The V2G electric bus can provide $38
The first type is that the grid directly regulates each connect- million savings from one local region.
ed EV to the grid and other power generation units unitedly. In summary, the intelligent EV charging/discharging man-
An intelligent control algorithm is used to control the V2G agement strategy mainly involves how to coordinate the
operation for each EV [16]. However, this method will com- charging behaviour for each EV and to designate manage-
plicate the situation, and the solution is considered from the ment strategy to seek for optimal scheme to maximize ben-
grid perspective but without users consideration. efits for EV users, i.e., charging in low-price periods and
The second method is to build an intermediate system, i.e., providing service in high-price periods. However, there is
aggregator between the power grid and EV groups [27]. This no united strategy for whole V2G management and the de-
aggregator system can organize the EVs connected to the veloped strategies can only be effective in certain areas, such
grid in certain region into a whole utility to obey the unified as frequency regulation or peak load adjusting. On the other
dispatch of power network. So the grid does not need to hand, the constraints on the EVs has a great influence on the
know the details of each EV status, but send dispatch signals formulation of management strategies, and only battery SOC
to each aggregator based on the algorithms. The EVs are and capacities are considered in order to simplify the prob-
managed directly by the intermediate systems. Similarly, an lems. Seldom other constraint factors (especially the user
aggregated storage strategy of multiple EVs is proposed to behaviors) are considered.
reduce impacts of EV charging to the distribution system,
together with the combination of renewable energy resources
into the power system [28].

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3.3 The effect of V2G to the battery duce the harmonic waves [37]. Young-Joo Lee proposed a
As mentioned earlier, the EV owners can benefit from novel integrated bidirectional AC-DC and DC-DC charger
the energy feedback to the grid through V2G. However, this model, where it reduces the number of large current induc-
profit is gained at the cost of V2G equipment weary, espe- tance and current sensors and it can provide fault current ca-
cially the battery impairment. The duration of batteries is pacity difference. However, this modified circuit structure
certain and the constant charging/discharing of the batteries system has lower efficiency than the unmodified one [38].
could seriously damage its life time and lower their capaci- An improved AC-DC control strategy is proposed in [39],
ties. Hence, the effect of V2G on the battery duration should compared with the traditional PI controller, which can great-
be studied carefully. ly improve the performance of network controller at the
The sensitivity of the impact of V2G services on battery low harmonic output and robustness to background noise re-
degradation is discussed based on battery capacities, charg- straint. Besides, PWM control scheme is proposed to solve
ing regimes, and battery depth of discharge [33]. Degrada- the problem that half-bridge converter is difficult to maintain
tion can be reduced by restraining the time duration connec- the high efficiency over a broad battery voltage range.
tion and the depth of discharge of EVs. An economic analy- According to the literature, the research for bidirectional
sis of various V2G offerings is presented in [34], where the charger mainly focus on the topological structure selection
aggregates power of EVs are modelled based on their driving & integration and control strategy. The aim is to improve
patterns. Battery wear cost in different V2G operations and efficiency, reduce costs, reduce the volume and weight, and
profitability are assessed and the cost of EV owners under minimize total harmonic distortion under the condition of
normal daily usage in long-term duration and V2G services ensuring normal function of the charger. The research direc-
are analyzed as well. tions for bidirectional charger includes:
Kisacikoglu and his colleagues study the effect on the bat- 1) Converter structure, including structure selection and
tery when the EVs are in reactive power compensation mode integration of bidirectional DC-DC & bidirectional AC-
to the grid [35]. Simulation experiments demonstrate that DC converter;
charging by the Level1 method can realize the reactive pow- 2) How to use current traction driven system to accom-
er compensation without any power requirement from the plish bidirectional charging function;
batteries and negative effect on the capacities. Currently, 3) Grid harmonic suppression;
there is no perfect model to evaluate the V2G impact on the 4) How to improve the charger efficiency in broad voltage
battery life but only on certain aspect of V2G. Further re- range.
search should be carried to study how negative effect could
be caused on the battery due to higher power level reactive 4 Conclusions and Future Work
power compensation. V2G can bring noticeable benefits no matter from eco-
3.4 V2G bidirectional charger nomical aspect or applicable aspect, where its realization
methods can be divided into four categories to adapt to var-
To achieve V2G for EVs, bidirectional intelligent chargers
ious situations and the involved four key technologies are
are required to equipped between the grid and vehicles. The
summarized as: V2G intelligent scheduling technology, in-
bidirectional charger possesses the function for EVs battery
telligent charging and discharging management technology,
charging with minimum harmonic current generation but al-
power electronics technology and battery management tech-
so the ability to feed energy back to the grid. Generally, a
nology. Besides, the equipment integration, high efficiency
bidirectional charger is composed of a filter, a bidirection-
and low cost are important development directions of V2G,
al DC-DC converter and a bidirectional AC-DC converter.
which will combine the Smart Grid with the tendency of in-
When the charger is in battery charging mode, the alternating
telligentization and informationization.
current will be filtered to remove the unexpected frequency
At present, China is making great efforts for the devel-
component first, then the bidirectional AC-DC converter is
opment of electric vehicle industry, several suggestion are
used to convert AC into DC. A bidirectional DC-DC con-
given for V2G:
verter is used for appropriate charging voltage output since
the output voltage from the AC-DC converter may not match 1) In the construction of smart grid, designate V2G strate-
that of the DC energy storage unit. When the converter is in gic plan and strengthen the basic research on V2G and
battery discharge mode, the process runs the opposite. consider more equipment and operational conditions.
Lixin Tang and Gui-Jia Su propose a low-cost car charger, 2) Construction of electric car infrastructure and multi
which use the existing main traction motor and the ancillary real-time regulation methods with uncertainties, i.e.,
motor and related power electronic system to form a charg- frequency regulation, voltage adjusting, congestion
ing circuit. The developed charger does not require addition- control.
al charging circuit, which can significantly reduce the cost, 3) Establish V2G pilot projects in micro grid and its opti-
weight and volume [36]. Kramer et al designs a structure mal operation, then explore scale application up to the
of a motor controller and a charger, which can be used as a great power grid.
motor controller but also a bidirectional charger. Jaganathan
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