LANGUAGE ARTS

• Weekly grammar
instruction
• Leveled grammar
practice

• Weekly writing
craft and models
• Preparation for
writing and
grammar tests
ISBN 13: 978-0-328-11801-4
ISBN 10: 0-328-11801-X
Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United
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18 19 20 21 22 V054 17 16 15
 Table of Contents
Writer’s Guide

Focus/Ideas 2
Organization/Paragraphs 6
Voice 10
Word Choice 14
Sentences 18
Conventions 22

Rubrics and Models

Narrative Writing 26
Descriptive Writing 31
Persuasive Writing 36
Expository Writing 41

Evaluate Your Writing 46

Grammar and Writing Lessons

Lesson 1 Grammar Sentences 50

Writer’s Craft Show, Don’t Tell 54
Writing Model Memoir 55
Lesson 2 Grammar Subjects and Predicates 56
Writer’s Craft Tone 60
Writing Model Character Sketch 61

ii
Lesson 3 Grammar Independent and Dependent Clauses 62
Writer’s Craft Voice 66
Writing Model Journal Entry 67
Lesson 4 Grammar Compound and Complex Sentences 68
Writer’s Craft Supporting Your Ideas 72
Writing Model Problem/Solution 73
Lesson 5 Grammar Common and Proper Nouns 74
Writer’s Craft Good Beginnings 78
Writing Model Writing for Tests 79
Lesson 6 Grammar Regular and Irregular Plural Nouns 80
Writer’s Craft Include Important Information 84
Writing Model Directions 85
Lesson 7 Grammar Possessive Nouns 86
Writer’s Craft Posing Questions 90
Writing Model Hypothesis and Results 91
Lesson 8 Grammar Action and Linking Verbs 92
Writer’s Craft Parallel Structure 96
Writing Model Friendly Letter 97
Lesson 9 Grammar Subject-Verb Agreement 98
Writer’s Craft Dialogue 102
Writing Model Interview 103
Lesson 10 Grammar Past, Present, and Future Tenses 104
Writer’s Craft Style 108
Writing Model Writing for Tests 109
Lesson 11 Grammar Principal Parts of Regular Verbs 110
Writer’s Craft Thesis Statement 114
Writing Model Expository Writing 115
Lesson 12 Grammar Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs 116
Writer’s Craft Use Powerful Verbs 120
Writing Model Biographical Study 121

iii
 Lesson 13 Grammar Verbs, Objects, and Subject Complements 122
Writer’s Craft Eliminate Wordiness 126
Writing Model Rules 127
Lesson 14 Grammar Troublesome Verbs 128
Writer’s Craft Know Your Audience 132
Writing Model E-mail 133
Lesson 15 Grammar Prepositions 134
Writer’s Craft Transition Words 138
Writing Model Writing for Tests 139
Lesson 16 Grammar Subject and Object Pronouns 140
Writer’s Craft Answer the 5 Ws and How 144
Writing Model News Story 145
Lesson 17 Grammar Pronouns and Antecedents 146
Writer’s Craft Use Vivid Words 150
Writing Model Story About an Animal 151
Lesson 18 Grammar Possessive Pronouns 152
Writer’s Craft Order 156
Writing Model Describe a Setting 157
Lesson 19 Grammar Indefinite and Reflexive Pronouns 158
Writer’s Craft Stage Directions 162
Writing Model TV Script 163
Lesson 20 Grammar Using Who and Whom 164
Writer’s Craft Know Your Purpose 168
Writing Model Writing for Tests 169
Lesson 21 Grammar Contractions and Negatives 170
Writer’s Craft Sensory Details 174
Writing Model Literary Review 175

iv
Lesson 22 Grammar Adjectives and Articles 176
Writer’s Craft Use Adjectives to Persuade 180
Writing Model Letter to the Editor 181
Lesson 23 Grammar Demonstrative Adjectives 182
Writer’s Craft Figurative Language 186
Writing Model Poem 187
Lesson 24 Grammar Comparative and Superlative Adjectives 188
Writer’s Craft Visual Images 192
Writing Model Brochure 193
Lesson 25 Grammar Adverbs 194
Writer’s Craft Support Your Argument 198
Writing Model Ad 199
Lesson 26 Grammar Modifiers 200
Writer’s Craft Topic Sentence 204
Writing Model Symbolism 205
Lesson 27 Grammar Conjunctions 206
Writer’s Craft Paraphrase 210
Writing Model Taking Notes 211
Lesson 28 Grammar Commas 212
Writer’s Craft Strong Conclusions 216
Writing Model Newsletter 217
Lesson 29 Grammar Quotations and Quotation Marks 218
Writer’s Craft Include Important Details 222
Writing Model Outlining 223
Lesson 30 Grammar Punctuation 224
Writer’s Craft Stick to the Subject 228
Writing Model Job Application 229

v
Writing for Tests

Test Tips 231

Personal Narrative 232
How-to Report 234
Compare/Contrast Essay 236
Story 238
Persuasive Argument 240
Summary 242

Grammar Patrol

Grammar 245
Capitalization 253
Punctuation 254
Spelling 257
Handwriting 258

Index 261

vi
Writer’s Guide
 Focus/Ideas

Good writers focus on a main idea and develop this idea

with strong, supporting details. In addition, they know their
purpose for writing. This purpose may be to persuade, to
inform, to describe, or to entertain. Your purpose is important
because it helps you focus on your main idea.

Even a postcard has a main idea and a purpose.

Dear Lee,
The cookout at camp was great!
We sang songs while the hot dogs
cooked over the f lames and the
owls hooted. Wish you were here.
Best,
Craig

Main Idea Craig is enjoying camp.

Purpose To inform Lee
Details This postcard gives Lee a glimpse of camp life. Details make the
writing lively. Compare these two sentences:
• Camp is busy and fun. (dull, with few details)
• We hike in the green hills, paddle aluminum kayaks, and rehearse for
the camp musical. (adds color and information)

Strategies for Focus and Ideas

• Choose a topic that you can handle. For example, “The History of
Pennsylvania” is too large a topic for a brief essay.
• Let your purpose fit the topic. For example, a funny story is
entertaining; a comparison/contrast of two movies is informative.

2 Writer’s Guide
Write the letter of the purpose that best suits each numbered
writing assignment.
A To entertain B To inform C To persuade
1. A letter convincing parents to let you go to camp
2. A set of instructions for assembling a model plane
3. A report on Egypt’s pyramids
4. A story about a cat and dog detective team
5. Arguments for having a longer school year

Read the paragraph below. Write the numbers

of the sentences that do not focus on the main
idea in the first sentence.

Main idea By following a few simple steps, you

can make perfect pasta. (6) First, choose a large pot, fill it
two-thirds full of water, and heat it over a burner. (7) Add a half
teaspoon of salt and a tablespoon of oil. (8) When the water begins
to boil rapidly, put in the pasta. (9) There are many kinds of pasta.
(10) I like rotini best. (11) Stir the pasta every minute or so.
(12) After it has cooked for 9 minutes, pour the pasta and water
into a colander in the sink. (13) Drain the pasta, pour it into a
bowl, add butter, and enjoy!

Read the details about unusual vegetables below. Write a main

idea sentence based on these details. Then write a paragraph
using the details.
Details rutabaga—like a cross between a turnip and a squash;
yellow and mild
Jerusalem artichoke—crunchy, slightly sweet; a little like
potato; actually the root of a sunflower
tomatillo—small, green, sticky; looks like tomato; comes
from Mexican ground cherry
Writer’s Guide 3
Improving Focus/Ideas

Original

This is about fast food. I love burgers, fries, pizza, and all that stuff.
I could eat it every day. People are busy and don’t want to wait for their
food, plus fast food tastes great. Tasty Burger is my favorite place.
Fast food is bad for you. I guess burgers and fries have lots of fat.
Soft drinks are full of sugar. I drink a couple every day usually. You could
order other stuff, like a chicken sandwich or chili. I read that they have
a lot less fat.
Fast-food restaurants have new stuff on the menu. There are different
salads like this one has chicken and nuts and oranges in it. I’d rather have
a burger to tell the truth. Now what to drink. I really want that soft drink,
but I could get milk instead. Oh, well. Now that I have been so good, I
deserve a hot fudge sundae. Ha!

Revising Tips
Write a specific, clear main idea statement. You could write
a strong, focused statement about eating healthy meals at fast-food
restaurants.
Include only details that focus on and develop the main
idea. Delete details that are off the topic. (For example, delete sentences
about favorite restaurants and foods.)
Include enough details to support important points. Provide
specific details about healthy and unhealthy fast foods. (For example,
explain which fast foods are bad for you and why.)
Write a conclusion that reinforces your main idea. Add an
ending that ties together all your points about the main idea.

4 Writer’s Guide
Improved

We know that too much fat and sugar are bad for us. But we often
have to eat fast, and we love our burgers and fries. Unfortunately, they
are full of fat. The soft drinks that go with them are full of sugar. Is there
a way to eat healthy meals at a fast-food restaurant? If we can change our
habits, the answer is yes.
First, replace that burger with a food lower in fat. For example, try
a grilled chicken sandwich or some chili. Both those choices are tasty and
low in fat. Many fast-food restaurants are now offering salads and even
fresh fruit. These are very healthy choices. Replace the soft drink with
milk or water.
Congratulations! Now you are making healthy choices. Please don’t
reward yourself with a giant ice cream. If you need a treat, get a low-fat
yogurt cone. Your body will thank you.

Writer’s Corner
Beware of interesting but irrelevant details. Once you write a clear main
idea statement, check all your details against it. If a detail does not relate
directly to your main idea, it does not belong.

Writer’s Guide 5
Organization/Paragraphs

Every piece of writing needs some kind of organization.

The structure is like the frame of a house. It holds everything
together and gives a shape to ideas and details.

Here are some ways to organize your writing:

• a narrative with a beginning, middle, and end
• a step-by-step set of instructions
• a comparison/contrast of two people, places, or things
• a description of something from left to right
• an explanation of causes and effects
• a persuasive piece with the best reason last
Before you write, consider how to best shape your ideas. For example, if
you are explaining how to build a gingerbread house, a set of instructions
would work. If you are sharing a personal experience, a narrative is the
form to use.
Deciding on the form of your writing is just the first step. Consider how
all of your ideas connect to the topic. What organization would best
present your ideas?

Strategies for Organizing Ideas

• Create a graphic organizer such as a web, outline, chart, or sketch.
• Order steps from first to last.
• Introduce characters, set the scene, and show action.
• Save the most important idea until last and build up to it.
• Use sequence words such as first, later, and now.
• Use signal words such as both and neither to show comparisons.

6 Writer’s Guide
Write the letter of the kind of
organization that each numbered
writing assignment calls for.
A Description
B Comparison/contrast
C Persuasive argument
D Set of instructions
1. Tell how twin sisters are alike and different.
2. Create a vivid word picture of a wolf.
3. List the steps in making lemonade.
4. Convince parents to buy you a computer.

A description often presents details about an object from top to

bottom or left to right. Read the following paragraph describing a
mountain. Choose a detail about location from the box that best fits
each sentence. Rewrite the paragraph.

around the base of the mountain above the clouds

where the slopes grew steeper above the forest line
on the gentle slopes near the base into swirls of white cloud

(5) , farmland spread out and cattle grazed. (6) , herds

of sheep walked among the wildflowers. (7) Higher up, ,
evergreen forests grew. (8) Rocky cliffs rose sheer . (9) The
cliffs seemed to disappear . (10) The ice-covered peak rose
like a spearhead .

Write a paragraph explaining the causes of a problem such as

pollution or erosion. Suggest a possible solution. Use words such
as so, as a result, and because to show how ideas are related.

Writer’s Guide 7
Improving Organization/Paragraphs

Original

It is time to write another book report, and book reports are not my
favorite thing. They are kind of boring because we always write the same
kind of information.
One thing that would be more fun would be if we acted out scenes
from books. Or we could write songs or have talk shows about our
books’ characters.
The class is getting bored with writing the same old reports. Aren’t
book reports supposed to make us want to read? Bored students are
turned off to reading. Cool projects would be fun and exciting. Everyone
would remember a play or a song based on a book. Writing is not the best
way for everyone to learn.
Special projects would be entertaining. I think we would remember the
books better and want to read more. That’s all.

Revising Tips
Begin with a clear statement of your main idea. Focus on the
problem and how you think it should be solved.
Organize your support logically in well-developed paragraphs.
State reasons why your solution or opinion is best, one at a time, and
develop them with supporting details.
Use transition words and phrases to show how ideas are
connected. Introduce reasons with first, also, and most important.
End with the strongest reason.
Tie ideas together in your conclusion. Avoid an abrupt ending.
Refer back to your main idea, using different wording.

8 Writer’s Guide
Improved

It is time to write another book report, and I have the book report
blues. I’d like to propose a change to get rid of those blues. Instead of
writing the same old book reports, why don’t we make special projects
about the books we read?
There are several reasons to make a change. First, the class is getting
bored with writing the same old reports. Aren’t book reports supposed to
make us want to read? Bored students are turned off to reading. Second,
cool projects would entertain us. Everyone would enjoy a play or a song
based on a book.
It is also true that writing is not necessarily the best way for everyone
to learn. We could share our books by acting out scenes or having a talk
show for the characters in the books.
Most important, students would remember the books better and want
to read more because they would use their imaginations in a fun way. Let’s
get started today and brainstorm ideas for fun book projects!

Writer’s Corner
Make a “ladder” and summarize your main
argument at the top and your reasons on the
rungs. Be sure each rung below the main
statement states a new reason. The final
rung should tell the most important reason.

Writer’s Guide 9
Voice

Every writer has a voice—a personality that comes through

in the tone and style of a piece of writing. Voice shows that a
writer knows and cares about a topic. It also reveals a certain
style and tone. A writer with a strong, clear voice speaks
directly to readers and keeps their attention.
• I stood on the bridge and looked at the water. (weak voice)
• I leaned over the railing of the bridge, scowling down at
the muddy, brown waters of the river. (strong voice)

Voice should take into account what the reader needs to know. Your
topic, audience, and purpose will determine your voice.

Strategies for Developing Your Voice

• Be sure of your purpose and audience. A review of a school play that
flopped might have a humorous, light voice. An argument for more
lifeguards at the town beach demands a serious, thoughtful voice.
• Select words that match your voice. When you write dialogue for
characters in a story, you can use contractions (I’ve, it’s) along with
slang. Figurative language can make your voice interesting and colorful.
Formal writing, such as research reports and business letters, requires
exact, objective vocabulary.
• Remember that your voice
shapes and controls your ideas.
Whatever you write about,
express yourself in an
engaging, appropriate voice.

10 Writer’s Guide
Write the letter of the type of writing that would include each
numbered topic sentence.
A Personal narrative C Business report
B Book review D Comparison/contrast essay
1. We expect excellence from the creator of Harry Potter, and with
her newest book, J. K. Rowling does not disappoint us.
2. Swimming in the ocean is nothing like swimming in a lake.
3. The student council began the year with $187.50 in the treasury.
4. When the tornado warning sirens sounded, my mom took charge.

Some sentences in the business letter below have a “voice problem.”

Write the letter of each problem next to the number of the sentence
that has that problem. Write D if the sentence has no voice problem.
A Slang C Inappropriate humor
B Too formal D No voice problem

(5) Our club has received your bill for the chocolate bars we
ordered for our fundraiser. (6) According to this bill, you shipped
us 5,000 bars and we owe you $3,500. (7) No way! You are so out
of line! (8) Do you think we are a bunch of chocolate junkies? Ha!
(9) Our records show that we ordered 1,000 bars at a total cost of
$750. (10) We shall delay payment until you adjust our bill.

Complete the statement below. Then

develop the idea with at least five
sentences, using a humorous,
light voice.

The most hilarious thing I ever

saw was .

Writer’s Guide 11
Improving Voice

Original

Last night there was a raccoon in the yard. Raccoons are wild animals
that have gray-brown fur and a striped tail and a black stripe across their
eyes that looks like a mask. I was surprised to see him. He stood on his
back legs and looked at me.
He must have figured I wasn’t an enemy because he got down in the
grass and got himself some birdseed. There is a bird feeder in the yard
and birds scatter the seed on the ground under it. I didn’t know a raccoon
would eat birdseed. It sounds gross.
He must have liked it, for he kept eating for a long time. Then he turned
without giving me a second glance and walked off.

Revising Tips
Establish a voice in the opening paragraph. Create a voice that
establishes your mood and your feeling for the subject.
Use interesting language to suggest your personality and get
your reader involved. Replace flat, dull sentences with vivid ones
that bring the topic to life.
Elaborate on your ideas. Use precise, descriptive details rather
than vague, general ones. (Replace got himself some birdseed with
scrabbled around in the grass under the bird feeder and expertly raked in the
seeds scattered by birds.)
Match your language to your purpose. Don’t use slang or overly
informal words in a personal narrative. (Replace It sounds gross.)

12 Writer’s Guide
Improved

Last night a masked bandit surprised me in the yard. The raccoon was
surprised too and reared up on his hind legs to get a good look at me.
With that black stripe across his face, he looked like a stubby-legged
pirate with a thick furry cape wrapped around his wide body. He spread
his paws as if to say, “Well? And what do you want? Are we okay here?”
He must have decided I wasn’t an enemy because he went back to his
business. His business was dinner. He scrabbled around in the grass under
the bird feeder and expertly raked in the seeds scattered by birds. When
he had a nice little pile, he leaned forward to chomp it down. “Ugh!” I
thought, as I imagined swallowing the hard slivers of grain and seeds.
Still, it must have suited him fine, for he kept at it a long time. Then he
turned without giving me a second glance and ambled off, waving his bushy,
striped tail like a f lag.

Writer’s Corner
Your attitude toward your subject comes through your voice; before
you begin writing, consider how you feel about your topic. Allow
those feelings to guide your choice of words. They should reflect your
personality and attitude and also create a suitable tone for the subject.

Writer’s Guide 13
 Word Choice

Good writers always search for the perfect words to express

an idea. Precise nouns, strong verbs, and vivid adjectives
make their writing unforgettable.
• London is an example of a foggy city and is covered with
thick clouds much of the time. (dull and wordy)
• London’s fog is a fine mist that blankets its streets and
chills its citizens. (vivid and precise)

Strategies for Improving Word Choice

• Appeal to the senses. (The elephant’s hide was cracked
like dry earth instead of The elephant’s skin looked dry;
The moon hangs like a pearl earring instead of The moon
is white and round)
• Use precise nouns. (heron instead of bird; skyscraper
instead of building)
• Harness the power of strong verbs. (whisper instead of say; galloped
instead of ran)
• Eliminate wordiness. (I believe instead of It is my opinion that)
• Banish empty words—good, cute, stuff, nice. Choose words with
meaning. (The cellar held battered trunks, rusted lawnmowers, and countless
cardboard boxes instead of The cellar was full of stuff)
• Try rewriting sentences that depend on linking verbs—is, am, were.
(The bell jangled in my ears instead of The bell was loud)
• Find words that make magic on the page: shadowy, harsh, glimmer,
devastated. Jot these words down in a writer’s notebook for future
reference.

14 Writer’s Guide
Choose the more vivid or exact word or phrase
to complete each sentence. Write the sentence.
1. Bev (sat, slumped) in her chair and sighed.
2. The hours (passed, trickled by) slowly.
3. When the bell rang, she (rocketed, walked)
to her locker.
4. (An avalanche, A bunch) of books fell
when she opened the door.
5. She slammed the door shut on that
(chaotic, messy) locker.
6. At last, spring break had (freed her from confinement, started).

Replace the underlined word in each sentence with a more exact

word or phrase from the box. Rewrite the paragraph.

threatening bucked roar

cracked torrents fresh as dawn

(7) We could hear the storm come in from the west. (8) Trees
moved violently as wind whipped them. (9) Black clouds had
suddenly filled the sky. (10) Then lots of rain fell in windblown
sheets. (11) I jumped as lightning ripped the sky and thunder
sounded like a gunshot. (12) Afterwards, the air smelled good.

Write a description of a runner in a race. Use precise nouns, strong

verbs, and vivid adjectives to make your writing powerful.

Writer’s Guide 15
Improving Word Choice

Original

Paul saw something, and it surprised him. He stepped back into the
shadows. Something was walking across his sleeping bag. What on Earth
was it? Or was it from Earth?
It was kind of round and f lat, sort of like a spaceship. It had a face
sticking out one end. It was covered with the weirdest stuff—not exactly
fur or skin, more like needles.
It stood still when he made the noise. Then it turned around and was
looking at him. Paul was nervous, but he was curious too. He went forward.
The thing made a weird noise.
“Would you look at that!” said a voice behind Paul. The thing left. Paul
found out from Mr. Bowie it was a hedgehog.

Revising Tips
Replace vague or general nouns. Substitute the names of specific
people, places, or things. (Use spines instead of stuff.)
Use vivid verbs to describe actions precisely. (Replace walking
with padding; replace stood still with froze; replace said with exclaimed.)
Elaborate with words that appeal to the senses. (Use hissed
instead of made a weird noise.)
Use images and figurative language to create strong word
pictures. (Use like a pincushion instead of more like needles.)
Avoid wordiness. Rewrite sentences that contain unnecessary words.
(Delete kind of and sort of.)

16 Writer’s Guide
Improved

Paul gasped and automatically stepped back into the shadows. A

bizarre creature was padding across his sleeping bag. What on Earth
was it? Or WAS it from Earth?
Its body was rounded, like a weird, warped f lying saucer. The only
indication that it had a front was a tiny, sharp muzzle extending from one
end. It was covered with thousands of sharp spines that rustled against
one another. “Like a pincushion,” muttered Paul.
The pincushion/f lying saucer froze at the sound. Then it whirled to
face him. With his heart in his throat, the curious boy inched forward. The
creature hissed.
“Would you look at that!” exclaimed a deep voice from over Paul’s left
shoulder. While the creature waddled away, Paul learned from Mr. Bowie
that he had just seen his first hedgehog.

Writer’s Corner
Figurative language can make your writing come alive. Consider
whether you might describe your subject more vividly by using a
figurative comparison, such as the “pincushion” simile used above
for the hedgehog.

Writer’s Guide 17
Sentences

Good writing has a natural flow. Sentences that vary in

structure and length create a readable style. When writing
follows the rhythms of speech, it is a pleasure to read aloud.

Here are some ways to improve your sentences.

• Vary sentence types. Use interrogative, exclamatory, and imperative
sentences along with declarative sentences.
• Write sentences of varying lengths.
• Begin sentences with words other than the, I, or it.
• Use connectors. Show relationships between ideas with words such as
although, but, next, while, and however. Don’t rely too heavily on and, so,
and because.

Strategy for Improving Your Sentences

Reread a piece of your writing and number each sentence. Then make a
chart like the one below and examine each sentence.

Sentence Number of First Type of Connector

number words word sentence words
(Interrogative,
Declarative,
Imperative,
Exclamatory)

As you fill out your chart, look for areas to improve. You may learn that
you overuse but or and to connect ideas. Maybe your sentences could be
longer and more varied. When you revise your writing, improve these areas.

18 Writer’s Guide
Use the connector in ( ) to join each pair
of sentences. Write the new sentences.
Use commas as needed.
1. Everyone likes barbecue. People
in different regions prepare it in
different ways. (although)
2. We make barbecued ribs. Dad
rubs them with a mixture of spices.
(when)
3. Some people season their barbecue with vinegar and pepper.
Others baste it with sweet tomato sauce. (while)
4. I eat barbecue. My fingers and cheeks are sticky with sauce.
(after)
5. It is a messy treat. It is so delicious that I don’t mind the
mess. (but)

In the paragraph below, change each sentence to the kind of

sentence indicated in ( ). Write the paragraph. Hint: Begin the
exclamatory sentences with What.
(6) I made a mess when I baked a cake. (exclamatory) (7) Picture
what happens when you take the mixer out of the batter without
turning off the mixer. (interrogative) (8) You can imagine batter all
over the walls and ceiling. (imperative) (9) All that batter could be
in one bowl. (interrogative) (10) I made a tiny cake. (exclamatory)

Write a description of your favorite food. Use all four kinds of

sentences. Vary sentence lengths, and begin each sentence with a
different word.

Writer’s Guide 19
Improving Sentences

Original

I love Fourth of July at our home. I think it is so much fun. I like how the
day begins with a beehive of activity. We set up tables in the yard. Then we
set up chairs around them. We put a centerpiece with f lowers and f lags in
the center of the tables. We get out the festive red, white, and blue plates.
We start the grill.
Guests begin arriving and they walk up the driveway and they sniff the
air hungrily. You can smell hot dogs and hamburgers cooking. We have a
wonderful feast. I especially like the potato salad. Everybody anticipates
the fireworks to come.
Kids play croquet in the shade. Some kids change into swimsuits and
play on the Slip ’n Slide. I can slide 50 feet on it.
Now it is getting dark. We sit facing the park with anticipation. Everyone
is waiting. Now the fireworks begin exploding. They look like huge f lowers
in the night sky.

Revising Tips
Vary sentence beginnings. Avoid starting too many sentences with
I and we.
Join short, choppy sentences. Use connectors such as and, or, as,
and while to join sentences with related ideas.
Avoid sentences that are too long or wordy. (Break the first
sentence in the second paragraph into two sentences.)
Order sentences for a logical flow. (Move information about
anticipating fireworks from the second paragraph to the last paragraph.)
Vary kinds and lengths of sentences. Rephrase some statements as
exclamations, questions, or commands.

20 Writer’s Guide
Improved

Fourth of July is a special day at our home. Won’t you join us? The
day begins with a beehive of activity as we set up tables and chairs in
the yard. A centerpiece with f lowers and f lags goes in the center of each
table. Mom gets out the festive red, white, and blue dinnerware while Dad
fires up the grill.
Soon guests begin arriving. As they walk up, they sniff the air hungrily.
Can you smell the hot dogs and hamburgers cooking? Pass me some of that
potato salad, please. What a wonderful feast we have!
Kids play croquet in the shade or change into swimsuits and play on the
Slip ’n Slide. Did you know I can slide 50 feet on that wet plastic?
Now it is getting dark, and we sit facing the park with anticipation.
Boom! The fireworks begin exploding like huge f lowers in the night sky.

Writer’s Corner
Avoid running several sentences together with
the conjunction and. The result is a long train
of ideas that all seem of equal importance.
Instead, use connectors such as when and
before to show relationships. Eliminate
unnecessary words.
No: School let out and I visited my aunt
and she lives in Georgia.
Yes: When school let out, I visited my aunt
in Georgia.

Writer’s Guide 21
Conventions

Conventions are rules for written language. They are the

signals that writers use to make their meaning clear to readers.
For example, sentences begin with a capital letter and end
with punctuation. Paragraphs are indented to show where a
new idea begins. Grammar and spelling follow patterns.
• sam and he frens walkd to the stor they buyed ice creem
(weak conventions)
• Sam and his friends walked to the store. They bought ice
cream. (strong conventions)

Strategies for Conventions of Writing

• Make sure sentences are complete, with correct capitalization and
punctuation.
• Use a dictionary or spell-checker to check spelling.
• Choose the correct forms of pronouns,
especially pronouns that are compound
subjects or objects.
• Do not change verb tenses
without a reason. Proofreading Marks
• Check the use of apostrophes
New paragraph
in possessive nouns and
contractions. Capital letter
• Use Proofreading Marks as
you revise and edit your work. Lowercase letter

Correct the spelling.

Add something.

Remove something.

22 Writer’s Guide
Match the letter of the rule with the mistake in each numbered
sentence.
A Capitalize a proper noun.
B Change a capital letter to lowercase.
C Correct a misspelled word.
D Use correct end punctuation.
E Use the correct pronoun form.

(1) I am hoping to try out for the sabers, the junior high school
soccer team. (2) My older Brother Darius plays on the team now.
(3) I watch he and his friend practice to pick up pointers. (4) He
asked if I was ready to run five miles in practice? (5) You have to
be in grate shape to play a whole soccer game.

Choose the correct word from each

pair in ( ). Write the word.
6. (Their, There) are many
ways to get exercise.
7. I (like, likes) swimming best.
8. Jimmy told Val and (I, me) that he runs daily.
9. Some people think (its, it’s) hard to find time for exercise.
10. As for me, I have never (saw, seen) an activity I didn’t like.

Write six sentences about one of the topics below. Think carefully
about spelling, grammar, punctuation, and capitalization. Exchange
papers with a partner and proofread.
• How you feel about being active
• Your TV watching habits
• A game that you played

Writer’s Guide 23
Improving Conventions

Original

Every august our town celebrates CornFest this three-day festival

draws people from miles around and sets the whole county abuzz with
nosie and activity.
The downtown are closed to traffic, and restaurants opens outdoor
stands. The smelles of chinese, Mexican, Italian, and Thai food mingle.
Clothing stores wheel out merchandize for sidewalk sales.
A big parking lot hosts carnival rides. Little kids shout and hold on tight
as the merry-go-round whirls. I always ride the Ferris wheel and look over
the hole town.
Best of all, thousands of people line up for the free sweet corn.
Volunteers hand out plates of the steaming treat. The golden ears has
been cooked in a huge old steem locomotive boiler.

Revising Tips
Do not run sentences together incorrectly. (Add a period after
CornFest and capitalize this in the first paragraph.)
Make sure that subjects and verbs agree. (downtown is instead
of downtown are; restaurants open instead of restaurants opens; ears have
instead of ears has)
Spell all words correctly. (noise, merchandise, whole, and steam
instead of nosie, merchandize, hole, and steem)
Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives. (August and Chinese
instead of august and chinese)
Form plurals of nouns correctly. (smells instead of smelles)

24 Writer’s Guide
Improved

Every August our town celebrates CornFest. This three-day festival

draws people from miles around and sets the whole county abuzz with
noise and activity.
The downtown is closed to traffic, and restaurants open outdoor
stands. The smells of Chinese, Mexican, Italian, and Thai food mingle.
Clothing stores wheel out merchandise for sidewalk sales.
A big parking lot hosts carnival rides. Little kids shout and hold on tight
as the merry-go-round whirls. I always ride the Ferris wheel and look over
the whole town.
Best of all, thousands of people line up for the free sweet corn.
Volunteers hand out plates of the steaming treat. The golden ears have
been cooked in a huge old steam locomotive boiler.

Writer’s Corner
When you proofread, try using a ruler. Place the ruler under one
line. Read that line carefully from start to finish. Then move the
ruler down to the next line. Some people even read backward
to catch spelling errors.

Writer’s Guide 25
Rubrics and Models

Narrative Writing Scoring Rubric

A scoring rubric can be used to judge a piece of writing. A rubric is
a checklist of traits, or writing skills, to look for. See pages 2–25 for a
discussion of these traits. Rubrics give a number score for each trait.

Score 4 3 2 1
Focus/Ideas Excellent narrative Good narrative Unfocused narrative Rambling narrative
focused on a clear mostly focused on with unrelated with unrelated
main idea; much a main idea; some details details
elaboration elaboration
Organization/ Strong beginning, Narrative movement Little direction from Lacks beginning,
Paragraphs middle, and end, from beginning to beginning to end, middle, end;
with appropriate end; some order with few order incorrect or no
order words words words order words

Voice Writer involved— Reveals personality Little writer Careless writing

personality evident at times involvement, with no feeling
personality

Word Choice Vivid, precise words Accurate and Few vivid or Vague, dull, or
that bring story sometimes vivid interesting words misused words
to life word choice
Sentences Excellent variety of No serious Simple, awkward, Many errors
sentences; natural errors to affect or wordy sentences; that prevent
rhythm understanding little variety understanding
Conventions Excellent control; No serious Weak control; Many errors
few or no errors errors to affect enough errors that prevent
understanding to affect understanding
understanding

Following are four models that respond to a prompt. Each model has
been given a score, based on the rubric.
Writing Prompt Write about the scariest event you have ever seen. Be
sure your narrative has a beginning, middle, and end. Use vivid words to
help readers see and feel what you experienced.

26 Writer’s Guide
Narrative Writing Model Score 4

Last summer, while hiking on Mount Neeweeshaw, I walked into a waking

nightmare. My dad and I stopped to rest. It was scorching, so I wandered
over to sit in the shade of a boulder.
Then I heard a strange buzzing. A warning bell went off in my head.
Danger is near! My heart thumped like a wild rabbit, but I didn’t move a
muscle. Moving just my eyes, I could see a shape like a coil of rope. It
was a big snake! I knew by the diamond pattern on its back and the
rattles at the end of its tail that I was in trouble. The rattler was warning,
“I will strike!”
Sweat ran down my arms and legs. I wanted like crazy to run away, but
somehow I made myself sit still. Finally, the snake slithered off. The danger
had passed, but I was still shaking.

Focus/Ideas Details focused on writer’s terrified reaction

Organization/Paragraphs Strong beginning, middle, and end;
connectors clarify sequence, cause and effect (so, then, finally)
Voice Writer’s personal involvement clear (warning bell went off in my
head, heart thumped like a wild rabbit)
Word Choice Exact nouns (boulder, rattler), strong verbs (thumped,
slithered), vivid adjectives (scorching, diamond)
Sentences Good sentence variety; mimics natural speech
Conventions No errors

Writer’s Guide 27
Narrative Writing Model Score 3

The day we went to Mall of America, I was so excited. I love shopping,

but things got a little to exciteing.
I went into a shoe store while my mom looked in a gift store. After a
while I walked out but nothing looked familiar. Mom was nowhere to be
seen. I had this sinking feeling in my stomach. I was lost and I didn’t know
anyone. Who would help me? I felt a lump in my throat but I swallowed it
and went to an information desk. The woman was calm and kind. She made
a announcement over the mall intercom. Mom was soon there.
It turned out, I had walked out of the store on another level. The store
has two f loors.

Focus/Ideas Details mostly support main idea of getting lost in the

mall
Organization/Paragraphs Events in order; few connecting words
(After a while); weak ending
Voice Writer’s feelings clear (was so excited; sinking feeling)
Word Choice Some words too general (went, got); be verbs overused
Sentences Clear sentences; some variety; too
many sentences begin with I
Conventions Some errors in
spelling (to, exciteing); a usage error
(a announcement); punctuation
errors (commas needed in
compound sentences)

28 Writer’s Guide
Narrative Writing Model Score 2

Sarah and me went trick or treating one Halloween. We always go

together. She wore karate stuff and I was an army guy. We desided to go
to the old Purdy place. Everybody says its haunted. Its been emtee for
years. So it was real dark. It used to be a manshen, but it looks bad now.
Sarah dare me to go in the house so I did. I hear something moan so I ran
out. I was real scared. Then we went to my house. We played video games.
I still think somebody was in that house.

Focus/Ideas Weak focus on event; some unrelated details (We always…

We played video games); little elaboration
Organization/Paragraphs Events mostly in order; wanders off track
at times; lacks paragraphing
Voice Little sense of personality; some feelings expressed (I was real
scared)
Word Choice General, dull words (went, go, stuff, bad); overuse of
forms of be; a few vivid words (dare, moan)
Sentences No variety of kinds or lengths;
style overly simple; overused connector so
Conventions Misspellings (desided, emtee,
manshen, its instead of it’s); errors in grammar
(me instead of I); shifts in tense (dare and
hear instead of dared and heard)

Writer’s Guide 29
Narrative Writing Model Score 1

We went to the park I like the rides. We usually go every summer. so we

drove in the van and Carla and me were watching a DVD so we got there
and parked. We got on the roler coster that was the first time it was after
lunch. it goed so fast but slow uphill. I culdn’t breth I was so scard. never
agin I said. but it was fun kind of

Focus/Ideas No main idea stated; most details do not focus on

assigned topic; confused
Organization/Paragraphs Events out of order; no paragraphs
Voice Little sense of writer’s personality
Word Choice Limited, dull word choice (went, like, go, got, was)
Sentences Many run-on sentences; disjointed
Conventions Errors in capitalization, spelling (roler coster, culdn’t,
breth, scard, agin), verb usage (goed), pronoun usage (Carla and me), and
punctuation (never agin…kind of)

30 Writer’s Guide
Descriptive Writing Scoring Rubric

Score 4 3 2 1
Focus/Ideas Excellent description Good description Some descriptive Little focus on
with clear main with adequate details; some focus described subject;
idea and vivid, details focused on on main idea lacks details
elaborated details main idea
Organization/ Details arranged Details mostly Details not well No organization
Paragraphs in a clear order; arranged in order; connected; weak of details; lack
strong beginning good beginning beginning and of beginning or
and ending and ending ending ending

Voice Strong personality; Writer involved; Writer lacking Writer involvement,

clear connection some connection involvement; few point of view
between writer and between writer and feelings shown missing
subject subject
Word Choice Specific, vivid Accurate, engaging Uninteresting Limited, vague
language that language that language; little language; repetitive
appeals to several appeals to one or appeal to senses
senses two senses
Sentences Superior structure; Some varied Simple structures; Many errors;
excellent flow beginnings; well little variety awkward; hard to
constructed read
Conventions Excellent control; No serious Weak control; Many errors
few or no errors errors to affect enough errors that prevent
understanding to affect understanding
understanding

Following are four models that respond to a prompt. Each model has
been given a score, based on the rubric.
Writing Prompt Write a description of a pet. Use exact words to help
readers see, hear, smell, and feel the pet’s personality and appearance.

Writer’s Guide 31
Descriptive Writing Model Score 4

Some people think a fish makes a poor pet, but they never met
my goldfish Mutt. He may not fetch or purr, but Mutt is beautiful, smart,
and entertaining.
While most goldfish are solid orange-gold, Mutt looks as though an
artist painted parts of him a velvety black. When he swims, his long fins
and tail wave and shimmer. He is a silk kite with streamers.
I think Mutt is intelligent because he knows when it is time to eat. As
soon as I get the food f lakes, he glides close to me and points his mouth
at the surface. He likes attention and comes close when I press my face to
the glass. Then, at bedtime, he retires to his plastic “house.”
Watching Mutt swim gracefully and slowly or dart like lightning around his
aquarium keeps me entertained for hours. If I am tired or upset, Mutt gives
me a calm, restful feeling.

Focus/Ideas Strong, specific details that bring subject into focus

Organization/Paragraphs Organized by traits, one per paragraph;
strong beginning and ending
Voice Clear communication of bond with pet; strong writer presence
(I press my face to the glass)
Word Choice Vivid verbs and modifiers that appeal to sight
(fetch, velvety, shimmer, gracefully, dart), hearing (purr),
and feeling (calm, restful); metaphor (a silk kite
with streamers)
Sentences Interest through varied kinds and
lengths of sentences; combined ideas
Conventions No mechanical errors

32 Writer’s Guide
Descriptive Writing Model Score 3

My mom says our dog Rufus is Heinz 57 Variety. That means he isn’t
one breed but many breeds mixed together. Rufus is mixed up in more
than one way. Yet he is so lovable I don’t care.
Rufus barks when he wants out, which is a lot. As soon as he gets out,
we here another bark. He is waiting to get in. Make up your mind, Rufus!
He is supposed to be part chow.
He barks at anyone who comes to the door. Like he would bite
their head off. Then they come in, and he wags his tail. And jumps
up to lick them!
Mixed-up Rufus doesn’t look exactly like any other dog. He has the
head of a collie and the body of a German shepherd. His tail curls up and
over like a chow’s. When he looks at me with his big brown eyes, I think he
looks like the best dog ever!

Focus/Ideas All details focused on the subject of Rufus the dog; one
sentence out of place (He is…chow.)
Organization/Paragraphs Details in logical order with good
connecting words
Voice Writer’s feelings for Rufus clear (he is so lovable I don’t care; the best
dog ever)
Word Choice A few strong verbs and modifiers that appeal to sight
(wags, curls up and over, big brown) and hearing (barks)
Sentences Good variety of sentence kinds and lengths; some variety of
sentence beginnings
Conventions A spelling error (here); two sentence fragments; lack of
pronoun agreement (anyone/their)

Writer’s Guide 33
Descriptive Writing Model Score 2

I don’t have no pet and I would like one but mom and dad said we
can’t get one so I am writing about my neighbors cat Cheerio. She is
orange and white and fat. I like how her tail curls over her back like
a question mark. When you call her she sounds like she is saying me?
The neighbor had two cats but one died which is sad. I buy treats for
cheerio and taught her to sit up and roll over. which is a riet. she purrs
like a rusty enjin.

Focus/Ideas Focused on neighbor’s cat; some descriptive details

Organization/Paragraphs Little sense of organization; few
connecting words; weak beginning; no end or paragraphs
Voice Feelings shown (I like how her tail, which is sad, a riet)
Word Choice Some details that appeal to sight and hearing; strong
figurative language
Sentences Some sentences strung together; one fragment; little variety;
poor flow
Conventions Errors in spelling (riet, enjin), punctuation (quotation
marks, apostrophes, commas), verb tense, and capitalization; double
negative (don’t have no)

34 Writer’s Guide
Descriptive Writing Model Score 1

George runs on a weel at night. George is mine gerbel I got him when
I was sevin. He chews up tubes. he make a nest of the pieces. he is gray.
George eats pellets and little pieces of fruit and carats. A bird eats seeds
and fruit too I had a paraket. A gerbel is a kind of mouse. he sleeps a lot
in the day. I put him in a fish tank but only a little bottle of water. he drink
water out the tube. George has funny wiskers and black eyes.

Focus/Ideas Details about birds distract from subject

Organization/Paragraphs Details very disorganized; ideas not
joined with connectors; no paragraphs; no ending
Voice Writer’s feeling for subject unclear
Word Choice Mostly general words; some modifiers; some details
appealing to sound and sight
Sentences Overly simple constructions; run-ons
Conventions Errors in spelling (weel, gerbel, sevin, carats, paraket,
wiskers), capitalization, verb and pronoun usage, punctuation

Writer’s Guide 35
Persuasive Writing Scoring Rubric

Score 4 3 2 1
Focus/Ideas Excellent persuasive Clear opinion Opinion not clearly No stated opinion;
essay with clearly supported by stated; weak details not focused
stated opinion and mostly persuasive reasons or not on topic
strong elaboration reasons enough reasons to
support it
Organization/ Strong, convincing Interesting Weak or unclear No introduction;
Paragraphs introduction; introduction; introduction; few reasons; order
reasons presented reasons in order of reasons not clear not logical
in order of importance or not in order of
importance importance
Voice Concerned, Some sense of Little sense of writer No sense of writer’s
committed writer caring, concerned involvement with personality or
behind words writer behind essay feelings evident
words
Word Choice Effective use of Use of persuasive Few persuasive No persuasive
persuasive words words adequate to words used in essay words used in essay
good
Sentences Varied sentence Some varied Sentence structures Simple, choppy
structures; excellent sentence structures; lacking variety; sentences;
flow and rhythm few sentence errors some sentence fragments and
errors run-ons
Conventions Excellent control Few errors in Some distracting Many errors
of all mechanical grammar, spelling, mechanical errors that prevent
aspects of writing punctuation, understanding
paragraphing

Following are four models that respond to a prompt. Each model has
been given a score, based on the rubric.
Writing Prompt What animal would be a good mascot for your
school? State your choice and persuade your readers to accept it by
giving several strong reasons why it is an excellent choice.

36 Writer’s Guide
Persuasive Writing Model Score 4

Go, Bulldogs, go! We should adopt the bulldog as our school mascot
because there is so much to admire in a bulldog.
First, we say that the dog is people’s best friend. A best friend is always
there for you and supports you. Loyalty is part of a winning attitude for
people too.
Second, like all dogs, bulldogs love people. A bulldog takes care of
its family. For example, it would defend you from harm. Students at Benton
Elementary are like a family, and a bulldog mascot would stand for the way
we take care of each other.
Most important, a bulldog is strong and a great fighter. Once it grabs
on, it doesn’t let go. Don’t we want to have that kind of staying power? If
we play a game or meet a goal, we will give it our best and won’t quit.
Now, don’t you think Benton Bulldogs has a nice ring to it?

Focus/Ideas Opinion clearly stated; developed with good supporting

reasons and details
Organization/Paragraphs Strong introduction; topic sentences give
reasons in logical order; most important reason given last
Voice Writer’s enthusiasm and personality evident
Word Choice Persuasive words with emotional appeal (best friend,
winning attitude, love, takes care of, family, staying power)
Sentences Varied structures and kinds; connectors aid flow (First,
Second, For example, Most important, Now)
Conventions No mechanical errors

Writer’s Guide 37
Persuasive Writing Model Score 3

I am voting for eagles to be our mascot for these reasons. One, eagles
live around here. That is special. People drive from all over the state to
watch them.
Also, eagles show pride in our country. They f ly high and free. Thats
why they are a symbol for the U.S. The name Eagles shows patriatizm and
that we are a great school. Also, there are a lot of awesome pictures of
eagles around so we could get a good picture for the school.
And eagles stand out from the rest. They can see far and f ly so fast.
They always get their prey. They are number one hunters. Don’t we want to
be the number one school?
You should vote for eagles as our school mascot.

Focus/Ideas Clear opinion and good examples; some elaboration

Organization/Paragraphs One reason to a paragraph; no order of
importance apparent; connectors repetitive (and, also)
Voice Writer’s feelings stated; some sense of personality
Word Choice Some persuasive words and phrases (special,
great school, number one); some dull words (a lot of)
Sentences Some sentence variety; too many short,
choppy sentences
Conventions Error in spelling (patriatizm) and
use of apostrophe (thats instead of that’s)

38 Writer’s Guide
Persuasive Writing Model Score 2

Tigers are the coolest looking animal. I love to draw them. They have
black stripes and sharp fangs. They stok very quiet through the jungle.
Bam! There prey never knew what hit them.
Tigers are orange and black, and those are our school colors. See how
that fits?
Another reason. Tigers be ferce, and they win in a fight. That’s what we
want our team to do.
Go Benton Tigers! Vote for tigers!

Focus/Ideas Opinion not clearly stated at the beginning; irrelevant

details weaken writer’s argument (I love to draw them, There prey never knew
what hit them); some good elaboration
Organization/Paragraphs Introduction lacking; reasons in no
apparent order
Voice Writer’s feelings clearly expressed
Word Choice Few persuasive words; overuse of are
Sentences Too many short, choppy sentences; lacks natural flow;
sentence fragment
Conventions Errors in spelling
(stok, there instead of their, ferce),
use of adverbs (quiet instead of
quietly) and verbs (be instead of are)

Writer’s Guide 39
Persuasive Writing Model Score 1

Shark would be good. Sharks have rows of real sharp teeth. It body is
strong it swims and swims. And never sleeps. Sharks are different from fish.
shark don’t mess around they attack. they are eating mesheens. Did you
ever see the movie jaws? a big shark eating people. you bewear of shark

Focus/Ideas Opinion not clearly stated; information not presented as

support for an argument
Organization/Paragraphs No paragraphing or introduction; no
organizational plan evident
Voice Good sense of writer behind words
Word Choice Vague, general words (good, have, is, are); needs more
persuasive words
Sentences Many fragments and run-ons; ideas incompletely
communicated
Conventions Errors in spelling (mesheens, bewear), capitalization,
end punctuation, usage (real instead of really; shark instead of sharks),
subject-verb agreement (shark don’t instead of sharks don’t);
pronouns (It body instead of Its body)

40 Writer’s Guide
Expository Writing Scoring Rubric

Score 4 3 2 1
Focus/Ideas Excellent Good explanation Some focus on Explanation of
explanation of of process; steps process; some steps process unfocused;
process; steps mostly clear missing or unclear steps missing
explained clearly
Organization/ Clear introduction Adequate Introduction Introduction of
Paragraphs of topic; steps in introduction of weak; important topic missing; steps
order; appropriate topic; most steps in steps missing or in out of order; no
connecting words correct order; some wrong order; few connecting words
connecting words connecting words
Voice Engaging, Somewhat Voice not always Voice lacking or
straightforward, engaging and appropriate to inappropriate
helpful helpful subject matter

Word Choice Steps conveyed Steps outlined with Some vague, Clear nouns and
through specific, clear nouns and repetitive, or verbs lacking;
strong verbs and verbs incorrect words very limited word
nouns choices
Sentences Well-crafted Mostly imperative Overly simple Many fragments;
sentences; focus on sentences; few constructions; some sense hard to follow
imperative sentence errors errors
Conventions Excellent control Few mechanical Some distracting Many errors
of all mechanical errors mechanical errors in mechanics
aspects of writing that prevent
understanding

Following are four models that respond to a prompt. Each model has
been given a score, based on the rubric.
Writing Prompt Write an expository essay explaining how to do or
make something. For example, you could tell how to make pizza or put
up a tent. List any materials needed. Use specific, strong verbs, and put
the steps in order.

Writer’s Guide 41
Expository Writing Model Score 4

Everybody loves pizza, and this French bread pizza is quick and easy
to make. First, get out the things you need: a sharp knife, a cookie sheet,
a loaf of French bread, pizza sauce, shredded mozzarella cheese, and any
other toppings you want.
Next, turn the oven on to 400°F. While it is heating up, carefully slice the
bread in half the long way. Now spread pizza sauce to cover the top of
the bread. Then cover the sauce with cheese. How much you use depends
on how much you like cheese. Do not put on too much cheese, or some will
fall off the bread and onto the cookie sheet.
Finally, add your favorite toppings, such as peppers, olives, sausage, or
pepperoni. Place your pizza on the cookie sheet and bake it for 15 minutes.
Let it cool for a few minutes and bite in!

Focus/Ideas Clear main idea; all details explain the steps clearly
Organization/Paragraphs Clear introduction; steps in order; helpful
connectors (First, Next, While, Now, Then, Finally)
Voice Warm and helpful, but serious about process
Word Choice Precise nouns (knife, cookie sheet, loaf, pizza sauce) and
specific verbs (slice, spread, cover, bake)
Sentences Imperative sentences consistent with how-to format
Conventions Excellent control; no mechanical errors

42 Writer’s Guide
Expository Writing Model Score 3

To add beauty to your home, plant f lowers around it. You will need a
shovel, a spade, some potting soil, seedlings, and a watering can.
First, you will getting the dirt reddy. Turn it over with a shovel. Crush
any large chunks so the dirt is even and smooth.
Now you can make holes for your seedlings with a spade. I make the
hole big enough for the roots and a little deeper. Add a little potting soil
at the bottom of the hole. Put the plant in. Hold it straight with one hand.
Add potting soil with the other hand. Don’t cover to much of the stem.
Tamp down the dirt with you’re palms.
When you finnish planting the f lowers, give them a good drink of water.
This is because of the fact that the roots need a drink.

Focus/Ideas Main idea clear, with most details focused on actions

involved in process; last sentence wordy
Organization/Paragraphs Introduces process and items needed;
some use of connecting words; logical paragraph breaks
Voice Writer pleasant (To add beauty to your home); gives some helpful
hints (Hold it straight, Don’t cover to much)
Word Choice Some strong verbs (crush, tamp);
some general words (make, big, little, put, good)
Sentences Mostly imperative sentences; somewhat
choppy style
Conventions Errors in spelling (reddy, to instead of too,
you’re instead of your, finnish) and verb form (getting instead
of get)

Writer’s Guide 43
Expository Writing Model Score 2

To get a raise in your allowance. This work for me. Be extra good the
day your gonna ask. Like if your parents have to nag you to do stuff, do
it before they can. Clean up the dinner table. do it before they ask you
to. Act responsably. Like talk about how you need to be the boss of your
own mony and savings and stuff. Look sad and tell how you have to spend
all your mony on lunch and can’t save any for important stuff like games or
college. maybe do this two or three days.

Focus/Ideas Main idea presented; details somewhat repetitive

Organization/Paragraphs Weak introduction; no apparent
organization; lack of connecting words; no paragraphs
Voice Establishes personality; too informal (gonna, like)
Word Choice Some general, vague words (good, do, stuff)
Sentences Fragments and awkward sentences; mostly imperative
sentences
Conventions Errors in spelling (your instead of you’re, responsably,
mony), subject-verb agreement, capitalization,
punctuation; incorrect verb form (gonna)

44 Writer’s Guide
Expository Writing Model Score 1

I use matches some people use a f lint. its a hard rock it makes sparks.
Put big pieces on top but first twigs and paper. That burn easy. have you
wood and twigs by you. Feed the fire. You can put pieces on each other.
Like a tepee. Oh, wet or gren wood don’t ketch fire. Smoky bear says be
sure your fire is out. you mit dig around the fire pit

Focus/Ideas Lacks main idea statement; includes irrelevant details

Organization/Paragraphs No introduction of topic; details out of
order; no connecting words; no paragraph breaks
Voice No clear voice; delivery unsure and disorganized
Word Choice Vague verbs (put, have, is)
Sentences Many run-ons and fragments; extremely choppy; hard to
follow
Conventions Errors in spelling (its instead of it’s, gren, ketch, mit),
capitalization, punctuation, subject-verb agreement (don’t instead of
doesn’t), pronoun usage (you instead of your)

Writer’s Guide 45
Evaluate Your Writing
You can evaluate your own writing by reading it over carefully. Think
about what is good as well as what you can improve. As you read, ask
yourself the following questions.
How does my writing sound? Read it aloud to find out.
• If it sounds choppy, you might combine short sentences.
• Are there many sentences strung together with and, because, or
then? “Unhook” a long stringy sentence by separating it into several
sentences.
• Do most sentences begin with I, the, it, she, or he? Think of other ways
to begin these sentences. Simply rearranging words might do the trick.
• Do ideas seem connected? If not, add transition words or phrases such
as finally or on the other hand. These words connect ideas and help your
sentences flow.
Is the style appropriate? Who is your audience? (friends, your
principal, a newspaper editor) What is your purpose? (to inform, to
persuade, to entertain) Sentence fragments, informal language, and slang
may be appropriate for e-mails or quick notes among friends. A more
formal style suits written assignments.
Does your writing address the assignment?
• Look for key words in the writing prompt. For example:
Compare and contrast a bike and a car.
Tell two similarities and two differences.
Topic: bike and car
What you need to do: Compare and contrast
What to include: Two similarities and two differences
• Other kinds of key words in writing prompts include describe, explain,
summarize, examples, why, and how.

46 Writer’s Guide
Is your writing focused? Are all the sentences about the main idea?
Take out or refocus sentences that wander off into unimportant details.
Is there enough elaboration and support? Your writing may be
unclear if you don’t elaborate on your ideas. Supply information that
readers need to know.
• Use sensory details to make your writing seem fresh and to give readers
pictures, but avoid sounding flowery.
• If you give an opinion, supply strong supporting reasons.
• Expand on a main idea with several telling details.
• When necessary, define a term or give examples.
Is your beginning strong? Does a question, a surprising fact, or an
amusing detail capture a reader’s interest?
Is your ending satisfying? A conclusion may restate the main idea
in a new way, tell what you feel or what you have learned, or pose a
question to readers to think about. Whatever it does, it should signal that
you have finished.
Have you used effective words—and not too many of
them? Have you chosen your words carefully?
• Strong verbs, precise nouns, and vivid adjectives make your writing
clear and lively.
• Are there awkward phrases you can replace with a word or two? For
example, replace due to the fact that with because and at this point in time
with now.

Writer’s Guide 47
Checklist

My writing sounds smooth and easy to read.

I have used an appropriate style for my audience and purpose.

My writing addresses the prompt or assignment.

My writing is focused.

I have used enough elaboration and support.

I have a strong beginning.

I have a satisfying conclusion.

I have used effective words and avoided wordiness.

48 Writer’s Guide
 Grammar and
Writing Lessons
Sentences
• A declarative sentence, or statement, tells something. It
ends with a period.
Specially trained dogs help people with disabilities.
• An interrogative sentence asks a question. It ends with a
question mark.
What kinds of jobs can these dogs do?
• An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a
request. It ends with a period. You is the understood subject.
Read this newspaper article about some heroic canines.
• An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. It ends
with an exclamation mark.
How interesting this article is! That dog is amazing!
• An interjection is a word or a group of words that
expresses strong feeling. It is not a complete sentence.
Oh, my! Wow! Ouch! Hooray!

Write D if the sentence is declarative. Write IN if it is interrogative.

Write IM if it is imperative. Write E if it is exclamatory.
1. Where did you find your new puppy?
2. The animal shelter rescues abandoned pets.
3. What a wonderful job that place does!
4. Visit the shelter in your neighborhood.
5. You will be amazed at the variety of animals.
6. Do they have snakes and lizards at the shelter?
7. Call this number for that information.
8. Wow! A pet snake would be terrific!

50 Grammar
Write each sentence, adding capitalization and the correct end
mark. Then write D if the sentence is declarative, IM if it is
imperative, IN if it is interrogative, or E if it is exclamatory.
1. a dog is fiercely loyal to its owner
2. what a great watchdog Wilbur is
3. is Wilbur a German shepherd
4. we adopted Wilbur as a pup
5. watch him do his tricks
6. have you ever heard a dog sing
7. wilbur howls while I practice piano
8. that is an unbelievable racket
9. why does Wilbur bark when someone
comes to the door
10. he is defending his territory and his family

Complete each sentence with words from the box. Write the
sentences using capitalization and correct end marks.

to their owners’ illnesses that is

about cancer-sniffing dogs read more about this
have defended their owners cancer in people

11. many dogs

12. are dogs sensitive
13. read this article
14. these dogs can sense
15. what an amazing life-saving act
16. where can I

Grammar 51
Test Preparation
Read the paragraph. Write the letter of the word that identifies each
kind of sentence.
(1) The bond between pets and owners is strong. (2) How many
pets do you know? (3) Do they sleep with their owners? (4) Some
pets and owners are inseparable. (5) Can pets and owners really
look alike? (6) That can happen with time. (7) That’s incredible!
(8) Your pet depends on you. (9) Give it food, water, love, and
exercise. (10) A healthy, loving pet is a part of the family.

1 A declarative 6. A declarative
B interrogative B interrogative
C imperative C imperative
D exclamatory D exclamatory

2. A declarative 7. A declarative
B interrogative B interrogative
C imperative C imperative
D exclamatory D exclamatory

3. A declarative 8. A declarative
B interrogative B interrogative
C imperative C imperative
D exclamatory D exclamatory

4. A declarative 9. A declarative
B interrogative B interrogative
C imperative C imperative
D exclamatory D exclamatory

5. A declarative 10. A declarative

B interrogative B interrogative
C imperative C imperative
D exclamatory D exclamatory

52 Grammar
Review
Write the mark that should end each sentence. Then write D if the
sentence is declarative, IN if it is interrogative, IM if it is imperative,
and E if it is exclamatory.
1. Some cartoons are based on pets and owners
2. Do you like the comic strip Garfield
3. What a great cartoon that is
4. Garfield the cat “owns” his human Jon Arbuckle
5. Isn’t Odie the name of Jon’s dog
6. Why does Garfield pick on Odie all the time
7. Please be careful, Odie
8. Don’t let Garfield trick you again
9. Garfield is such a rascal
10. He has a soft spot for his teddy bear, Pookie

Write each sentence. Make any necessary corrections in

capitalization and punctuation.
11. does your pet understand what you say
12. my cat, Ragamuffin, communicates with me
13. hey! You forgot my food
14. she butts my leg with her head
15. a loud purr means she is happy
16. how does a cat purr
17. scratch my head right here
18. what a wonderful human you are
19. ragamuffin talks with her voice, tail, and claws
20. give your pet plenty of love and attention
21. who needs words anyway
22. watch Ragamuffin get what she wants

Grammar 53
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Show, Don’t Tell

When you write about yourself, show, don’t tell,
how you feel.
Tell I was nervous.
Show My voice squeaked and my knees knocked.

Use words from the word bank or your own words to replace
the words in ( ). Write the sentences. Write a final sentence that
shows feelings.

jumped in circles and yapped like a ball of red fur with feet
giggled wildly and zoomed romping and playing with his new friend

1. My little brother Jason (was excited and went ) into the kitchen.
Dad was bringing home our new dog!
2. The puppy looked (cute).
3. We named her Sparky because she (was so energetic).
4. Jason looked forward to (spending time with her).
5.

Write a paragraph describing a pet you have known. Use vivid details
and images to show (not tell) how the pet and you feel. If you wish,
use the questions below to help you.
What kind of pet was it, and what was its main personality trait?
What did it look like?
When did you first see it?
What did you do together?
How did you feel about each other?

54 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Memoir
A memoir tells a story from the author’s life. Vivid
descriptions draw the reader into the author’s personal
“world.” Words such as I, me, and mine show that the
narrator sees things from a personal point of view.

A Childhood Memory
I, my, and me I remember my tenth birthday as if it were
show a personal
point of view. yesterday.
I ran home from school through almost a foot
Strong word choice of squishy snow. At the corner of Oak and Lavey,
sets the scene. I skidded on a patch of ice and crashed into a
snowbank. Now my mittens were soaked and my
boots were leaky.
Different kinds of Finally, I made it! Home at last! I streaked up
sentences and an the steep front steps, unlocked the front door
intentional fragment
keep the story (with all three keys), and burst into the living room.
interesting. What great birthday surprise had Mom and Aunt
Susu planned for me this time?

Writing 55
Subjects and Predicates
A sentence must have a subject and a predicate. The subject
tells whom or what the sentence is about. All the words in
the subject are the complete subject. The most important
word in the complete subject is the simple subject. It may
be more than one word, such as Mrs. Williams.
My favorite neighbor lives in a big, yellow house.
The simple subject is neighbor.
The predicate tells what the subject is or does. All the words
in the predicate are the complete predicate. The most
important word in the predicate is the simple predicate, or
the verb. It may have more than one word, such as has lived.
My favorite neighbor lives in a big yellow house.
The simple predicate is lives.
A fragment is a group of words that lacks a subject or a
predicate. The fragment below lacks a subject.
Lived in her house for 60 years.
A run-on is two or more complete sentences run together.
Mrs. Moy has a flower garden her roses are beautiful.
I’m not a gardener, everything I touch wilts.

Write each sentence. Divide the complete subject and complete

predicate with a line. Underline the simple subject once and the
simple predicate twice.
1. Her house is surrounded by a white picket fence.
2. Many beautiful flowers grow in the front yard.
3. Mrs. Williams works in her gardens every sunny day.
4. Two huge oak trees tower over her house.

56 Grammar
Write F for a fragment. Write RO for a run-on. Write S for a
complete sentence.
1. Visits the nursing home on Oak Street once a month.
2. The children bring pictures and vases as gifts.
3. The leader of Troop 133.
4. Mr. Clay plays piano sometimes he brings
his dogs.
5. The residents love to pet Lefty and Bear.
6. Cheers up many of the elderly people.
7. Music soothes and stimulates people of
all ages.
8. Animal companions also bring new life to
the home.
9. The scouts feel good about themselves, the
residents enjoy talking to young people.
10. A win-win situation for all.

Add your own words to each of the following fragments to make a

complete sentence. Write the new sentence. Underline the simple
subject and circle the simple predicate.
11. My great-grandmother
12. was her name
13. This red-haired teenager
14. Family friends on the East Side
15. hired as a governess for the children of a wealthy family
16. married Thomas O’Brien, an auto mechanic
17. Wedding pictures of Thomas and Molly
18. had twelve children
19. Their twelfth child
20. was my grandmother and my namesake

Grammar 57
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the phrase that correctly identifies the underlined
part of the sentence.

1. Our local police officers meet 6. Their goal is to make the

many community needs. streets safe.
A complete subject A complete subject
B complete predicate B complete predicate
C simple subject C simple subject
D simple predicate D simple predicate

2. They patrol the streets. 7. Citizens in trouble can call

A complete subject the police for help.
B complete predicate A complete subject
C simple subject B complete predicate
D simple predicate C simple subject
D simple predicate
3. Of course, trained detectives
investigate crimes. 8. Many TV shows have depicted
the lives of police officers.
A complete subject
A complete subject
B complete predicate
B complete predicate
C simple subject
C simple subject
D simple predicate
D simple predicate
4. Police regulate traffic flow at
9. Most of these shows make
an accident scene.
police work seem exciting.
A complete subject
A complete subject
B complete predicate
B complete predicate
C simple subject C simple subject
D simple predicate D simple predicate
5. Officers may give tickets to 10. In fact, much of the work is
drivers. routine.
A complete subject A complete subject
B complete predicate B complete predicate
C simple subject C simple subject
D simple predicate D simple predicate
58 Grammar
Review
Write each sentence. Divide the complete subject and complete
predicate with a line.
1. City neighborhoods offer interesting histories.
2. Each neighborhood reflects a distinct heritage.
3. Many immigrants from a particular country settled together in
one location.
4. Their common culture gave them a feeling of belonging.
5. Polish, Italian, and Chinese neighborhoods formed early in our
city’s history.

Write F for a fragment. Write RO for a run-on. Write S for a

complete sentence.
6. Most of the people in our urban neighborhood.
7. We celebrate Mexico’s Independence Day, everyone enjoys the
big parade.
8. Many people speak Spanish.
9. Love eating at the many great Mexican restaurants.
10. My favorite dish is chiles rellenos these are deep-fried chiles
stuffed with cheese.

Write the simple subject and the simple predicate in each sentence.
11. More and more people live in subdivisions today.
12. Large houses stand side by side in rows.
13. In a subdivision, you seldom know many neighbors.
14. People in your neighborhood will come from all walks of life.
15. They may represent many different cultures.
16. Busy lives isolate people from one another.
17. A block party can bring neighbors together.
18. Neighbors share food and fun together.

Grammar 59
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Tone
A writer’s tone expresses his or her attitude
toward the subject. Word choice, sentence structure,
and word pictures made by details and comparisons
create the tone in a piece of writing.

Write the word from the box that describes the tone
of each paragraph.

humorous spooky serious

1. Wednesday is garbage day. Every Tuesday I have to separate all

of the recycling into different bags: one for plastic, one for glass,
and one for paper. All of the paper has to be clean and flat, and
all of the glass has to be washed and dried.
2. The night was still. We could hear an owl hooting softly in the
distance. Who-o-o. . . who-o-o. . . . As we crept slowly around
Maynard’s barn, every crunching leaf made us jump.
3. “Hold it!” Mom stopped me at the foot of the stairs. She had
that look in her eye. I know that look. It’s the look of doom!
She pointed silently at my feet. What? What’s the problem? I
looked slowly down at my feet and saw the potential disaster.
My socks! One was orange and one was white. “Thanks, Mom,”
I muttered as I trudged back up the stairs.

Write a paragraph about something that has happened to you. Use a

serious, spooky, or humorous tone.

60 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Character Sketch
A character sketch makes a person or story character
come alive for the reader. It vividly describes the
person’s actions and character traits.

The Gift of Mother Fletcher

Topic sentence Mother Fletcher in Mother Fletcher’s Gift is a
“sets up” three mysterious woman, but she is also kind and funny.
character traits.
She doesn’t reveal her real first name or just how
old she is. At first, Officer O’Brien doesn’t know what
to make of her because she gives strange answers to
his questions.
Later, when O’Brien thinks he has finally finished
Detail sentences
with her, Mother Fletcher gives him sweaters that she
tell actions for knitted for him and his wife. When he stops by to
each trait. thank her, she invites the O’Briens to Christmas dinner.
As we learn at the end of the story, Mother
Fletcher has a great sense of humor. She tells funny
stories to O’Brien’s daughter about how she knew
Santa Claus when he was a little boy. She tells Officer
O’Brien that her age is “full-grown.”
Conclusion tells Mother Fletcher’s real gift is that she can teach us
writer’s feelings all how to feel young, even when we get old!
about the
character.

Writing 61
Independent and Dependent Clauses
An independent clause has a subject and verb and can stand
alone as a complete sentence. A dependent clause has a subject
and a verb but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It is
introduced by a conjunction such as before, if, since, or although. A
complex sentence contains an independent and a dependent clause.

In the following complex sentences, the independent clause is

underlined once; the dependent clause is underlined twice. The
dependent clause is followed by a comma when it comes before the
independent clause.
Lucinda’s relatives were in a makeshift boat before they reached
America.
Before they reached America, Lucinda’s relatives were in a
makeshift boat.

Write I if the group of words is an independent clause. Write D if it

is a dependent clause and circle the conjunction.
1. Before the U.S. Coast Guard cutter towed them.
2. The perilous journey lasted two days.
3. Lucinda’s family moved to West New York, New Jersey.
4. If the dog has not been found.
5. Whenever she heard a Spanish song.
6. Since she lived in an apartment building.
7. Some homes had cement lawns and paved driveways.
8. It was all too confusing.
9. Although he didn’t feel like it.
10. Many people didn’t know one another.

62 Grammar
Write each sentence. Underline the independent clause once and
the dependent clause twice.
1. When you move, it can be hard to make friends.
2. The task is harder still if you speak a different language.
3. Before the first day of school arrived, I worried.
4. The new home would not feel like home until I made friends.
5. Although I have many friends now, once I had none.
6. I found a good friend after I joined the band.
7. Julio, Denise, and Martina have been my friends since I started
third grade.
8. I can speak English well although my parents still struggle.
9. Because I am shy, I must make myself talk to new people.
10. When you meet new people, smile and ask them about themselves.

Add an independent clause to each dependent clause to make a

complex sentence. Write the sentences. Use correct punctuation and
capitalization.
11. because she wants to be a writer
12. after Anna heard about the story-writing contest
13. until her fingers became cramped
14. where she can find synonyms for words
15. since I am a decent artist
16. when she had finished writing
17. if she asks my opinion
18. because I love to draw ghosts and other
spooky things
19. before she makes up her mind
20. if she really likes the pictures

Grammar 63
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the phrase that best identifies the underlined
words in each sentence.

1. When I heard something in 5. Lucky came when I called.

the bushes, I was scared at A independent clause
first.
B conjunction
A independent clause C dependent clause
B subject D none of the above
C dependent clause
D none of the above 6. If the phone number on the
collar was correct, I could
2. A dirty, skinny little dog call the owners.
crept out when I called. A independent clause
A independent clause B subject
B fragment C dependent clause
C dependent clause D none of the above
D none of the above
7. I gave Lucky food and a bath
3. I thought it was lost because before I called them.
it had a collar. A independent clause
A independent clause B predicate
B conjunction C dependent clause
C dependent clause D none of the above
D none of the above
8. After they heard the good
4. When I looked at the collar, news, the Smiths were
I learned the dog’s name. happy.
A independent clause A independent clause
B conjunction B run-on
C dependent clause C dependent clause
D none of the above D none of the above

64 Grammar
Review
Write I for each independent clause. Write D for each
dependent clause.
1. parents want the best for their children
2. they insist on a good education
3. because it prepares young people for
the future
4. if you lack the skills for a certain job
5. you may need classes in that area
6. when you get a college degree
7. many areas and occupations open up
to you
8. although I am a good student
9. my parents still nag me about
studying hard
10. since I started school

Write the letter of the independent clause that can be matched with
each dependent clause.
11. If a friend asks for my help, A I helped him look for it.
12. When Joe lost his jacket, B he appreciated my help.
13. Although we didn’t find it, C I always help.
14. Because I had an extra jacket, D kindness is the best plan.
15. Where friendship is concerned, E I loaned it to Joe.

Write each sentence. Underline the independent clause once and the
dependent clause twice. Circle the conjunction.
16. Because both my parents work, I help out at home.
17. I start supper when they will be late.
18. I usually make spaghetti since that is my specialty.
19. My brother sets the table while I cook the noodles.
20. Although he complains, he really likes doing it.
Grammar 65
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Voice
Voice shows a writer’s personality through tone and
word choice. It reveals feelings and makes one person’s
writing sound different from everyone else’s. Writers should
use a voice that suits their subject.

Write the letter of the word that best describes the

voice of each writer.

A Serious B Friendly C Sarcastic

1. The police responded quickly to the woman’s call.

2. You’ll never guess what my dog’s name is!
3. Electric earmuffs! Just what every girl wants.
4. The party begins at noon, and everyone’s invited.
5. New Jersey is located on the Atlantic Ocean.
6. Those greasy fries are so good for us all!
7. Could you turn that music up louder, so we’ll all be deaf?
8. Many lost pets end up in an animal shelter.
9. Would you like me to show you around the place?
10. Volunteers each work four hours a week.

Follow each set of directions to write a sentence with a distinctive voice.

11. Write a sentence about a lost pet using a serious voice.
12. Write a sentence about a special event using a friendly voice.
13. Write a sentence about a weird gift using a sarcastic voice.
14. Write a sentence about a food using a serious voice.
15. Write a sentence about a book using a friendly voice.

66 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Journal Entry
A journal entry tells about “a day in the life” of
the writer. A good journal entry includes memorable
events and details.

First Day of School!

September 7
Voice is honest and It was chillier than usual this morning when I woke
straightforward.
up. I was anxious to see what my new classmates
would be like. My new pants and dark green sweater
and my backpack crammed full of supplies were
sitting in the chair in my room. I was ready for my
first day of middle school.
After breakfast (just cereal), I hurried up to
Central Street to wait for the bus. I’m going to take
Writer includes
description a city bus to school from now on, and it costs seventy-
and opinions. five cents each way. Already I can see that sixth
grade is more expensive than fifth.
There were many students that I didn’t know in
my homeroom. I plopped down next to a boy named
Writer uses
interesting Mario who speaks English and Spanish. I think we’ll
details. be friends because we both play chess. Maybe we’ll
join the chess club. It looks as if this might be a
good year.

Writing 67
Compound and Complex Sentences
A simple sentence has a complete subject and a complete predicate.
The rain forest is being destroyed.

A compound sentence has two or more simple sentences joined by

a comma and a conjunction such as and, but, or or.
The rain forest is being destroyed, and many of its plants and
animals are disappearing.

A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more

dependent clauses introduced by a conjunction such as if, because,
after, or since.
The rain forest is being destroyed because people cut down too
many trees.

A compound-complex sentence has more than one independent

clause and at least one dependent clause.
Because people cut down too many trees, the rain forest is being
destroyed, and many of its plants and animals are disappearing.

Write simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex to identify

each sentence.
1. Because they have leaves year-round, tropical rain forest trees
are evergreen trees.
2. The trees grow tall and close together.
3. The forest ranger warned the hikers, but they did not listen.
4. After the rain ended, animals hunted and birds sang.
5. Whenever she can, Paula wakes before sunrise.
6. Do you like hot, humid weather?

68 Grammar
Write each sentence. Underline the conjunction that joins the two
clauses. Write CD if the sentence is a compound sentence. Write CX
if it is a complex sentence.
1. Trees take water in through their roots, and then they pump it
upward throughout the system.
2. A tree is a living organism, but it looks dead in the winter.
3. Since many trees lose their leaves in winter, they stand bare
through the cold months.
4. We must replace trees, or the world will become a barren place.
5. When people cut down trees, they often do not think about
the consequences.

Join each pair of simple sentences with the conjunction in ( ).

Write the compound or complex sentence. Change punctuation
and capital letters as necessary.
6. ___ Trees give off oxygen.
They are essential to life on Earth. (because)
7. A tropical forest seems lush. ___
Its soil is actually thin and poor. (but)
8. ___ People cut down the rain forest trees.
The soil is soon swept away by heavy rains. (when)
9. This practice must be stopped. ___
We will be left with deserts in place of lush forests. (or)
10. ___ The forests are allowed to disappear.
We will lose many irreplaceable organisms. (if)
Grammar 69
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the phrase that identifies each sentence.

1. Many plants provide food, 5. The heavy rain had soaked

but we have not discovered everything in camp.
most of them yet. A simple sentence
A simple sentence B compound sentence
B compound sentence C complex sentence
C complex sentence D compound-complex
D compound-complex sentence
sentence
6. The explorers picked up
2. If we ate a more varied diet, their packs, and the journey
we would be healthier. continued.
A simple sentence A simple sentence
B compound sentence B compound sentence
C complex sentence C complex sentence
D compound-complex D compound-complex
sentence sentence

3. People get into a dietary rut, 7. Although they wore insect

and they eat the same foods. repellent, they were badly
bitten.
A simple sentence
B compound sentence A simple sentence
C complex sentence B compound sentence
D compound-complex C complex sentence
sentence D compound-complex
sentence
4. When he was lost in the
forest, he looked for food, 8. They had discovered fifty new
but he didn’t find any. species of plants and animals.
A simple sentence A simple sentence
B compound sentence B compound sentence
C complex sentence C complex sentence
D compound-complex D compound-complex
sentence sentence
70 Grammar
Review
Write simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex to identify
each sentence.
1. A gorilla watched us closely, but he made no move.
2. Until he left, no one moved, and all the hikers held
their breath.
3. When I heard noises in the brush, I expected a lion.
4. Since few cats are left in this forest, a sighting was unlikely.
5. After breakfast we hiked ten miles to the waterhole.
6. Bill got a blister, and Angela ran out of water.
7. When we got there, we saw hippos, and everyone took photos.
8. Our expedition was exhausting, but it was exciting.

Write each sentence. Underline the conjunction that joins the two
clauses. Write CD if the sentence is a compound sentence. Write CX
if it is a complex sentence.
9. Tropical and temperate rain forests have evergreen trees, but
trees of the cloud rain forests drop their leaves.
10. The regions around the equator are hot year round, and they
receive huge amounts of rain.
11. If we don’t stop the destruction of the rain forests, this precious
resource will be lost.
12. Because ivory is in great demand, elephants
are killed illegally.
13. It is illegal to hunt elephants, but poachers
do not respect laws.
14. When its population becomes too small, a
species cannot reproduce successfully.
15. Then it becomes extinct, or it exists only
in zoos.

Grammar 71
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Supporting Your Ideas

When you write, supporting your ideas
helps you “make your case.” Facts and details that
support the main idea help convince readers that your
argument is valid.

In each paragraph, one sentence does not support

the main idea. Write this sentence.
1. Main Idea: We need to protect our wildlife.
Many kinds of animals are in danger of disappearing
altogether. Deforestation and pollution threaten many species.
My favorite animal is the bald eagle. The world would not be as
nice a place if animals become extinct.
2. Main Idea: I need a new pair of gym shoes.
I have three pairs of shoes. I got my gym shoes two years ago
and they’re getting too small. The soles are wearing out, and my
toes are in danger of showing through! Most important, I could
skid on my worn soles and injure myself.
3. Main Idea: Thomas Edison was a great inventor.
Edison invented the light bulb, which lets us read anytime.
He invented the phonograph and motion pictures, which make
great entertainment. He also invented devices that made the
telegraph and the telephone more practical and useful. This
amazing inventor held patents on 1,000 inventions! I would
like to read more about Thomas Edison.

Write four sentences that support the following main idea:

Main Idea: We should clean up our parks.

72 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Problem/Solution
A convincing problem/solution essay makes a
strong case by using supporting facts and details.
Make your sentences clear and direct.

Give Us a Bump!
First sentence states Cars speed down La Cienega Street. This is
a problem that the especially dangerous because kids often play there.
essay addresses.
Something needs to be done!
La Cienega is a busy street where many kids play.
There are no stop signs or speed bumps to slow cars
down. Sometimes cars whiz by at 40 miles per hour!
How can they do that on a neighborhood street where
kids play ball and ride bikes? When a car zooms by,
Each topic sentence kids dash out of the way.
in paragraphs 3, 4, Speeding cars are often noisy too. There is an
and 5 is supported old black Chevy with a loud muff ler. This car roars
with details.
by many nights around 6 and invades our “peaceful”
dinner hour.
A speeding car could hit the parked cars. People
who park on the street shouldn’t have to worry about
their cars’ safety. My mom is afraid that our car might
get hit and our insurance will increase.
Last paragraph For all these reasons, I think the city should put a
gives a solution to speed bump on our block. This would make drivers
the problem and
supporting details. slow down. It would make our neighborhood a safer,
quieter place.

Writing 73
Common and Proper Nouns
A common noun names any person, place, or thing.
Common nouns are not capitalized.
The feathers floated above the boy in the pool.

A proper noun names a particular person, place, or thing.

Capitalize the first word and each important word of a
proper noun.
Uncle Tim recited the Pledge of Allegiance in Hob Park.

Capitalize days, months, and holidays. Capitalize the first

word and all important words in a title.
Memorial Day is on the last Monday in May.
Please return the book The Adventures of Hercules.

Abbreviated proper nouns appear in addresses, titles and

initials in names, and names of days, months, and states.
These abbreviations begin with capital letters. Many end
with periods.
Contact Rev. Samuel B. Farb, Jr., at 1556 Heather St.,
Syracuse, NY 13210 before Tues., Jan. 31.

Rewrite each sentence using correct capitalization.

1. mr. klein moved to tulsa, oklahoma, on wed., dec. 14.
2. The choir sang “america the beautiful” on the fourth of july.
3. The plant palace on thomas road is open tuesday to saturday.
4. We will visit the statue of liberty in june.
5. I addressed the letter to sen. s. leoni at 356 sherwood dr., beloit,
wi 53511.

74 Grammar
Write P if the list shows proper nouns. Write C if the list shows
common nouns. Then add another example to each list.
1. poodle, collie, terrier
2. Idaho, Kansas, Alabama
3. Missouri River, Lake Superior, Gulf of Mexico
4. roses, daffodils, daisies
5. King Blvd., Ashton St., Twelfth Ave.
6. Disney World, Universal Studios, Knotts Berry Farm
7. Sunday, Tuesday, Friday
8. Ms., Maj., Rep.
9. minutes, hours, days
10. loafers, sneakers, sandals

Write each sentence. Capitalize the proper nouns.

11. Our pets include a dog named cinnamon,
a cat named sir nibs, and a cockatoo named
pretty boy.
12. It was hard moving them from providence,
rhode island, to des moines, iowa.
13. The best pet store in town is george’s pet
emporium on south seventh street.
14. The office of dr. barnes is located on
highway 38 one mile south of town.
15. Have you visited the corn palace in mitchell, south dakota?
16. Let’s meet in huber park on saturday, march 26, to fly our kites.
17. My favorite authors are mark twain, j. k. rowling, and bill bryson.
18. On thanksgiving day I read my younger brother jake a book
called a turkey comes to dinner.
19. We visited yellowstone national park and the grand canyon.
20. The author of a cat named soccer grew up in chicago near
wrigley field.

Grammar 75
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the answer that is correctly capitalized.

1. A president Abraham lincoln 6. A Wednesday, February 12

B president Abraham Lincoln B wednesday, February 12
C President Abraham Lincoln C Wednesday, february 12
D President abraham Lincoln D wednesday, february 12

2. A 1735 west garden Way 7. A hopkinsville, KY 42240

B 1735 West Garden Way B hopkinsville, Ky 42240
C 1735 West Garden way C Hopkinsville, ky 42240
D 1735 west garden way D Hopkinsville, KY 42240

3. A the book A Wrinkle in 8. A the song “turkey in the

Time straw”
B the book a Wrinkle in Time B the song “Turkey in The
C the book A wrinkle in time Straw”
D the book A Wrinkle In C the song “Turkey in the
Time Straw”
D the song “Turkey In The
4. A American youth soccer Straw”
organization
B American Youth soccer 9. A a parade on Memorial Day
organization B a Parade on Memorial day
C American Youth Soccer C a parade on memorial day
organization D a Parade on Memorial Day
D American Youth Soccer
Organization 10. A a statue in Central park
B a Statue in Central Park
5. A Gen. Ulysses s. Grant C a statue in Central Park
B Gen. Ulysses S. Grant D a statue in central park
C gen. Ulysses s. Grant
D Gen. Ulysses S. grant

76 Grammar
Review
Write P if the underlined noun is a proper noun. Write C if it is a
common noun.
1. Mr. Williams teaches biology.
2. He feeds birds seeds and suet in winter.
3. Gabe Trotter writes a column about nature.
4. Visit Nehring Forest Preserve to observe wildlife.
5. Dr. Keith Herbert teaches zoology at the university.
6. The zoo in Brookfield is quite large.
7. In the West, you can see wild horses and buffalo.
8. The San Diego Zoo has pandas from China.

Write correct if the group of words is capitalized

correctly. If it has an error in capitalization,
rewrite it correctly.
9. independence Day picnic
10. the movie Home for the Holidays
11. the Greatest Day of my Life
12. my best friend Oscar z. Gonzales

Write each sentence. Correct any errors in capitalization.

13. The Monarch butterflies migrate from the United States to
mexico.
14. Many Scientists study the migration patterns of animals.
15. Some birds fly from north America to south America and back.
16. The tarantula in my purse is a nonfiction book by jean
Craighead george.
17. Please send the magazine national geographic to this new
address: 9138 east Lincoln hwy., Jonesboro, Ar 72401.
18. Han, wes, and aaron will go to camp wachaweechee with their
Scout Troop in july.

Grammar 77
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Good Beginnings
A good beginning draws readers in and makes them want
to read on. Here are some examples:
Excitement Bang! Zoom! The go-cart screamed down the hill.
Curiosity Wendy had no idea what was around the corner.
Mood Was that the wind howling or a human scream?

Read each pair of beginnings. Write the letter of the better beginning.
1. A “Where in the world are my gloves?” yelled the captain.
B The captain couldn’t find his gloves.
2. A There was no noise.
B It was quiet—almost too quiet.
3. A My cat is funny.
B I never thought cats could speak.
4. A I couldn’t just leave that poor baby bird alone on the ground.
B Sometimes animals need our help.
5. A This paragraph is about air pollution and how we can avoid it.
B Imagine having to wear a mask every day!
6. A Mr. Grimps was not happy.
B Mr. Grimps chased the terrified kids around the block.

Write two possible good beginnings for this paragraph.

___________. After that, I was no longer allowed to go into the
stables without a grown-up. But I still rode every day. Appleton was
still my favorite horse because he had a great sense of humor. And
after a while, we became friends. We forgot all about the day he
knocked me over!

78 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Writing for Tests

Think about something interesting that happened to
you involving a pet or a friend. It might have been
happy, like bringing home a new kitten, or sad, like
saying goodbye to a good friend. Write a narrative
showing what happened and how you felt.

“Best-est” Friends
A good beginning Sometimes “best” just isn’t good enough. On that
makes the reader
want to know more. breezy October day, the day Kerri moved away,
I was crushed. Last fall, she moved with her family to
Massachusetts. But now it was a year later, and she
Writer reveals was back for the first time. Would we still be friends?
her feelings. Was she taller? Was I? Maybe she would be “too cool”
for her old best friend.
I sat nervously on the front stoop, trying not to
look too eager. Then their car pulled up, and I noticed
they still had their Georgia license plates. The car door
opened. Kerri stepped out hesitantly. Everything seemed
to stand still and quiet for a moment. Then at the same
A quotation makes time, we both started running toward each other.
the narrative lively “Jaysie!” she cried. “I missed you so much, my best-
and authentic. est friend!” Later, they moved back here. But the year
apart showed me just how strong our friendship is.

Writing 79
Regular and Irregular Plural Nouns
Plural nouns name more than one person, place, or thing.

• Most plural nouns are formed by adding -s.

picture/pictures wing/wings day/days
• Add -es to nouns ending in ch, sh, x, z, s, and ss.
bunch/bunches wish/wishes box/boxes class/classes
• If a noun ends in a consonant and y, change y to i and add -es.
berry/berries spy/spies
• Some nouns have irregular plural forms. They change spelling.
mouse/mice goose/geese child/children woman/women
• For most nouns that end in f or fe, change f to v and add -es.
leaf/leaves knife/knives calf/calves wife/wives
• Some nouns have the same singular and plural forms.
sheep deer moose headquarters series elk
• For compound nouns, make only the important word plural.
fathers-in-law secretaries of state
• If a noun ends in a vowel and o, add -s.
video/videos radio/radios
• Check a dictionary for plurals of nouns ending in consonant -o.
photo/photos potato/potatoes hero/heroes echo/echoes

Write the plural form of each singular noun. Use a dictionary

if you need help.
1. galaxy 6. tomato
2. planet 7. series
3. brother-in-law 8. life
4. porch 9. address
5. child 10. photo

80 Grammar
Write the plural forms of the underlined singular nouns.
1. Man who are more than 7 foot tall are unusual.
2. They may make better basketball player than astronaut.
3. Stars probably formed from cloud of gas and dust.
4. Do you know what black hole and quasar are?
5. There are billion of stars in our galaxy and billion of galaxy in
the universe.
6. We took sandwich and bunch of grape for our lunch.
7. The sixth-grade class sat on bench at the planetarium.
8. The first astronauts’ life were changed by their flight into space.
9. Was that a herd of moose or elk?
10. There have been several headquarters for the office of our
national secretary of state.

Write each sentence. Correct any errors in plural forms of nouns.

11. Several childs signed up for the classs in astronomy and physics.
12. Because of lightes in citys, we couldn’t see most star’s.
13. Some familys drive long distancs on country roadz so they can
see the stars more clearly.
14. Long ago, viewerz imagined the shapes of beares, wolfs, and
deers in the stars.
15. What shaps can you see in the night skys?
16. I discuss theorys about the originz of the universe with my two
brother-in-laws.

Grammar 81
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the plural word that correctly completes
each sentence.

1. I found several of old 6. The spaceship was split into

newspapers. two .
A boxs C boxes A halves C halfs
B box’s D boxen B halvs D halfes

2. The astronauts synchronized 7. What support the space

their . program?
A watches C watch’s A industrys C industries
B watchs D watchies B industris D industry’s

3. They rented several science- 8. New grew out of space

fiction from the store. discoveries.
A video C videoes A businesses C businesss
B videoz D videos B businessies D business’s

4. Three were born in 9. The photo showed peaks and

April. on the planet.
A calfs C calfes A valleies C vallies
B calves D calvies B valleyes D valleys

5. Both the girls and the 10. Are larger than ducks?
enjoyed the movie. A gooses C goosies
A boies C boy’s B geese D geeses
B boys D boyz

82 Grammar
Review
Write the plural form of each singular noun.
1. democracy 11. church
2. thief 12. holiday
3. family 13. dream
4. pass 14. video
5. woman 15. moose
6. series 16. loaf
7. blueberry 17. monkey
8. sheep 18. commander-in-chief
9. tomato 19. mouse
10. mother-in-law 20. crash

Write each sentence using the correct plural forms of the nouns in ( ).
21. The (children, childs) gave reports on space travel.
22. How many (galaxys, galaxies) exist in the universe?
23. We can use (telescops, telescopes) to see distant stars.
24. Astronauts are (heros, heroes) to many people.
25. In the early years, their return to Earth was celebrated with
(speechs, speeches) and parades.
26. People watched the (skys, skies) with new awareness.
27. Those (days, daies) are over.
28. We are not glued to our (radioes, radios) and TV sets during
space flights.
29. Still, (Americans, Americanes) are proud of our history in space.
30. The space program’s (mans, men) and women have done many
great things.
31. (Echos, Echoes) of the past urge us to do more in the future.
32. We hope space exploration will continue without too many big
(delays, delaies).

Grammar 83
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Include Important Information

Include only important information to
make your directions concise and easy to follow.
Extra or unnecessary information can interfere
with meaning.

Write the sentence in each paragraph that contains

unimportant information.
1. To get to the fruit stand, walk south to Oak Street and turn left. My
aunt lives on Oak Street. Go two blocks and turn left on Cherry
Street. The fruit stand is on the right, halfway down the block.
2. To make pancakes, first sift flour, sugar, and salt. Then mix in
eggs and water. The eggs get a little messy, though. Whisk the
mixture for one minute and then pour it into a hot skillet.
3. Taking care of tropical fish requires time and careful attention.
Make sure the water is the right temperature. Keep the water
clean and feed the fish according to instructions. Make sure you
don’t put the wrong kind of fish together in the same tank! Do
you have tropical fish?
4. Trace a circle on paper using a round object like the lid of a jar.
Cut out the circle. Fold the circle in half and in half again. Fold
it in half a third time. Make sure your hands are clean. Cut little
triangles and other shapes along the fold. Unfold the paper—
and it’s a snowflake!

Write directions about how to go from your house to school or

another nearby location. Include only important information that
someone following your directions would need to know.

84 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Directions
Good directions help readers understand what to
do to get somewhere or to accomplish a task. Steps
should be clear, logical, and to the point.

Out-of-This-World Banana Split

First sentence This dessert is easy to make and so good it will send
provides a lively you into orbit!
introduction to
the task. Ingredients
1 banana, peeled
2 scoops of Martian Green ice cream
Ingredients are whipped cream
listed in order
2 tablespoons of Jupiter Berry Syrup
of use.
1 pinch of stardust (Sprinkles will do.)
Steps are in First, slice the banana lengthwise and put the
logical order. halves side by side in a shallow bowl. Next, place
Transition words
are used to the scoops of ice cream in the center of the bowl
show order. between the two banana halves. Then beat
the whipped cream rapidly. Dollop f luffy
whipped-cream clouds on top of
the ice cream. After that, pour the
syrup slowly over the whipped cream.
This should make it look like the
surface of Jupiter. Finally, add
a pinch of stardust. Eat while the
moon is rising.

Writing 85
Possessive Nouns
A possessive noun shows ownership. A singular
possessive noun shows that one person, place, or
thing has or owns something. A plural possessive
noun shows that more than one person, place, or
thing has or owns something.

• To make a singular noun show possession, add an

apostrophe (’) and -s.
the ranch’s landscape James’s coat
• To make a plural noun that ends in -s show
possession, add an apostrophe (’).
five writers’ collections the bushes’ leaves
• To make a plural noun that does not end in -s show
possession, add an apostrophe (’) and -s.
the children’s books the women’s ideas

Write the possessive form of each noun. Write S if the possessive

noun is singular. Write P if it is plural.
1. computer 11. rock
2. Mr. Garcia 12. geologists
3. hornets 13. men
4. student 14. girl
5. dinosaurs 15. riverbank
6. fossil 16. storm
7. women 17. skeletons
8. explorers 18. stories
9. reptiles 19. dish
10. Earth 20. pictures

86 Grammar
Write the correct possessive noun in ( ) to complete each sentence.
1. The (dinosaur’s, dinosaurs’) remains showed that it was about
the size of a dog.
2. All (paleontologist’s, paleontologists’) work requires patience.
3. A (fossil’s, fossils’) condition provides clues.
4. We walked slowly as we stared at the (river’s, rivers’) dry bed.
5. This (field trip’s, field trips’) purpose was fossil hunting.
6. Several (children’s, childrens’) finds were new and exciting.
7. This rock has imprints of several (trilobite’s, trilobites’) bodies.
8. This ancient (arthropod’s, arthropods’) body looks like a small
armored tank.
9. The (worker’s, workers’) days began at dawn and ended when
they could no longer see.
10. The (men’s, mens’) and (women’s, womens’) muscles ached
after they crouched all day.

Write each sentence. Change the underlined words to a phrase

with a possessive noun.
11. The project of our class on dinosaurs was interesting.
12. Tyrannosaurus rex was the choice of several students.
13. The report of Dylan focused on a less familiar dinosaur.
14. The dinosaur of Iris was an ancestor of the horse.
15. The apatosaurus was the suggestion of our teacher.
16. What was the climate of Earth like millions of years ago?
17. Why is the extinction of the dinosaurs so fascinating to us?
18. Like the work of detectives, paleontologists’ work involves
finding and interpreting clues.

Grammar 87
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the word that correctly completes each sentence.

1. The waters were the 6. The bodies were

home for the first living preserved in a rock called
things. amber.
A oceans C oceans’s A beetle’s C beetles’s
B ocean D oceans’ B beetles’ D beetle

2. This display of dinosaur 7. newest project is a dig

fossils is excellent. in West Africa.
A museum’s A Dr. Liakos’s
B museums’ B Dr. Liakos’
C museums’s C Dr. Liakoss
D museums D Dr. Liakos

3. Millions of years ago, an 8. He must have the

body was trapped in tree sap. permission before he begins
digging.
A insects C insects’
B insect’s D insect A governments
B government’s
4. Please look at book on C governments’s
fossils. D government
A Briannas’
B Briannas 9. All reports must be
supported by facts.
C Brianna’s
D Brianna A archaeologists
B archaeologistes
5. That substance is C archaeologist’s
neither bone nor rock. D archaeologists’
A fossils’
B fossil 10. Last year two claims
were proven false.
C fossil’s
D fossils A mens’ C men’s
B man’s D mans’
88 Grammar
Review
Write the possessive form of each noun. Write S if the possessive
noun is singular. Write P if it is plural.
1. canyon 11. man
2. floods 12. geese
3. child 13. weather
4. rains 14. Chris
5. sciences 15. reporters
6. asteroid 16. mice
7. hillsides 17. women
8. stories 18. children
9. paintbrush 19. Mr. Harris
10. men 20. camp

Write the correct possessive noun in ( ) to complete each sentence.

21. A (bird’s, birds’) bones are hollow.
22. These (dinosaur’s, dinosaurs’) bones are also hollow.
23. (Ms. Rausch’s, Ms. Rauschs’) belief is that birds and dinosaurs
shared a common ancestor.
24. One (fossil’s, fossils’) discovery sheds light on this theory.
25. A (pterodactyl’s, pterodactyls’) arms were like wings.
26. A membrane stretched across both (arm’s, arms’) bones.
27. These (creature’s, creatures’) bodies had birdlike beaks and tails.
28. Their (bodies, bodies’) adaptations allowed pteradactyls to fly.
29. It was a primitive bird in a (dinosaur’s, dinosaurs’) body.
30. Many (reptile’s, reptiles’) characteristics remind us of dinosaurs.
31. There are no dinosaurs in (today’s, todays’) world.
32. A (human’s, humans’) legs couldn’t run fast enough to escape
those jaws!

Grammar 89
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Posing Questions
Posing questions can help you focus your
writing. As you develop your topic, answer questions
that your reader might ask.

Which question would better help you write

about the given topic? Write the letter of the question.
1. Topic: The solar system and life
A Why is there life on Earth but not on Venus?
B How many planets are there?
2. Topic: The extinction of dinosaurs
A Why did few dinosaurs survive the Ice Age?
B Where are most fossils found?
3. Topic: Careers in science
A How many years of school do you need to be a scientist?
B How is a science career different from other professions?
4. Topic: The effects of volcanic activity on Earth
A Are volcanic eruptions frequent?
B How does a volcanic eruption change the surface of our planet?
5. Topic: Water pollution and fish
A How do waterways become polluted?
B What kinds of fish are no longer found in our polluted rivers?
6. Topic: Science experiments and safety
A Where do labs purchase their chemical supplies?
B How can you protect yourself in the lab?

Write two questions about the following topic.

Topic: Insects are eating our crops.

90 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Hypothesis and Results

A hypothesis is something assumed to be true that
you intend to prove or disprove with the results of
research or an experiment. Your argument needs to be
clear and well supported with facts.

Dinosaurs Are Not Lizards!

Writer makes Scientists once thought that dinosaurs were giant
a hypothesis. reptiles. The name dinosaur actually means “terrible
lizard.” However, this idea may not be true. The
more scientists studied the two kinds of animals, the
more they began to notice big differences between
Results support dinosaurs and reptiles. There are differences in bone
the hypothesis. structure and teeth. There are differences in their
social life—some dinosaurs hunted in packs, while
Transition words reptiles tend to hunt alone. Some paleontologists even
connect sentences. think that dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Reptiles
are cold-blooded. Though nothing is yet completely
certain, it’s probably true that while dinosaurs were
“terrible,” they were not “lizards” after all.

Writing 91
Action and Linking Verbs
A verb is the main word in the predicate of a sentence.
The verb tells what the subject of the sentence is or does.
An action verb tells what the subject does. A linking verb
links, or joins, the subject with a word or words in the
predicate that tell what the subject is or is like. Linking verbs
are most often forms of the verb be, such as am, is, are, was,
and were. Become, seem, appear, feel, taste, smell, and look can
be linking verbs.

Action Verbs Girls place bonnets on their heads.

She walks down the path.
Linking Verbs They seem awkward in their bonnets.
The boy is happy.
• A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that
follows a linking verb and identifies or explains the subject:
The mattresses were straw-filled bags. This bed is mine.

Write A if the underlined word is an action verb. Write L if it is a

linking verb. Write PN if it is a predicate nominative.
1. Charles is a blacksmith.
2. Darlene was proud of her homemade pie.
3. The milk splashed on the floor.
4. The baked ham smells good.
5. Uncle Joslin carried water in buckets.
6. The girls laundered the clothes.
7. Billy is a blacksmith’s apprentice.
8. The boys owned many books.
9. The girls practiced their sewing.
10. The straw mattresses felt hard and lumpy.
92 Grammar
Write the verb in each sentence. Write A if it is an action verb. Write
L if it is a linking verb.
1. In the 1800s, many families lived in the country.
2. Most men were farmers.
3. They raised crops and livestock.
4. Women worked hard in the home.
5. In old pictures, the children appear happy.
6. However, they did many chores every day.
7. Now we buy almost everything in stores.
8. We no longer make our own bread, butter, and soap.
9. Some of these skills seem amazing to us now.
10. Less work and more leisure are ours today.

Add a verb of your own to complete each sentence. Write the

sentence. Write A or L to tell what kind of verb you added.
11. That large tin pan a bathtub.
12. Bathers in and poured water over themselves.
13. People water for a bath over the fire.
14. Farmers crops for food.
15. Horses, mules, or oxen plows in the fields.
16. Children school but not during planting or harvesting season.
17. No phones, radios, or TVs in the house.
18. Their world quiet.
19. Children few toys.
20. Young people the skills of adult life.

Grammar 93
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the word that is an action verb.

1. Edgar carried water from the 3. Father and Ben milked cows
stream to the house. morning and evening.
A Edgar C stream A Ben C morning
B carried D house B cows D milked

2. Betsy baked bread although 4. The children studied their

she was tired. lessons by candlelight.
A baked C was A children C studied
B although D tired B lessons D their

Write the letter of the word that is a linking verb.

5. A horse and wagon were 8. Their clothing appeared stiff

yesterday’s car. and uncomfortable.
A horse C were A Their C appeared
B A D and B clothing D stiff

6. The fresh, baked bread 9. Plenty of food is necessary

smelled wonderful. for energy.
A baked C fresh A is C energy
B bread D smelled B food D for

7. The big meal they ate at 10. The homemade soap looked
noon tasted delicious. thick and yellow.
A big C tasted A and C thick
B ate D delicious B soap D looked

94 Grammar
Review
Write A if the underlined word is an action verb. Write L if it is a
linking verb. Write PN if it is a predicate nominative.
1. Belle dropped hot coals into the iron.
2. The kitchen was terribly hot.
3. The blacksmith hammered red-hot iron.
4. His shop seemed like an oven.
5. Clyde cut the weeds with a scythe.
6. The women sewed all the clothes by hand.
7. James became the blacksmith’s helper.
8. He appeared happy with his teacher.
9. The people in old-time clothes are actors.
10. That cornshuck bed looks lumpy.

Write the verb in each sentence.

Write A if the verb is an action verb.
Write L if it is a linking verb.
11. Nan sewed a sampler.
12. The stitches seemed impossibly small and even.
13. The men made sausage.
14. It tasted fresh and delicious.
15. The horses neighed a greeting.
16. Ralph forked hay into their stalls.
17. Bedtime was soon after supper.
18. Everyone rose with the sun.
19. The new day’s work began before breakfast.
20. They ate hearty meals for energy.
21. I am grateful for today’s conveniences.
22. Our ancestors worked very hard.
Grammar 95
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Parallel Structure
If a sentence has parts that are alike, those parts should have
the same form or pattern.
Parallel structure refers to the pattern, or organization,
of similar sentence parts, such as verbs and adjectives.
Not Parallel Fish swim, birds fly, and barking is
something that dogs do.
Parallel Fish swim, birds fly, and dogs bark.

Write the letter of the parallel sentence in each pair.

1. A We asked if we could run, play, and wrestling.
B We asked if we could run, play, and wrestle.
2. A Lydia went to a ballgame, a concert, and a movie.
B Lydia went to a ballgame, a concert, and saw a movie.
3. A My dog is hungry, thirsty, and sleepy.
B My dog is hungry, wants a drink, and to sleep.
4. A Hank looked across the field and was walking toward the barn.
B Hank looked across the field and walked toward the barn.

Rewrite the sentences in this paragraph to make

them parallel.
One morning I got up, put on my clothes,
eating my breakfast, and walked outside.
When I reached the street, I saw a red
car, a blue truck, and a motorcycle that
was yellow. I waited for the light,
stepped off the curb, and across
the street.

96 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Friendly Letter
A friendly letter begins with a salutation, such as Dear …,
and ends with a closing, such as Sincerely, and a signature.
The body of the letter may have news, descriptions, opinions,
questions, and explanations—anything that would appeal to
a friend. The letter is written in an informal voice.

A Letter to Thomas
Letter begins November 3, 2
with date and
salutation. Dear Thomas,
How are things in the 1800s? I can’t imagine what
it must be like without electricity, although I think using
Voice of letter candles and cooking on a hearth sound like fun. Let
is friendly and
informal. me tell you about my life in the 2000s.
I play basketball after school. It is a team sport
Writer provides
in which you throw a ball through a hoop overhead.
information about
modern activities I also use my computer, which is a machine that
and inventions. provides information instantly! It helped me learn what
life was like during your time. I can also play chess
and design pictures on it. In fact, I’m using it to write
you this letter!
Well, I must go now. It’s getting late, and I have to
turn lights off at 9:30. Lights are like candles that can
make a room bright with a f lick of a switch. I’ll write
Letter ends again soon.
with closing Your friend,
and signature.
Arthur

Writing 97
Subject-Verb Agreement
The subject and verb in a sentence must agree, or work together.
A singular subject needs a singular verb. A plural subject needs a
plural verb. Use these rules for verbs that express present time.
• If the subject is a singular noun or he, she, or it, add -s or -es to
most verbs.
The planet glows. The scientist teaches school. One of the
students takes notes. He works hard.
• If the subject is compound, a plural noun, or I, you, we, or they,
do not add -s or -es to the verb.
The planets glow. The scientist and the assistant teach school.
Several of the students take notes. They work hard.
• For the verb be, use am and is to agree with singular subjects
and are to agree with plural subjects.
I am a scientist. My father is on the moon.
The planets are visible. We are on Earth.
• A collective noun names a group, such as family, team, and
class. A collective noun is singular if it refers to a group acting
as one: The class is waiting for takeoff. A collective noun is
plural if it refers to members of the group acting individually:
The class are choosing their seats.

Write Yes if the subject and the verb in the sentence agree.
If they do not agree, write No.
1. A shaft of light blinds me.
2. Supplies costs the settlers more on the moon.
3. The group understands the importance of water.
4. The ferry move slowly from its loading dock.
5. The kids on the moon is having a party.

98 Grammar
Write the verb in ( ) that agrees with the subject.
1. Your moon weight (are, is) one-sixth of your Earth weight.
2. The moon (has, have) a smaller force of gravity than Earth.
3. Less gravity (make, makes) the moon’s atmosphere very thin.
4. Visitors to the moon (need, needs) their own oxygen and water.
5. They (leap, leaps) much farther on the moon.
6. (Are, Is) moon rocks valuable?
7. The astronauts (wear, wears) spacesuits.
8. A suit (protect, protects) a moon visitor from extremes of
temperature and lack of oxygen.
9. (Think, Thinks) of the future in space.
10. (Are, Is) cities thriving on the moon?

Write a complete sentence using the noun or pronoun as the subject

and the correct form of the verb.
11. planets (revolve, revolves)
12. we (live, lives)
13. sun (provide, provides)
14. people (need, needs)
15. one of the planets (is, are)
16. scientists (discover, discovers)
17. astronomers (observe, observes)
18. I (see, sees)
19. stars (look, looks)
20. they (is, are)

Grammar 99
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the verb that agrees with the subject in
each sentence.

1. Our Sun a star. 6. Only a small part of the

A is C be spectrum of light
visible.
B are D am
A am C are
2. It tremendous heat and B being D is
light.
7. Rainbows us the colors
A generate’ C generating
that make up visible light.
B generate D generates
A show C shows
3. Energy from the sun B showing D show’s
Earth’s atmosphere.
8. X-rays and gamma rays
A entering C enter
light waves you cannot see.
B enters D enter’s
A be C is
4. Ultraviolet light your B are D am
skin.
9. They a higher
A harming C harms’
frequency, or number of
B harms D harm waves per second.

5. My family about which A has C haves

sunscreen is best. B have D has’
A argues C argue’s
10. The study of light me.
B arguing D argue
A interesting C interests
B interest’s D interest

100 Grammar
Review
Write Yes if the subject and verb in the sentence agree. If they do not
agree, write No and the correct form of the verb.
1. Experts debate the best way of travel for the future.
2. We depends heavily on automobiles.
3. Trains has become less popular.
4. Airlines struggles with high fuel prices.
5. Pollution from engines threatens our air.
6. Hybrid cars burn less gasoline.
7. Their engines uses both electric and gas power.
8. High-speed rail offer fast, efficient travel.
9. Millions of people zoom along at 150–200 miles per hour on
European and Japanese trains.
10. A much faster magnetic train are in the works.
11. A team at Cal Tech is developing an all-electric car.
12. This kind of car reduce our dependence on oil.

Complete each sentence using the correct form of the verb or verbs
in ( ). Write each sentence.
13. Pieter (enter) his personal travel pod.
14. It (operate) on a fuel made from hydrogen.
15. Millions of pods (run) on invisible electronic tracks in the sky.
16. They (move) people to and from work and school.
17. This form of transportation (travel) at a high speed and
(produce) no pollution.
18. The pod’s computer (know) the route and (guide) the vehicle.
19. Electronic sensors on the pod (prevent) collisions.
20. These vehicles of the future (be) not just an engineer’s fantasy.

Grammar 101
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Dialogue
Dialogue is a character’s actual words. Dialogue is
placed inside quotation marks in a story but written
without quotation marks in a play or an interview. Good
dialogue reveals a character’s thoughts and attitudes.

Match each quotation to the appropriate sentence below. (Note the

punctuation for each.) Write the sentence, including the quotation.
“Wow! You never told me North Carolina would look like this!”
“that is, unless you bring me lunch.”
“How can I make this choice?”
“so how did we end up with a snake?”
“Oh, dear, not again,”
“and away we go!”
1. he asked, looking at the two doors.
2. “You’re not allowed to visit football practice,” Tania told her
mother,
3. The pilot seemed very excited. “Just one push of the button,”
he exclaimed,
4. said Ralphie, his eyes full of wonder.
5. sighed Sophia, dejected. “We ran out of peanut butter.”
6. “You said you were buying a hamster,” said Bonnie,

Imagine you are writing a brief scene in a story. Larry

has given Mari an unexpected gift. Write Mari’s
response as dialogue. Her words should show
whether she thinks the gift is weird or wonderful.

102 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Interview
An interview is a question-and-answer discussion
with someone. A good interviewer asks questions that
call for thoughtful responses, not just a yes or no.

Interview with Futura Bolden by Marla McCoy

First question gives MM: Futura, you’re my age, but you come from the
reader background future. What is it like in your time?
information.
FB: Well, it’s very different. We use turbo shoes, not
Details give a vivid cars, to get around. Our fruits and vegetables are
picture of the future.
grown in cube-shapes for easier storage.
MM: Doesn’t this affect the taste?
FB: I suppose they have less f lavor, but they’re much
neater and more convenient.
MM: What is school like in the future?
Interviewer
asks follow-up
FB: It’s pretty much the same as your school. However,
questions to we start at 4:00 A.M. and get a day off for Moon
provide insights. Colony Day.
MM: Do you think you are getting a good education?
FB: Yes, we concentrate on math, science, and
literature, which are important life skills.
MM: Why is literature an important life skill?
FB: Learning how people coped and succeeded in
other times is necessary for survival.
MM: Well, Futura, thanks for the interview.
FB: You’re welcome. Take the Time Travel Transit and
visit me anytime.

Writing 103
Past, Present, and Future Tenses
The tense of a verb shows when something happens. Present
tense verbs show action that happens now. Most present tense
singular verbs end with -s. Most present tense plural verbs do not.
Marge picks flowers from the garden. They pick flowers.

Past tense verbs show action that has already happened. Most
verbs in the past tense end in -ed.
The flowers in the vase wilted after two days.

Future tense verbs show action that will happen. Add will (or
shall) to most verbs to show the future tense.
Flowers with no water will wilt soon.
Some regular verbs change spelling when -ed is added. For
verbs ending in e, drop the e and add -ed: liked, baked. For
verbs ending in a consonant and y, change the y to i and add
-ed: hurried, carried.
For most one-syllable verbs that end in one vowel followed
by one consonant, double the consonant and add -ed:
stopped, bragged.
Irregular verbs change spelling to form the past tense:
are/were, break/broke, bring/brought, build/built, buy/bought,
do/did, find/found, go/went, have/had, is/was, keep/kept,
make/made, sit/sat, see/saw, take/took, teach/taught, tell/told,
wear/wore, write/wrote.

Identify the tense of each verb. Write present, past, or future.

1. noted 4. explains 7. discovered
2. tell 5. shipped 8. will teach
3. will study 6. saw

104 Grammar
For each present tense verb below, write the past tense and the
future tense forms.
1. make 11. write
2. are 12. is
3. find 13. keep
4. design 14. grab
5. harvest 15. have
6. live 16. teach
7. play 17. survive
8. build 18. buy
9. believe 19. worry
10. go 20. survey

Complete each sentence. Use a verb in the tense indicated in ( ) and

other words. Write the sentence.
21. (past) Ancient Egyptian writing
22. (present) Experts on Egyptology
23. (future) Future generations
24. (past) A word picture, or hieroglyph,
25. (future) The King Tut exhibit
26. (past) This ancient Egyptian pharaoh
27. (present) Today people all over the world
28. (future) Archaeologists who are interested in ancient Egypt

Grammar 105
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the verb that correctly completes each sentence.

1. Long ago, Egyptians 3. Next week they a mural

paper from papyrus. about ancient Egypt.
A make A draw
B made B drawing
C are making C will draw
D will make D drew

2. Now sixth graders 4. Yesterday Jan the class

ancient cultures in social about the pyramids.
studies. A tells
A study B told
B studying C is telling
C will studied D will tell
D will studying

Write the letter of the past tense form of the underlined verb.

5. Workers lift the enormous 7. In 1922, archaeologists

stones onto the pyramid. uncover the tomb of King Tut.
A lifted A will uncover
B were lifted B uncovered
C lifting C are uncovering
D will lift D will uncovered

6. Men and women wear linen 8. They keep a careful record of

skirts or robes. precious objects in the tomb.
A is wear A kept
B are wearing B will keep
C weared C keeped
D wore D were keep

106 Grammar
Review
Identify the tense of each underlined verb. Write present, past,
or future.
1. Tigers once roamed in California.
2. We see models of them in the La Brea museum.
3. These saber-toothed tigers were fierce predators.
4. They no longer exist except in our imagination.
5. Which animals will disappear in the next thousand years?
6. Today’s animals bear a resemblance to some ancient animals.
7. Wooly mammoths looked like our elephants.
8. What will future generations think of our animals?
9. Ancient Egyptians loved games and outdoor activities.
10. They had pets such as monkeys and cats.

For each present tense verb below, write the past tense and the
future tense forms.
11. bring 21. keep
12. take 22. find
13. hurry 23. buy
14. see 24. write
15. have 25. go
16. tell 26. stop
17. break 27. build
18. teach 28. do
19. roast 29. sit
20. wear 30. bake

Grammar 107
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Style
You express a personal style in the way you dress, talk,
and write. Style is the quality that makes a piece of
writing memorable and distinct. To develop a unique
style, choose vivid words and images and vary the kinds
and lengths of sentences.

Write the letter of the phrase that describes the style of

each paragraph.
A Many vivid words and images
B Varied sentence kinds and structures
C Short, choppy sentences
1. I’m up early. Soon I’m at work. All day I drag stones uphill.
Work on the new pyramid is hard. By evening I’m tired.
2. My friends think I’m crazy, but I like working on the pyramid.
It’s a great workout! Sure, it’s exhausting when I lift those heavy
boulders. But I don’t mind. I work outside, get an hour for
lunch, and ride home on the ox cart. What’s not to like?
3. Women wore sparkly purple eye shadow. Their bright gold
ankle bracelets clanked when they walked. On their heads were
cones of animal fat that melted, drenching them in perfume.

Change words and revise sentences in the following paragraph to

improve the style
The men went into the desert. They discovered a tomb. They
found a room full of things. They were excited. They wrapped their
findings and left.

108 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Writing for Tests

Imagine that a person from another era is visiting
you. Think of an important place you would show
your visitor. Write an explanation of what this place
would tell your visitor about your culture.

The More Things Change …

Topic sentence If I had a visitor from ancient Egypt, I would take
sets the theme. him to see the Kansas City Airport. There, my friend
would see that although many things are different
now, some things are still the same.
All the machines, such as planes, cars, and
escalators, would show how the world has changed
to a more industrial society. And what would he think
of people typing on portable computers while they
Varied sentence
structure keeps waited for their planes? I would have to explain
reader engaged. that computers had replaced scribes. “Hungry?”
I’d say. Then we’d stop at a fast food place where
I’d introduce him to his first cheeseburger. Before
long, he’d realize that things move very fast in the
21st century!
At the same time, the farms outside the city and
the huge airport construction projects might seem
familiar to my ancient Egyptian guest. Peaceful rows of
Strong word choice golden, rippling grain would make him feel right at
paints a picture for home. Sweaty workers putting together a massive new
the reader.
terminal might remind him of building the pyramids!

Writing 109
Principal Parts of Regular Verbs
A verb’s tenses are made from four basic forms. These basic forms
are called the verb’s principal parts.

Present Present Participle Past Past Participle

walk (is, are) walking walked (has, have, had) walked
study (is, are) studying studied (has, have, had) studied

A regular verb forms its past and past participle by adding -d or -ed
to the present form.
The present and the past form can be used by themselves as
verbs.
The present participle and the past participle are always used
with a helping verb.

Write present, present participle, past, or past participle to identify the

principal part used to form the underlined verb.
1. The porcupine terrified the young boy.
2. Brian is pouring the water onto the flames.
3. Wendy had wished for an early spring.
4. Jack saves his strength.
5. The sun warmed his back.
6. The rescue pilots are searching the area every day.
7. Marian carries the supplies by herself.
8. The hikers had settled into a daily routine.
9. The hungry flames are burning the dry bark.
10. He hammered the rock with the flat end of his hatchet.

110 Grammar
Write the form of the underlined verb indicated in ( ).
1. The scouts enjoy a hiking trip in July each year. (present)
2. This year they travel to Shawnee National Forest. (present participle)
3. Last year they hike in the Adirondack Mountains. (past)
4. The scoutmaster rent a van for the gear. (past participle with had)
5. The group cook food over an open fire. (present)
6. Everyone request stew for dinner. (past participle with has)
7. Jonah’s feet blister on the third day. (past)
8. Dan develop a rash from poison ivy. (past participle with has)
9. The scouts listen to scary stories around the fire at night. (present)
10. Every boy pack a flashlight. (past participle with had)
11. The troop leader praise the boys for their efforts. (present)
12. They plan a trip to Yellowstone next year. (present participle)

Write a sentence using the subject and verb given. Use the form of
the verb in ( ).
13. children wander (past)
14. they ignore (past participle with have)
15. forest look (present)
16. father search (present participle)
17. animals live (present)
18. rescuers locate (past)
19. they wait (past participle
with had)
20. deer and raccoons visit
(present participle)

Grammar 111
Test Preparation
Mark the letter that indicates the correct form of the underlined verb.

1. Spelunkers explore caves of 5. They mapped the network of

all kinds. tunnels and caverns.
A Present A Present
B Present participle B Present participle
C Past C Past
D Past participle D Past participle

2. They are entering the cave 6. Millions of tourists visited

with their equipment. national parks last year.
A Present A Present
B Present participle B Present participle
C Past C Past
D Past participle D Past participle

3. The temperature drops 7. The caves are attracting

quickly at lower depths. many people each year.
A Present A Present
B Present participle B Present participle
C Past C Past
D Past participle D Past participle

4. Many people have searched 8. Elevators carry guides and

these caves. tourists down hundreds of
feet.
A Present
B Present participle A Present
C Past B Present participle
D Past participle C Past
D Past participle

112 Grammar
Review
Write present, present participle, past, or past participle to identify the
principal part used to form the underlined verb.
1. Our science class is learning about fire.
2. Fuel, oxygen, and a spark combine.
3. The teacher is striking a match.
4. What caused the spark?
5. Maria used a flint and a steel file.
6. The sparks bounced several feet.
7. A magnifying glass also works.
8. The glass concentrated the sun’s rays.
9. Sean had gathered some soft, dry moss and twigs.
10. Cloth starts a fire most efficiently.
11. Mr. Gottfried had charred rags in a tin.
12. We learned fire safety rules too.

Write the form of the underlined verb indicated in ( ).

13. Natives fish in the river with spears. (past)
14. They construct houses of wood and mud.
(past)
15. Yolanda and Paul report about tribes of the
Northwest. (past participle with have)
16. Yesterday they carve a wooden owl. (past)
17. Now they weave a basket from bark. (present participle)
18. Jaron gather berries for lunch. (present)
19. Carissa cook a fish over the fire. (past participle with has)
20. The campers enjoy this wilderness meal. (present participle)

Grammar 113
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Thesis Statement
A thesis statement is the main idea of an essay. It expresses
the writer’s point of view. For example, if you are asked to
write about nutrition, your thesis statement might be A healthy
diet will help you live longer. Other points in your essay should
support your thesis statement.
What’s your favorite sport? (No thesis)
Our school should create a new soccer field. (Thesis statement)

For each paragraph below, write the letter of the appropriate thesis
statement.
A Wild bears must be protected.
B Wild bears are dangerous!
1. You hear stories of campers who have been chased away by
wild bears. Some people think bears will leave you alone if
you don’t bother them. However, if you don’t properly store
your food, a bear is likely to enter your campsite. Bears are big
and strong and could easily harm you if you’re not careful.
2. I am writing to you, Senator, to ask for your help. The wild
bears in our state are running out of room. We need to set
aside some land for a national park. That way, bears can
roam free without invading nearby towns.

Write a thesis statement and conclusion on the topic

of pet care, based on the following details.
Pets need shelter, food, and water, just like
we do. When they are sick, animals need care
and treatment. Pets get lonely too. It’s not
fair to keep your pet tied up or locked in
a room all the time.

114 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Expository Writing
Expository writing is based on information. Sometimes
the goal of expository writing is to share information or
ideas. However, a writer may also use information to
support an opinion. Writers who feel strongly
about an issue should make their position
clear from the beginning and use convincing
examples and facts.

Campfires: Keep a Watchful Eye

Thesis statement Campfires present a real danger to our national
introduces the forests, so campers need to be very careful. Though
subject and
expresses the campfires are an essential part of the camping
writer’s opinion. experience, unattended campfires have caused
countless forest fires over the years. You may think
your campfire is too small to spread to the forest
Main body
supports
around you, but watch out! Dry leaves and needles on
the thesis. the forest f loor can burn quickly. Wind can pick up
speed and spread your fire thirty feet before you
know it. All it takes is one f lyaway spark, and your
campfire can cause acres of damage. So always
keep an eye on your campfire and make sure you
have plenty of water nearby, just in case. A watchful
Conclusion sums
everything up. eye is the best way to protect our precious forests.

Writing 115
Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs
Usually you add -ed to a verb to show past tense. Irregular verbs
do not follow this rule. Instead of having -ed forms to show past
tense, irregular verbs usually change to other words.

Present Present Participle Past Past Participle

(is, are) (has, have, had)
become becoming became become
choose choosing chose chosen
fall falling fell fallen
find finding found found
get getting got gotten
give giving gave given
go going went gone
hear hearing heard heard
is/are being was/were been
know knowing knew known
leave leaving left left
sing singing sang sung
speak speaking spoke spoken

Write present, present participle, past, or past participle to identify the

principal part used to form the underlined verb.
1. Marian chose her favorite songs.
2. Eleanor Roosevelt had heard about her struggles.
3. Everyone knows the story of Marian Anderson.
4. She is giving the performance of her life.
5. The audience knew Marian’s strong, velvety voice.
6. The crowd is speaking in whispers.
7. Ethel May had become Marian’s biggest fan.
8. They go to Europe next week.
116 Grammar
Write the verb in ( ) that correctly completes each sentence.
1. After the concert, Dana (knowed, knew) her future career.
2. Soon she (had chosen, choosed) a voice teacher.
3. Every day she (leaved, left) home at 6:30 for the train.
4. Ms. Rossi (is giving, gaved) her voice lessons.
5. No one (are singing, sings) as beautifully as Ms. Rossi.
6. Thousands of fans (going, went) to her concerts over the years.
7. In three months, Dana (sung, had sung) thousands of scales
and exercises.
8. After all the practice, she (hears, hearing) a change in her voice.
9. Every day, she (finded, is finding) singing easier.
10. Last week, Ms. Rossi (getted, got) her new music for the
spring recital.

Write a sentence using the principal part of the given verb

indicated in ( ).
11. go (present participle with are)
12. hear (past participle with have)
13. sing (present)
14. know (past)
15. become (past participle with has)
16. give (past)
17. speak (present)
18. fall (past participle with had)
19. get (present participle with is)
20. leave (past)

Grammar 117
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the verb that completes each sentence.

1. Mom to the opera last 5. No one the theater at

night. intermission.
A goes A has leaved
B goed B leaving
C went C left
D has gone D are leaving

2. The performers in Italian. 6. Penny some of the

A is singing songs.
B are singing A knows
C singed B knowed
D singing C have knowed
D known
3. Brian a book about
opera. 7. Complete silence over
A choosed the crowd.
B have chosed A falled
C choose B fallen
D has chosen C are falling
D has fallen
4. The costumes very
detailed. 8. Papa our seats for us.
A is A find
B are B is finding
C are been C finded
D was D have find

118 Grammar
Review
Write present, present participle, past, or past participle to identify
the principal part used to form the underlined verb.
1. Carl and Susan speak fluent German.
2. Lynn has become a fan of German literature.
3. We are leaving for Europe on Saturday.
4. My cousins have fallen under the spell of Bavaria.
5. They went to a beautiful castle.
6. Local citizens are giving a performance about a king.
7. The king fell ill and behaved strangely.
8. He left little money in the country’s treasury.
9. However, the castle had become a jeweled masterpiece.
10. Many visitors find their way to this wonderful place.

Write the verb in ( ) that correctly completes each sentence.

11. The audience (is becoming, becoming) restless.
12. The orchestra (choosed, has chosen) the park for a concert.
13. Darkness (fallen, fell) by eight o’clock.
14. At last the conductor (gotten, gets) up on the podium.
15. Now he (is speaking, have spoken) to the musicians.
16. They (being, have been) ready with their instruments.
17. That night the orchestra (given, gave) an inspiring performance.
18. No one (knows, knowed) the music better.
19. People (had heared, heard) something special that night.
20. Soon everyone (are leaving, had left) the park.

Grammar 119
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Use Powerful Verbs

Powerful verbs can make your writing memorable. Try to
replace weak verbs and some linking verbs with action verbs
to present a clearer, more vivid picture for your readers.
Weak I was cold. The snow was shiny.
More Powerful I shivered. The snow sparkled.

Replace the underlined words with an action verb from the box or
your own action verb. Write the sentence.

trembles vowed shimmers echoed

cheered sweated beamed hushed

1. The audience was quiet when she walked onstage.

2. The performer is nervous.
3. Music was loud in the concert hall.
4. The singer’s dress is shiny in the darkness.
5. Musicians were hot under the lights.
6. After the concert, the crowd was happy for the band.
7. That violinist looked pleased as she took a bow.
8. I said I would see this band again next year.

Rewrite the following sentences. Replace the underlined words with

action verbs.
When we arrived at the hotel, we got off the bus. Benny’s feet
were sore. Herbie went right up to the front desk. The hotel manager
was not happy. Soon we were in our rooms. I was up twelve hours
later feeling refreshed.

120 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Biographical Study
A biographical study is a short biography of an
important or well-known person. It might be used in
an encyclopedia or a magazine. A study usually tells
about only the high points of the subject’s life.

Louis Armstrong (1901–1971)

Topic sentence states Louis Armstrong was one of the most important
importance musicians in jazz history. Born in New Orleans,
of subject.
Louisiana, he taught himself to play the bugle
when he was thirteen. During this time he lived at
the Colored Waifs’ Home for Boys, a local reform
school. He joined Kid Ory’s Brownskin Band at
the age of eighteen and went on to become the
Transitions show
chronological order. world’s leading Dixieland trumpet player. “Satchmo,”
as Armstrong was nicknamed, also had a unique
singing voice. He popularized scat singing (using
An unfamiliar nonsense syllables).
term is defined.
In 1922, Armstrong moved to Chicago to join
King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band. Later he played with
Fletcher Henderson and other jazz legends. In later
years, he became America’s goodwill ambassador,
playing and singing concerts all over the world. Some
of his biggest song hits were “Hello, Dolly!,” “Blueberry
Hill,” “Mack the Knife,” “C’est si bon,” and “What a
Wonderful World.”

Writing 121
Verbs, Objects, and Subject Complements
A direct object follows an action verb and tells who or what
receives the action of the verb.
Chris told a secret. (Told is an action verb. Secret is a direct object.)

An indirect object follows an action verb and tells to whom or

what the action of the verb is done.
Chris told Bill a secret. (The indirect object Bill tells to whom Chris
told the secret. An indirect object comes before the direct object.)

A subject complement follows a linking verb and tells who or

what the subject is or is like.
Maggie felt sick. (Felt is a linking verb, and sick is a subject
complement that describes Maggie.)
Maggie is the third student in the first row. (Is is a linking verb,
and student is a subject complement telling who Maggie is.)
• A noun used as a subject complement is a predicate noun. An
adjective used as a subject complement is a predicate adjective.

For items 1–3, write the subject complement in each sentence. For
items 4–6, write the direct objects and one indirect object. Label
each answer SC, DO, or IO.
1. The shore was rocky.
2. The seawater tasted salty.
3. The boys were the champions in sports.
4. Someone painted lines on the sides of the pool.
5. Lee kicked her legs in the water.
6. The instructor gave his students diving lessons after class.

122 Grammar
Write each sentence. Circle the linking verb and underline
the subject complement. Write PA if it is a predicate adjective.
Write PN if it is a predicate noun.
1. The water looked perfectly calm.
2. An afternoon swim seemed a good idea.
3. Unfortunately, a strong undercurrent was present.
4. The current was a forceful pull.
5. My arms and legs became heavy logs.
6. Soon I felt very afraid.
7. I was also exhausted.
8. That lifeguard looked wonderful to me!
9. Water safety is an important skill.
10. The lake water smelled fishy.
11. The surface looked muddy.
12. The lake no longer seemed the best place for a swim.

Complete each sentence with a word. Write the sentence.

Write DO if the word you added is a direct object. Write IO
if the word you added is an indirect object.
13. Winnie gave a swimming lesson.
14. She has taught for years.
15. Swimming uses up the body’s .
16. Winnie offered a snack.
17. Glenn handed a dry towel.
18. She wrapped gratefully around her shoulders.
19. We took for the upcoming swim meet.
20. Coach offered a second chance to improve our times.

Grammar 123
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the sentence that has a subject complement.

1. A Dad taught me years ago. 3. A We always visit the snack

bar.
B At first, I was afraid of
the water. B Mom gives us money for
C Then I dogpaddled in a snack.
shallow water. C Usually I buy an ice
D I avoided the deep end of cream bar.
the pool. D On a hot day, it tastes
wonderful.
2. A The pool water was
incredibly cold. 4. A Do not swim right after
you eat.
B That first leap shocked
my senses. B For decades, parents said
C After several laps, I this to children.
warmed up. C Today this advice seems
D Then I enjoyed the less urgent.
coolness of the water. D However, a rest after
lunch couldn’t hurt.

Write the letter of the direct object of the underlined verb in

the sentence.

5. I raced Doug to the buoy at 7. Ginny handed me a t-shirt

the end of the swim area. with a fish on it.
A I C buoy A Ginny C me
B Doug D swim area B fish D t-shirt

6. The waves slapped me in the 8. The hot sun had burned my

face with every stroke. shoulders badly.
A stroke C me A shoulders C had
B face D slapped burned
B sun D badly

124 Grammar
Review
Write the subject complement in each sentence. Write PA if it is a
predicate adjective. Write PN if it is a predicate noun.
1. My brother is a lifeguard for the park district.
2. The pool becomes crowded on Saturdays.
3. The lifeguards were alert to every move.
4. One boy looked panicky in the deep water.
5. The chlorinated water smelled clean.
6. The concrete sunbathing area felt scratchy to my feet.
7. Jamahl seemed quite calm.
8. In fact, he was nervous about the meet.
9. His coach is a former state champion.
10. The meet was a huge success for our team.

Write each sentence. Circle direct objects and underline any

indirect objects.
11. A pelican fed its babies fish.
12. Mom and I watched the large seabirds with amusement.
13. The diving pelican catches fish in its mouth.
14. Seagulls watch us hungrily from the beach.
15. We spread a picnic on our blanket.
16. Julie throws the gulls some crusts from her sandwich.
17. A mob of gulls surrounds us almost immediately.
18. Brent frowns and gives Julie a dirty look.
19. The gulls give our party their full attention.
20. I admire their cool, calm determination.

Grammar 125
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Eliminate Wordiness
To make writing clear and readable, eliminate wordiness.
You can replace some phrases with single words (sadly for with
great sadness, tall for tall in height, or because for due to the fact that).
Delete unnecessary words. Use contractions when appropriate.

Wordy The reason that we will swim is because the

temperature is hot.
Improved We’ll swim because it’s hot.

Rewrite the sentences. Make the underlined phrases less wordy.

Substitute or eliminate words.
1. We stayed on the beach on account of there were big waves.
2. He built a sand castle in a skillful way.
3. It was the largest sand castle in size I had ever seen.
4. We did not think we would have so much fun!
5. With great eagerness, we opened the picnic basket.
6. Unfortunately, the food smelled bad due to the fact that it had
been in the sun all day.

Eliminate wordiness in the sentences below. Use contractions.

Write the new sentences.
(7) I am not sure I am wearing this sweater in a correct manner.
(8) The reason I had it on backwards was because it did not have a
label of any kind on it. (9) The sweater is expensive and costs a lot!
(10) It is blue in color. That is my favorite of all the colors.

126 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Rules
Rules are instructions that are written to keep people
informed and safe. Safety rules should be clear, simple,
and easy to understand.

The most Safety Rules for Cumberland Fishing Pond

important 1. NO swimming, wading, or diving is allowed.
rule is first. 2. Fishing licenses are required for anyone over the
Rules are age of 10.
numbered
3. Children under 7 must be accompanied by an adult.
so they are
easy to read 4. Stand at least 2 feet from the edge of the dock
and follow. while casting.
5. Fish taken must be above the minimum size.
Rules are 6. Fish under the minimum size must be released back
arranged in
into the pond.
logical order.
7. Be careful—the dock is slippery when wet.
8. Take all garbage with you when you leave.
9. Glass bottles and containers are not permitted.
10. Do not dump unwanted live bait into the pond.
11. Load and unload equipment only in the
designated areas.
12. Have fun! Thanks for coming to Cumberland Pond.

Writing 127
Troublesome Verbs
Some pairs of verbs are troublesome verbs because they have similar
meanings or because they look alike.
Verb Meaning Present Past Past Participle
(has, have, had)
sit sit down sit sat sat
set put or place set set set
lie rest or recline lie lay lain
lay put or place lay laid laid
rise get or move up rise rose risen
raise lift up raise raised raised
let allow or permit let let let
leave go away leave left left
lend give to someone lend lent lent
borrow get from someone borrow borrowed borrowed
teach show how teach taught taught
learn find out learn learned learned

Write the form of the underlined verb indicated in ( ).

1. She sit at the table and peeled apples. (past)
2. The sunburn raise blisters on the worker’s arms. (present)
3. The rancher had lend his bulldozer to his neighbor. (past
participle)
4. Juan Valdez borrow baskets from us. (past)
5. He set his boots by the side of his bed. (present)
6. In the morning, he had rise and gone back to work.
(past participle)

128 Grammar
Write the verb that correctly completes the sentence. Use context to
help you decide which verb is needed.
1. Can you (learn, teach) me that folk song?
2. Our class (learned, taught) about folk literature of Mexico.
3. Helen (borrowed, lent) me her book of Latin American tales.
4. I also (borrowed, lent) a book on folk art from my teacher.
5. Those books have (lain, laid) on my desk for days.
6. I accidentally (set, sat) some papers on them.
7. Then I (let, left) them there for two weeks.
8. Will you (leave, let) me have an extra day?
9. Ms. Gomez said yes and (raised, rose) my hopes.
10. If I (raise, rise) early tomorrow, I can finish the report.
11. I (sat, set) down and went right to work.
12. I (laid, lay) the assignment sheet on the counter.

Complete each sentence using a form of the

verb from the box. Use the tense indicated
in ( ). Write the sentences.

lie lay rise raise sit set

13. Papa always in the large chair at

the head of the table. (present)
14. Mama the table with the good
linen and china. (past participle)
15. The bread in the loaf pan. (past participle)
16. The wonderful yeasty smell my spirits immediately. (past)
17. Papa his newspaper aside and came to the table. (past)
18. After dinner we usually down for a siesta. (present)

Grammar 129
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the verb that correctly completes each sentence.

1. Juanita had her basket 3. They the wormy fruit

down and forgotten it. fall to the ground.
A sit C sat A leave C letted
B set D setted B let D left

2. The pickers their baskets 4. The birds their young

to the top of the ladder. about the fruit.
A raised C rise A teached C taught
B rose D risen B learned D learn

Write the letter of the sentence that has the correct verb.

5. A Javier borrowed me a 7. A Georgia sits under the

basket of peaches. crabapple tree at sunset.
B I sat them on the table. B She loaned a folding
C Mama learned me about chair from us.
preserves. C Has she let her place yet
D I set the jars of preserves for the evening?
on the pantry shelf. D She laid in bed and
thought about the vivid
6. A The sun raises earlier each colors of sunset.
day this spring.
B It does not let me lie in 8. A An old tomcat lays in the
bed late. sunshine.
C Nature has learned me B He has taught every
about my body. sunny spot in the house.
D I get up early and rise the C When the sunbeam
window shade. moves, he leaves for a
new spot.
D Sometimes he sets with
his tail wrapped around
his paws.

130 Grammar
Review
Write the letter of the definition of the underlined verb.
1. Set your baskets on the truck. A has got from someone
2. Raise your hands over your head. B has put or placed
3. June has borrowed a coat. C gets or moves up
4. I have learned the job. D put or place
5. The sun rises at 6:00 tomorrow. E lift something up
6. Hakim has laid down his shears. F have found out

Write the form of the underlined verb indicated in ( ).

7. The workers leave for the orchard at dawn. (past)
8. They had rise in the dark for a cold breakfast. (past participle)
9. The farmer learn about cross pollination. (past)
10. She has lay the warming pots around the trees. (past participle)
11. Mr. Charles teach us about hummingbirds.
(past)
12. The hummingbirds have leave for
their summer grounds. (past participle)
13. A hummingbird almost never sit still on
a branch. (present)
14. Lay the binoculars near that window. (present)

Write the verb that correctly completes each sentence.

15. They (sat, set) in the back of the pickup truck.
16. Someone (had risen, had raised) the tarp for them.
17. One worker (learned, taught) the others a folk song.
18. Each man (learned, taught) a different part.
19. Little Ben (lay, laid) down on his father’s lap.
20. His father (leave, let) him sleep for a while.
21. Enrique (borrowed, lent) the boy a jacket for a pillow.
22. The rain stopped, and mist (rose, raised) from the ground.

Grammar 131
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Know Your Audience

When you write, you need to know your audience.
This means that you keep in mind who is going to read
your writing. Your tone, word choice, and subject should
be suited to your audience.
Friend as Audience This story is awesome!
Teacher as Audience The story Juan Verdades is
well written.

Match each sentence with the audience for which it seems

best suited.

best friend school principal teammates

kindergartners older sister your teacher

1. Listen up! If it rains, leave the equipment and go inside the

locker room.
2. That’s so cool!
3. We would like to suggest two new policies for school field trips.
4. We all agreed to have a class party next week, if that’s all right
with you.
5. Who can tell me which is the letter A?
6. Mom said you have to let me go with you.

Choose an audience from the box above and

write an e-mail note to that audience. Include
a greeting and at least two sentences.

132 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

E-Mail
An e-mail is an electronic letter (usually a brief, friendly message)
sent by computer. Because it is frequently informal, e-mail
communication provides special opportunities to convey your
voice and feelings. However, you should still use correct grammar,
spelling, and punctuation.

From: holly @ averschoolk12.edu

To: mward @ averschoolk12.edu
Subject: Juan Verdades
Dear Mr. Ward,
You asked us to write you an e-mail with our
opinions about Juan Verdades. The story was all right,
but I don’t think kids can relate to this folk tale.
Intentional First of all, it’s not very realistic. I just don’t
fragments are
think there’s such a thing as a person who “can’t lie.”
appropriate for
an e-mail. No way! I don’t think you could find one person in
the world who hasn’t told a lie. Not even Gandhi!
Writer uses A bigger problem is the story’s moral—if you
details to always tell the truth, good things will happen to you.
support her
opinion. Juan Verdades stole apples and then confessed. And
what was his punishment? He got a ranch and a beautiful
wife! Come on! I confessed when I accidentally broke
Writer uses my mom’s bracelet. All I got was a week’s grounding
an engaging,
informal voice. for borrowing it without permission.
So, Mr. Ward, I don’t think the story was a useful
one. We need to read stories that are more like real life.
Holly Bannerman

Writing 133
Prepositions
A preposition shows a relationship between a noun or pronoun
and another word in the sentence, such as a verb, adjective, or other
noun. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and
usually ends with a noun or pronoun. The noun or pronoun is called
the object of the preposition.
Prepositional Phrase

The ambulance raced to the hospital.

Preposition Object of the preposition

Here are some common prepositions: about, above, across, after,
against, along, among, around, as, at, before, behind, below, beneath,
beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside,
into, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, through,
throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with,
within, without.
• Like an adjective, a prepositional phrase can modify a noun or pronoun.
The girl in the red hat is my sister.
• Like an adverb, a prepositional phrase can modify a verb.
Elizabeth walked into the classroom.

Write the prepositional phrase or phrases in each sentence. Write P

above the preposition and O above the object of the preposition in
each prepositional phrase.
1. My friend works at a college in Philadelphia.
2. The president dismissed the meeting before lunch.
3. Eva felt discouraged about her progress in her career.
4. The medical profession was not ready for a female surgeon.
5. Elizabeth worked as a student nurse in the maternity ward.
134 Grammar
Write the prepositional phrase in each sentence. Write Adjective if
the phrase acts as an adjective. Write Adverb if it acts as an adverb.
1. Both men and women have been pioneers in medicine.
2. Women struggled for equal rights.
3. Few women worked outside the home.
4. Medical school was an impossible dream for most women.
5. A few courageous women fought against prejudice.
6. Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman doctor in the
United States.
7. This was not accomplished without a great struggle.
8. Her achievement has been remembered through the years.
9. The secret force behind her success was determination.
10. An important characteristic of any doctor is knowledge,
not gender.

Add a prepositional phrase to each sentence. Write the sentence.

11. One time I got sick.
12. The teacher sent me.
13. The school nurse took my temperature.
14. Then he called my dad.
15. I lay down and waited.
16. Soon Dad picked me up.
17. The flu kept me home.
18. The doctor recommended
fluids and rest.
19. I didn’t enjoy my “vacation.”
20. My fever, aches, and pains disappeared.

Grammar 135
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the prepositions in each sentence.

1. Doctors work for long hours at 3. At any hour of the night,

clinics and hospitals. they could be called.
A for, hours C for, at A hour, could C any, be
B long, at D clinics, B At, of D of, night
hospitals
4. A patient in trouble needs
2. They read about new findings care without delay.
and keep up with new A care, delay C A, in
treatments.
B needs, care D in,
A about, with C and, up without
B findings, D read, keep
treatments

Write the letter of the objects of the prepositions in each sentence.

5. Many doctors specialize in 7. The woman with red hair is a

one kind of medicine. surgeon at the clinic.
A doctors, medicine A with, red
B specialize, in B hair, surgeon
C kind, medicine C woman, clinic
D Many, one D hair, clinic

6. An ophthalmologist knows 8. Rico is a resident in

about diseases of the eyes. dermatology, or the care of
the skin.
A ophthalmologist, knows
B diseases, eyes A dermatology, skin
C ophthalmologist, diseases B in, or
D knows, eyes C care, skin
D Rico, dermatology

136 Grammar
Review
Write the prepositional phrase or phrases in each sentence.
Write P above the preposition and O above the object of the
preposition in each prepositional phrase.
1. Helen hurried down the sidewalk to the hospital.
2. Her shift begins at 11 P.M. and lasts until 7 A.M.
3. Many experts work in a hospital.
4. After doctors and nurses, there is a great need for administrators,
dieticians, and lab workers.
5. The hospital is full of caring professionals.
6. Robert works as a volunteer in the gift shop.
7. The sixth graders brought teddy bears for the children
with serious illnesses.
8. An ambulance with flashing lights sped onto the scene.

Write each prepositional phrase. Write Adjective if it acts as an

adjective in the sentence. Write Adverb if it acts as an adverb.
9. People once had strange ideas about the causes of diseases.
10. Surgical instruments were not sterilized before surgery.
11. Bacteria cause infections in wounds.
12. Today surgeons scrub carefully for operations.
13. Bacteria exist everywhere around us and even in our bodies.
14. The immune system protects you with an army
of cells.
15. White blood cells recognize invaders and
swarm to the rescue.
16. A person with the flu has millions of white
blood cells in his or her body.

Grammar 137
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Transition Words
Transition words make “bridges” between sentences,
paragraphs, or ideas. Some transition words show sequence
(first, next, then, finally). Some point out examples or evidence
(for example, that is, so). Others signal comparisons (and, as,
like, similar, both) or contrasts (but, however, unlike, not, on the
other hand).

Write the best word or words from the box to make the sentences
in the paragraph below flow smoothly.

Then but First

However For example

I’d like to become a doctor someday. I think it’s a very rewarding

profession, (1) it’s also hard work. (2) , you have to study
for many years! (3) of all, you have to get good grades in school
and college. (4) you have to go to medical school for several
more years. (5) , once you get your medical degree, all the effort
seems worthwhile.

Add your own transition words to make the paragraph below clearer
and easier to read. You may want to combine some sentences.
I wanted to play hockey. Sixth-graders weren’t allowed to join the
league. I was big enough and fast enough to play with the older kids.
I practiced more on my own. I watched the team play. They saw I
was dedicated enough to play. They let me join.

138 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Writing for Tests

Write a paragraph comparing and contrasting
women’s rights in the 1800s to women’s rights today.
Use transition words and details to show likenesses
and differences.

Step by Step
Formal voice is
appropriate for Women’s rights have come a long way in the last
an essay. hundred and fifty years, but women still have farther
to go. In the 1800s, women struggled to gain basic
rights that laid the foundation for women’s rights
today. Women also fought in different industries for
higher positions. In the mid-1800s, no woman had
Transition words
signal comparisons ever gone to medical school and become a doctor.
and contrasts. However, today women all across the country
become doctors. Women broke the pattern and
worked in careers that were thought to be only
for men. Unlike today, women could not vote in the
1800s. Now, not only can they vote, but more women
Facts support hold elective office than ever before. Women continue
ideas.
to break barriers in many different ways. Though
there have been advances in women’s rights, there
is still room for improvement. For instance, no woman
Writer injects a has ever been elected President or Vice-President.
personal note in
Maybe that will change in the near future—when I
the final sentence
to add impact. become President!

Writing 139
Subject and Object Pronouns
A personal pronoun used as the subject of a sentence is called a
subject pronoun.

He published an article. She and I read the article.

A personal pronoun used as a direct object, indirect object, or

object of a preposition is called an object pronoun.
The explorer thanked them. I gave the book to Becky and him.
• Subject pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, and they.
• Object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.
• Remember to use the correct pronoun form with a compound
subject or object.
• Subject pronouns replace the nouns they represent. Do not
use a subject pronoun with the noun it represents.
No: Tim he went ice fishing with his brother.
Yes: Tim went ice fishing with his brother.

Write the correct pronoun in ( ) to complete each sentence.

1. Tamara and (she, her) photographed the Northern Lights.
2. (Them, They) took enough supplies for five years.
3. Curt and (she, her) will join the expedition.
4. The North Pole would be too cold for (I, me).
5. Carlos and (me, I) could lose toes.
6. (We, Us) know what happened to those explorers.
7. Seth and (he, him) are going on the class field trip.
8. The class accompanied (they, them) to the museum.
9. Mr. Jasper told Ann and (I, me) about his trip to Greenland.
10. He invited Ms. Eddings and (we, us) to view ancient relics.

140 Grammar
Write the pronoun in each sentence. Write SP if it is a subject
pronoun. Write OP if it is an object pronoun.
1. It is a thrilling story of adventure.
2. The Arctic explorers astound my friends and me.
3. The extreme weather and danger there are scary to us.
4. Maria and I will travel by dogsled on our trip.
5. Can John and she come along for the ride?
6. The travelers took twenty pairs of dogs and tons of supplies
with them.
7. Peary and they continued to the North Pole.
8. He and Henson may have reached the Pole on April 6, 1909.
9. The public finally gave him credit for being first.
10. However, because there was no firm proof, we cannot be sure.
11. The guide will let you drive the sled for a while.
12. Anika trained for months so that the team would obey her.

Use each of the phrases below correctly in a sentence.

Write the sentence.
13. the campers and them
14. he and I
15. Charlie and she
16. you and I
17. the guide and him
18. Ginny and he
19. Grace and us
20. Sean and I

Grammar 141
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the pronoun that correctly replaces the underlined
word or words in each sentence.

1. Lewis and Clark explored the 6. The expedition might not

Louisiana Purchase. have succeeded without
Sacajawea.
A Them C Us
B They D We A they C her
B she D he
2. They were sent by President
Thomas Jefferson. 7. The horses carried the men
and supplies long distances.
A them C him
B he D it A Us C Him
B They D Her
3. The Louisiana Purchase had
just been acquired. 8. When the river ended, they
made their way on foot.
A It C They
B He D Them A us C it
B he D her
4. Jefferson chose Meriwether
Lewis as commander. 9. Jim and I studied this famous
expedition.
A you C he
B she D him A Us C They
B We D Them
5. Lewis asked William Clark to
join him. 10. Will Ms. Underwood help
A He C Him Jim and me with our report?
B She D Her A he C we
B I D us

142 Grammar
Review
Write SP if the underlined word is a subject pronoun.
Write OP if the word is an object pronoun.
1. The travelers explored much of the upper Midwest and
Northwest, and they met many Native Americans.
2. Usually the natives gave them food and assistance.
3. Sacajawea spoke some of the native languages, so she helped
smooth the way.
4. Lewis kept a journal and filled it with his observations and
sketches of new landforms, plants, and animals.
5. Every man on the expedition noted the wonders around him.
6. Lewis and they were seeing some sights for the first time.
7. All of the trip was difficult, but the worst part of it was the
mountain crossing.
8. I think that Lewis would have written a fantastic book about
the adventure.
9. His early death deprived us of this work about the expedition.
10. We must relive Lewis and Clark’s adventure in our imaginations.

Write the correct pronoun or pronouns in ( ) to complete

each sentence.
11. Are there any new frontiers for (us, we) to explore?
12. The ocean floor is vast, and much of (it, they)
is unexplored.
13. Jacques Cousteau was an ocean
pioneer. (He, Him) brought wonders
of the deep onto our TV screens.
14. Ginny and (I, me) think we would
like to deep-sea dive.
15. Dad asked if (he, him) could rent
scuba gear at the marina.
16. Mom said scuba diving doesn’t interest (her, she).

Grammar 143
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Answer the 5 Ws and How

A news story gives key information about an event. It
answers a set of questions called the 5 Ws and How: Who?
What? Where? When? Why? How? This essential information tells
readers about an event in direct, concrete, and objective sentences.
Some dogs got away the other day.
(Answers only Who and What)
Two sled dogs escaped from Neil Olafsen’s yard yesterday
afternoon. Olafsen said they got out by digging under the walls
of their pen.
(Answers all six questions)

Choose the news story lead that best answers the 5 Ws and How.
Explain why your choice is the best and why the other two are not.
1. Three inches of snow fell yesterday. They had trouble plowing it
all, but finally it melted. There’s no cause for alarm. Things were
back to normal today.
2. A man and a woman were found stranded on frozen Reindeer
Lake yesterday, due to an ill-advised skating adventure during a
blizzard. Marion and Geoffrey Harden of Antlerville, Vermont,
were a little cold but not seriously injured.
3. The Prime Minister of Norway was there last Wednesday, as
were several Olympic cross-country ski champions. The Oslo
Banquet Hall was completely redecorated for the festivities.

Choose one of the story leads above that was incomplete. Rewrite
the lead, adding details to answer the 5 Ws and How.

144 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

News Story
When you want to know what’s happening in
your community or around the world, odds are
you can find out in a news story. A news story
puts the most important information in a lead
sentence. Details are provided in later sentences.

Headline gets Bold Norwegian First to Ski Across Greenland

reader’s attention.
July 20, 1888—A young Norwegian scientist,
Lead sentence
Fridtjof Nansen, became the first person ever to cross
gives most Greenland on skis yesterday. A careful planner and
important accomplished athlete, Nansen, 26, was dropped off
information.
with his party on the uninhabited eastern coast of
the world’s largest island. Taking advantage of Inuit
survival methods, Nansen and his five companions
used dog sledges, kayaks, and snow houses as they
forged their way west toward civilization. In a bold
Details are move, Nansen’s group packed only enough supplies
given later.
for a one-way trip. They knew that they would either
succeed or die trying. The Greenland ski trip was
Nansen’s first expedition. The young outdoorsman and
poet says he is planning future expeditions.

Writing 145
Pronouns and Antecedents
A pronoun takes the place of a noun or nouns. An
antecedent, or referent, is the noun or nouns to which the
pronoun refers. A pronoun and its antecedent must agree in
number and gender.

Before you use a pronoun, ask yourself whether the

antecedent is singular or plural. If the antecedent is singular,
decide whether it is masculine, feminine, or neuter. Then
choose a pronoun that agrees. In the following sentences,
the antecedents are underlined once; the pronouns are
underlined twice.
Sal and Jo bought a book, and they read it together.
Erik brought a camera so he could take pictures.

Write the pronoun that refers to the underlined antecedent.

1. Jane Goodall observed chimpanzees and helped them survive.
2. Chimpanzees have interesting ways of finding food when they
are hungry.
3. Although Vicky learned to say four words, very few people
could understand her.
4. The class was excited when we got a letter from Jane Goodall.
5. Ai grabbed the doll and hugged it tightly.
6. In 1961, Ham was placed aboard a rocket to see whether he
could survive the space flight.
7. Paige and I wanted to hold the baby chimp, but the mother
would not let us.
8. After Lucy grabbed a stone, she used it to crack open a nut.

146 Grammar
Write the antecedent in each item. Then write the
pronoun in ( ) that matches the antecedent.
1. Chimpanzees have brains much like human brains,
and (it, they) behave like humans in some ways.
2. A chimpanzee will pick up a stick and use (it, he) as a tool.
3. Lucy learned sign language and made up signs for
objects whose names (it, she) did not know.
4. Ham was a male chimpanzee who went
into space in 1961. Although frightened,
(he, them) survived.
5. Barb and I thought the baby chimps were
imitating (us, we).
6. Baby chimps cling to their mothers but are
sometimes taken from (her, them).
7. Does the zoo treat chimpanzees well? (It, They) has living
quarters with a natural habitat.
8. The chimpanzees live in family groups that give (them, it)
nearly normal lives.

Read each sentence. Write another sentence with a pronoun that

refers to the underlined words.
9. Many chimpanzees have been taught American Sign Language.
10. Jane Goodall has worked with and studied chimpanzees all her
adult life.
11. A male chimpanzee and a female chimpanzee are roughly the
same height.
12. The wilderness homes of chimpanzees are threatened.
13. Jane Goodall addressed the children of our school.
14. All people must make an effort to solve this problem.
15. Think of some things you can do to help preserve habitats.

Grammar 147
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the pronoun that correctly completes
each sentence.

1. Did you watch the monkeys? 6. Jane Goodall knows about

Are like people? chimpanzees because
has observed them for
A you C her
decades.
B him D they
A he C I
2. I watched the mother with B she D us
her baby. ___ taught it to
hunt termites. 7. Chimpanzees may know
they are related to people
A Her C We
because they communicate
B She D It with .

3. The monkeys ate bananas A her C us

that the keeper had given B they D it
___.
8. The teacher told her students,
A them C it
“ also need to observe
B he D I the orangutans and gorillas.”

4. Our class visited the zoo, and A Them C He

had a great time. B It D You
A me C us
9. I took pictures of the baby
B we D them chimpanzees to school with
.
5. We learned about members
of the ape family. come A me C they
in all different sizes. B she D we
A It C Them
10. Jodi and I want to become
B You D They
zoologists. will travel to
Africa to study animals.
A Her C We
B Them D Him

148 Grammar
Review
Write each sentence. Circle the pronoun and underline its antecedent.
1. Mr. Smith asked Roy to help him set up the display.
2. The class watched a movie about chimpanzees after studying
about them.
3. Chimpanzees resemble people, right down to having facial
expressions like us.
4. The chimpanzee’s eyes were large and brown. They seemed sad
and wise.
5. The big cats at the zoo closed their eyes and ignored the activity
around them.
6. The lion has a keen sense of smell, which helps it hunt.
7. The giraffes seemed content in their enclosure because it was
large and forested.
8. The alligators and crocodiles lay in the sunshine, which they
seemed to enjoy.
9. Dr. Benchley looked closely at slides she had taken in Africa.
10. Aaron wanted to take one of the stuffed animals with him.

Write the pronoun that agrees with the

antecedent. Then write the antecedent
to which the pronoun refers.

he her it they she

11. Mary Alice asked Tom to get a ticket for ___.

12. The circus had come to town, and ___ looked exciting.
13. A man rode on an elephant’s back. ___ held a pet monkey.
14. A girl put on quite a show. ___ danced and leaped around
the ring.
15. The acrobats soared above the crowd. ___ made everyone gasp
with their daring.

Grammar 149
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Use Vivid Words

Vivid words create a sharp picture in the reader’s
mind. Replace vague words with vivid adjectives, nouns,
and verbs to make your writing sparkle!
Vague An animal went into the box.
Vivid The sprightly chimp scampered into the
rickety cardboard box.

Replace the underlined word in each sentence with a more vivid

or exact word. You can also replace other words or add more vivid
words. Write the new sentences.
1. We went to the ape exhibit.
2. Their habitat looked nice.
3. The keeper said something to her assistant.
4. We saw the animals eat lunch.
5. They like fruit.
6. One ate all its food.
7. A male ape was in a hammock.
8. Two baby apes played on his stomach.
9. They made a lot of noise.
10. Our field trip was fun.

Write a description of an animal. Use vivid words to describe what

the animal looks and acts like.

150 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Story About an Animal

A story can tell about an event or how characters
solve a problem. It has a beginning, middle, and end.
To make a story interesting, writers use devices such as
suspense, conflict, dialogue, and humor.

A Llama’s Laugh
Lloyd, the llama, was worried. He had to improve
Conflict and
tension get his mountain delivery service, or he’d lose his most
the story rolling. important customer—Monica, the spider monkey.
Lloyd hauled heavy packages across the steep,
cold mountains for smaller animals. The alpacas had
been enticing customers away from Lloyd’s service.
Just yesterday, Monica had said, “Look, Lloyd, I like
you. But the alpacas are always on time, and you’ve
been late.” Lloyd knew this was his last chance.
Suspense propels He was wondering where he would go for lunch
the reader to
when the phone rang ominously. Al, the alpaca, was
the conclusion.
calling! “I hear Monica has given you one last chance,”
bellowed Al. “Slip up and the monkey’s business is
mine!” Lloyd grunted and hung up.
“Forget lunch,” Lloyd muttered. “Instead of
going out, I’ll pack a lunch.” Suddenly, Lloyd burst
into shrieks and honks of llama laughter. “Get it?”
Humor ends
he yelled to no one in particular. “‘Alpaca’ lunch! I
the story on an
upbeat note. crack myself up sometimes.” Now Lloyd was ready
for the challenge.

Writing 151
Possessive Pronouns
Pronouns that show ownership are called possessive pronouns.
A possessive pronoun and its antecedent must agree in number
and gender. Before you use a possessive pronoun, ask yourself
whether the antecedent is singular or plural. If the antecedent
is singular, decide whether it is masculine, feminine, or neuter.
Then choose a pronoun that agrees.

Possessive Pronouns
My/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, our/ours, their/theirs
• My, your, her, our, and their are always used with nouns.
Your understanding of history is important.
• Mine, yours, hers, ours, and theirs stand alone.
Is that history book yours?
• His and its can be used with nouns or can stand alone.
His report was on a biography of Satchel Paige.
The book about Satchel Paige was his.
• Do not use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun.

Write the possessive pronouns in the sentences.

1. Homesteaders built their houses by piling layers of sod.
2. The Nicodemus Blues was one of our nation’s first black
baseball teams.
3. That Louisiana farmer was able to buy his own land.
4. The Union Army soldiers knew the uniforms were theirs.
5. The report about African American cowboys is mine.
6. My dream of freedom is the same as yours.

152 Grammar
Write the pronoun in ( ) that correctly completes each sentence.
1. African Americans served (their, his) country in the Civil War.
2. The Tenth Cavalry had only black soldiers in (its, our) ranks.
3. The black soldier was given poor equipment and weapons to
protect (his, their) life.
4. Because these soldiers fought bravely, honor was (yours, theirs).
5. The Wild West is a part of (our, ours) cultural heritage.
6. Is this book about African Americans in the West (mine, my)
or (your, yours)?
7. The American West had (its, their) racial troubles, but it also
offered opportunity.
8. (Her, Hers) report on the Buffalo Soldiers was interesting, but
(your, yours) was better.
9. David did (their, his) report on the Civil War years, and we did
(our, ours) on the years after the war.
10. We will remember these soldiers and (his, their) contributions
to (our, its) history.

Replace each underlined word or phrase with a possessive pronoun.

Write the sentences.
11. For homesteaders, life was lonely, and homesteaders’ work
was endless.
12. Today we Americans enjoy many luxuries in
Americans’ lives.
13. The Home Place is a restored homestead
brought to life by actors who work in
the Home Place’s buildings and fields.
14. The sixth graders visited there as
part of the sixth graders’ spring
field trip.
15. Ms. Isak was in charge of the field trip,
and the plan to go to Home Place
was Ms. Isak’s plan.

Grammar 153
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the pronoun that correctly completes
each sentence.

1. Hollywood has own 6. Early settlers of the West are

version of the West. heroes.
A they C their A mine C hers
B its D our B they D our

2. John Wayne gave own 7. Is this movie or his?

style to the cowboy hero. A our C my
A her C his B hers D her
B their D my
8. The movie High Noon is
3. Are black cowboys part of favorite western.
idea of the West? A my C ours
A your C ours B theirs D hers
B mine D theirs
9. Most of notions about
4. Black cowboys played the West are romantic.
part in taming the West. A our C theirs
A my C theirs B hers D yours
B its D their
10. History tells own, less
5. Calamity Jane made romantic story.
mark on the American
A ours C its
imagination.
B his D their
A our C her
B mine D hers

154 Grammar
Review
Write the possessive pronoun in each sentence.
1. A long ride on a horse is my idea of a good time.
2. Cowboys rode their horses for days on end.
3. A horse was a cowboy’s friend, and its care was important.
4. A cowboy often slept outdoors with his saddle for a pillow.
5. My family stayed at a dude ranch for our vacation.
6. The trail guide shared her knowledge about the West.
7. The fancy bridle and saddle are hers.
8. Our bunk beds were quite comfortable.
9. The top bunk by the door was mine.
10. The scrapbook you are holding is ours.

Write the pronoun that correctly completes each sentence.

11. Will you travel by wagon train on (its, your) trip?
12. Join (our, ours) week-long expedition out West!
13. All travelers must bring (his, their) own bedrolls.
14. Each team of mules has (their, its) own character.
15. Jenny is stubborn, but (her, his) personality is sweet.
16. Max pulls hard, but he thinks the lead should be (his, their).
17. The campfires are lit, and (their, theirs) light is comforting in
the darkness.
18. Are you making coffee over (mine, your) fire?
19. Max made the flapjacks, so the first ones are (his, my).
20. The dust stung (hers, my) eyes as we rode.
21. When I get home, the first shower will be (our, mine).
22. The red suitcases with black handles are (your, ours).

Grammar 155
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Order
You may describe a setting, event, or character using many details.
Arranging these details in an order can make your writing easier to
read. You can list details in spatial order—left to right, front to back,
top to bottom. You can list things in order of importance. Events
can be written in time order.
Spatial Order
I see a horse on the left, a cow in the middle, and a chicken on
the right.
Order of Importance
Her sprightly walk surprised me, and her twinkling eyes delighted
me. However, her outrageous purple hat tickled me most of all.
Time Order
The bell rang, books snapped shut, and students poured into the hall.

Write Yes if the items in each list are arranged in order. If they are not,
write the items in order. Write which type of order is used in each list.
1. train engine, caboose, box car
2. President, Vice-President, Governor
3. summer, spring, winter, fall
4. head, shoulders, knees, toes
5. wake up, get dressed, eat breakfast, go to school

Describe something you see. Write a paragraph that tells the details in
spatial order, order of importance, or time order.

156 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Describe a Setting
Setting is the time and place in which a story occurs,
such as a frontier home in the 1870s. A setting
provides a background for a story and can reveal
information about the characters and events.

Once Upon a Time on the Plains

Setting includes Our story takes place in a log cabin in the late
both place 1800s. The cabin, built by Jedediah and Earline
and time.
Whitley, sits on a low-rising hill surrounded by tall
grasses and plowed land. Behind the cabin is a shed.
A broken plowshare by the shed shows how hard it
has been to “bust” the sod.
Vivid details As night begins to fall, a kerosene lamp shines
give a sense through the cracks in the plank door. The door is the
of mood.
only opening in the windowless cabin.
On the left side of the room stand one bed for
the parents and one for the two daughters. In the
Details of setting
are presented in middle of the room are a handmade table and four
spatial order. chairs. On the right side of the room, a hearth with
a blazing fire throws off heat.
A single framed drawing decorates the wall of the
cabin. This picture shows Jed and Earline when they
were much younger and still enslaved.

Writing 157
Indefinite and Reflexive Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns may not refer to specific words. They do not
always have definite antecedents: No one got a new uniform.
Some common indefinite pronouns are listed below:
Singular Indefinite Pronouns Plural Indefinite Pronouns
someone, somebody, anyone, few, several, both, others,
anybody, everyone, everybody, many, all, some
something, no one, either, each

• Use singular verb forms with singular indefinite pronouns and

plural verb forms with plural indefinite pronouns: Everyone
wants to go into space. Few get the chance.

Reflexive pronouns reflect the action of the verb back on the

subject. Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves:
The cadet imagined herself a hero.

Singular Reflexive Pronouns Plural Reflexive Pronouns

myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, yourselves,
herself, itself themselves

• There are no such words as hisself, theirself, theirselves, or ourself.

Write the indefinite or reflexive pronoun in each sentence. Identify

the pronoun as indefinite or reflexive and singular or plural.
1. Few wonder where the captain is heading.
2. I asked myself why I had become a cadet.
3. Each of the cadets knows the way to the space port.
4. We transmitted the data ourselves.
5. Everyone in the class writes a report.

158 Grammar
Write the correct pronoun in ( ) to complete each sentence.
1. (Everybody, Some) believe that we will find life on
other planets.
2. The sun (itself, himself) could not harbor life.
3. (Few, Somebody) know about the vast number of galaxies
in the universe.
4. (Someone, Several) in the back row is speaking.
5. People are kidding (theirselves, themselves) if they think
there is no other life out there.
6. (All, Each) of the galaxies are bound to contain at least one
planet with conditions like those on Earth.
7. Does (anybody, others) think Mars or Venus has life?
8. (Both, Either) of these planets are close to Earth.
9. (Each, Others) in our solar system are too close or too far
from the sun.
10. I thought to (myself, yourselves), “I’ll believe it when I see it.”

Write a sentence using the indefinite pronoun and the correct

verb in ( ).
11. something (seem, seems)
12. all (is, are)
13. few (want, wants)
14. no one (understand, understands)
15. (do, does) anyone remember

Grammar 159
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the correct pronoun(s) to complete each sentence.

1. Will you and he go to the 5. wants a black backdrop

play by ? with a few stars.
A hisself A Everyone
B himself B Several
C yourself C Myself
D yourselves D Hisself

2. have dressed as space 6. If of us work an hour or

cadets. so, we can finish the job.
A Several A everyone
B Somebody B all
C No one C each
D Yourself D anyone

3. Mary thinks of as the 7. has painted that wall by

best actress of all. .
A anything A Many, theirself
B yourselves B No one, themselves
C herself C Someone, himself or
D themselves herself
D You, yourselves
4. has any ideas about the
space scenes. 8. of you deserve a hand
because you outdid .
A Ourselves
B Both A Some, themselves
C Some B Both, yourselves
D No one C Everyone, itself
D No one, yourself

160 Grammar
Review
Write the indefinite or reflexive pronoun in each sentence.
Identify the pronoun as indefinite or reflexive and singular or plural.
1. Many of the cadets laugh during the humorous performance.
2. Cadets give themselves enough time to dress every morning.
3. I struggle to understand the computer system while others
learn it right away.
4. The officer usually does the paperwork herself.
5. Everyone stands on the bridge of the spacecraft waiting for
liftoff and departure.
6. A spaceship can be set to fly itself.
7. The engineer leaves the hatch open until all have departed.
8. You will have to cook the Voloreain space slugs yourself.

Write the correct pronoun in ( ) to complete each sentence.

9. (Many, Everyone) has dreamed about space travel.
10. (Few, Someone) get the chance to do it.
11. Astronauts train (himself, themselves) to live in zero gravity.
12. We told (ourselves, yourselves) we wouldn’t feel the effects.
13. After months in space, (everybody, some) lose muscle mass.
14. Has (anyone, all) measured space travelers’ heights before and
after their trips?
15. The body can adjust (himself, itself) to changes in atmosphere.
16. Astronauts face dangers, but (each, few) is glad for the chance to
travel in space.
17. Anne pushed (herself, yourself) physically and emotionally at
space camp.
18. I (himself, myself) wouldn’t apply for the space program.

Grammar 161
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Stage Directions
Stage directions can set a scene, describe an
action, or tell a character’s state of mind. Because plays,
shows, and movies happen in “real time,” stage directions
are written in the present tense. They are set in italics or
underlined and enclosed in parentheses.
Examples
(The scene: A suburban kitchen that has a sink full of
dishes.) (Sets the scene)
(He moves slowly toward the door.) (Describes an action)
HENRY (slyly): (Tells character’s state of mind)

Write the purpose of each of the following

stage directions: sets the scene, describes an
action, or tells character’s state of mind.
1. (He picks up the envelope.)
2. (suspicious):
3. (The lights fade. It is night.)
4. (two hours later in the garden)
5. (Suddenly, two llamas enter the room.)
6. (He speaks quietly.):
7. (impatiently):
8. (Bedroom is strewn with toys.)

Using only stage directions, write a four-sentence “play.” Set the

scene and describe the characters’ actions.

162 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

TV Script
A TV script, or play written to be performed on television, is
similar to a story. It has characters, plot, setting, and dialogue.
A TV script is also similar to a play. It has stage directions.

Script begins with O’Brien’s Dilemma

title, characters,
adapted from Mother Fletcher’s Gift
and setting.
CHARACTERS:
Officer O’Brien, a New York City police officer
Mother Fletcher
SETTING: (Interior: A small but spotless bedroom.
O’BRIEN is standing by a bed. MOTHER FLETCHER is
sitting upright in the bed, looking stern.)
O’BRIEN: (getting out his pad): What’s your name,
please?
MOTHER FLETCHER: I’m Mother Fletcher. Now are you
Dialogue reveals going to get me an ambulance?
character traits. O’BRIEN: We can’t call an ambulance for just anyone.
MOTHER FLETCHER: Look here! I am not just anyone.
I am Mother Fletcher. Use that radio of yours.
(O’BRIEN f lips out his radio and calls dispatch.)
Stage directions O’BRIEN: All right, Ma’am. (to radio) Dispatch, I
help with mood have a 519 here at 221 145th Street, requesting an
and action.
ambulance. Subject is—(to MOTHER FLETCHER) What
is your age?
MOTHER FLETCHER: (glaring at him): Full grown.
(Fade to black)

Writing 163
Using Who and Whom
The pronoun who is used as a subject of a sentence or clause.
Who called me? (Who is the subject of the sentence.)
My brother asked who had called me. (Who is the subject
of the dependent clause who had called me.)

The pronoun whom is used as the object of a preposition or

as a direct object.
To whom did you give the assignment? (Whom is the
object of the preposition to.)
This was an assistant whom he trusted. (Whom is the
direct object of the verb trusted in the dependent clause
whom he trusted.)
Whom did you see? (Whom is a direct object.)

You can check if whom should be used as a direct object.

Change the word order so that the subject comes first.
(Whom did you see? You did see whom?)

Write the pronoun in ( ) that correctly completes each sentence.

1. (Who, Whom) invested in Edison Electric Light Company?
2. With (who, whom) did Edison test ideas for an invention?
3. (Who, Whom) gave us the most valuable inventions?
4. The committee decided on (who, whom) they would award
the Nobel Prize.
5. The helper (who, whom) worked hardest became the top
assistant.
6. The scientist (who, whom) you met made a wonderful
discovery.

164 Grammar
Write who or whom to complete each sentence correctly. Then write
subject, object of preposition, or direct object to identify how the word
is used in the sentence.
1. To shall we award the honor “Greatest Inventor”?
2. did more than Thomas Edison?
3. Edison’s workers admired “the old man,” worked harder
and longer than anyone.
4. The person for Edison worked was the consumer.
5. Someone sees a use for a product will buy it.
6. did you choose for your report?
7. Charles Batchelor, was a machinist, became Edison’s right-
hand man and close friend.
8. Visitors visited Edison’s lab in December 1879 could not
believe their eyes.
9. believed electricity could be used to light the darkness?
10. This genius, for no task seemed too difficult, was dubbed
the Wizard of Menlo Park.
11. will you discuss in your report on inventors?
12. I admire Leonardo da Vinci, worked in many different
fields.
13. Claire will write about Bell, to we owe the telephone.

Choose who or whom to complete each sentence correctly. Then

write the sentence and answer or explain it with another sentence.
14. (Who, Whom) is your favorite inventor?
15. If you could go back in time, (who, whom) would you most like
to meet?
16. Someone (who, whom) has original, creative ideas is .
17. A person (who, whom) I know well is .
18. If you could choose one person as your role model, (who,
whom) would you choose?

Grammar 165
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the answer that tells how the underlined word
is used in the sentence.

1. To whom did you speak? 3. A friend whom you remember

well called last night.
A subject
B object of preposition A object of preposition
C direct object B adjective
D noun C direct object
D subject
2. The person who answered
the phone was a man. 4. You are the one to whom she
wished to speak.
A direct object
B verb A verb
C subject B subject
D object of preposition C direct object
D object of preposition

Write the letter of the sentence that is correct.

5. A Whom are you inviting? 7. A Who invented lightning

B With who did she attend? rods?
C He is a boss who B Ben Franklin is the one
everyone admires. whom did that.
D Whom said that? C The guide tells anybody
whom asks.
6. A Whom is going with us? D With who did Franklin
B Joe, whom you know, work?
will go.
C The woman who you saw 8. A Who shall we ask?
will be our guide. B That is the person to
D Everyone whom visits who I gave the job.
the museum loves it. C You know who will do
the best job.
D For who did you vote?

166 Grammar
Review
Write the pronoun in ( ) that correctly completes each sentence.
1. (Who, Whom) shall we study next?
2. Thomas Edison is the inventor for (who, whom) I am voting.
3. Inventors are people (who, whom) are curious and practical.
4. I don’t know anyone (who, whom) doesn’t admire inventors.
5. (Who, Whom) was the most inventive American?
6. Many people (who, whom) invented practical objects
contributed to our country.
7. I’d like to thank the person (who, whom) invented the safety pin.
8. There isn’t anyone for (who, whom) this invention isn’t useful.
9. (Who, Whom) would you thank for inventing something?
10. The inventor of the microwave oven is someone (who, whom)
I would applaud.

Write who or whom to complete each sentence

correctly. Then write subject, object of
preposition, or direct object to tell how
the word is used in the sentence.
11. (Who, Whom) did the teacher praise?
12. (Who, Whom) asked that question?
13. (Who, Whom) were Dot and Dash?
14. Those were Edison’s nicknames for his son and daughter,
(who, whom) he loved dearly.
15. Edison is a historic figure for (who, whom) I have great admiration.
16. To (who, whom) shall I give this photograph?
17. It shows a man (who, whom) is probably Thomas Edison.
18. It also shows two children, (who, whom) must be Dot and Dash.
19. Do you recognize (who, whom) is standing in the background?
20. No, but it might be Batchelor, (who, whom) the family knew well.

Grammar 167
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Know Your Purpose

Knowing your purpose for writing helps you match how
you write with what you write. It also helps you keep your writing
“on track,” so you don’t stray from your topic. Three common
purposes for writing are to entertain, to inform, and to persuade.

Write the main purpose of each writing assignment.

To entertain To inform To persuade

1. Comedy TV script
2. Recipe for making cornbread
3. Letter to voters from a candidate for mayor
4. Fairy tale
5. Instructions for using a digital camera
6. News report
7. Ad for a new shampoo
8. Story about a pet
9. Explanation of how a bird preens its feathers
10. Humorous introduction to a speech
11. Letter convincing a parent to raise your allowance
12. Short biographical sketch

What do you know about Thomas Edison or another inventor?

Use some of these facts to write a persuasive paragraph. Your
purpose is to convince readers that this person is one of the
world’s greatest inventors.

168 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Writing for Tests

Write a summary of a biography, story, or play that
you have read recently. Begin with a topic sentence
that explains what the selection is about. Then
include only the most important details.

Space Cadets: A Summary

Summary starts Space Cadets is a humorous play about a
with topic spaceship crew that encounters life on a new planet.
sentence.
In Scene 1, we meet the Captain, First Officer,
and Ensign in a spoof of TV science-fiction shows. The
Captain is full of bluster, and the Ensign is eager. They
Events are
and most of the crew are not very bright. Soon the
explained in
sequence. ship arrives at an alien world. The Captain appoints
an away team—the First Officer and two space
cadets, Tom and Harold.
In Scene 2, team members arrive on the planet’s
Writer uses own surface, where they try to talk to a “space cow.” They
words or uses ignore Mog and Og, two aliens who look “like space
quotation marks dogs.” Eventually, the humans get scared and dash
if words are
copied from text. back to their ship. Og and Mog, who turn out to be
intelligent life forms, are left behind, saying, “There is
no intelligent life out there.”

Writing 169
Contractions and Negatives
A contraction is a shortened form of two words. An
apostrophe is used to show where one or more letters have
been left out. Some contractions are made by combining
pronouns and verbs: we + have = we’ve. Other contractions
are formed by joining a verb and not or have: should + not =
shouldn’t; could + have = could’ve.
• Won’t and can’t are formed in special ways (can + not =
can’t; will + not = won’t).
Negatives are words that mean “no” or “not”: no, not, never,
none, nothing. Contractions with n’t are negatives too. To
make a negative statement, use only one negative word.
No Don’t never use the wrong zip code.
Yes Don’t ever use the wrong zip code.
• Use positive words, not negatives, in a sentence with not.
Negative Positive Negative Positive
nobody anybody, nothing anything,
somebody something
no one anyone, nowhere anywhere,
someone somewhere
none any, all, some never ever, always

Write the contraction for each pair of words.

1. they are 3. should not 5. we will
2. I have 4. he is 6. will not

Write the word in ( ) that correctly completes each sentence.

7. Nothing should (ever, never) go wrong at a wedding.
8. The groom wasn’t (nowhere, anywhere) to be found.

170 Grammar
Write the contraction in each sentence. Then write the two words
used to form the contraction.
1. Martha wished she’d planned a smaller wedding.
2. Didn’t you think the flowers were beautiful?
3. Ben and I would’ve arrived earlier if possible.
4. The bride and groom look as though
they’re happy.
5. When do you think they’ll serve
the cake?
6. You’d be amazed at how expensive
a wedding can be.
7. Who’s got the rings?
8. That’s the most beautiful wedding gown ever!
9. Judy can’t wait for the bride to throw her
bouquet.
10. The band wouldn’t play until after dinner.

Rewrite each sentence to make it a negative

sentence. Change the underlined word to a
negative word or a contraction.
Example Everybody thought the wedding was too long.
Answer Nobody thought the wedding was too long.
Example Did you take any pictures at the ceremony?
Answer Didn’t you take any pictures at the ceremony?
11. Some of the guests cried during the ceremony.
12. Has anyone passed out the little packages of birdseed?
13. The guests will throw seeds at the departing couple.
14. The seeds do remain on the concrete because birds eat them.
15. The couple has decided on a honeymoon site.
16. Almost everyone thinks the couple should go to Puerto Rico.

Grammar 171
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the item that correctly completes each sentence.

1. It if we leave early. 5. I prettier shade of green.

A doesn’t hurt no one A haven’t never seen a
B don’t hurt no one B haven’t ever seen a
C doesn’t hurt anyone C havent ever seen a
D doesnt hurt anyone D haven’t ever seen no

2. walk with the groom? 6. They make a toast before.

A Doesn’t someone never A hadn’t never watched
B Doesn’t someone ever anyone
C Don’t no one ever B hadn’t ever watched no
D Does’nt anyone ever one
C hadn’t ever watched
3. The taller bridesmaids . anyone
D hadnt’ ever watched
A didn’t wear any heels anyone
B didnt wear heels
C didn’t wear no heels 7. take a baby to a wedding.
D wasn’t wearing no heels
A Nobody should ever
B Nobody shouldn’t ever
4. The bride’s grandparents .
C Nobody should never
A didn’t never sit out a dance D Nobody should not
B didnt sit out no dance
C didn’t sit out no dance 8. I like that violin solo.
D didn’t sit out a dance
A had never heard nothing
B hadn’t ever heard nothing
C had never heard anything
D hadnt’ ever heard anything

172 Grammar
Review
Write the contractions for the underlined words in the sentences.
1. They are getting married in a month.
2. The invitations have not been sent yet.
3. They will be addressed by a calligrapher.
4. The groom will not forget to rent his tuxedo.
5. The church is quaint, and it is perfect for a small wedding.
6. The groom’s best friend said he would be the best man.
7. The day could not be more beautiful.
8. The bride cannot remember where she put the corsages.
9. Hannah did not sign the guest book yet.
10. If you do not hurry, we are going to be late.

Write the word in ( ) that correctly completes each sentence.

11. They couldn’t find the photographer (anywhere, nowhere).
12. The planner isn’t leaving (nothing, anything) to chance.
13. The soloist hasn’t (ever, never) sung at a wedding.
14. No one (was, wasn’t) going to leave until the bride and groom
drove away.
15. Didn’t (anyone, no one) make a “Just Married” sign for the car?
16. None of the guests (could, couldn’t) believe how perfect
everything looked.
17. The ice sculpture couldn’t have been (no more, more) intricate.
18. Rob doesn’t think he’ll (ever, never) get married.
19. Can’t (nobody, anybody) plan a truly simple wedding?
20. There isn’t (no, an) answer to that question.

Grammar 173
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Sensory Details
Sensory details appeal to the reader’s senses—sight,
hearing, smell, taste, and touch. By using these details,
writers help readers visualize the characters, places, and
events in a piece of writing.
Sight sunburned nose, blue eyes
Hearing soft whisper, roar of a crowd
Smell odor of fresh-baked cookies, sweaty locker room
Taste sour lemon, spicy burrito
Touch rough bark, slippery mud

Write the sense to which each sentence mainly appeals.

sight hearing smell taste touch

1. The rusted-out blue car was covered with dried mud.

2. A searing pain shot up my arm when I tried to move it.
3. Birds chirped cheerfully after the storm.
4. The frosting was creamy, sweet, and rich.
5. Roses filled the air with their scent.
6. The flower girl looked like an angel in her lilac dress.
7. Majestic strains of the wedding march filled the church.
8. The child’s face was hot and sticky.

Write four sentences about attending a

wedding reception. Appeal to at least
four of the reader’s senses.

174 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Literary Review
The writer of a literary review describes a work’s strengths
and weaknesses. A review also gives information about the
work (but not a plot summary) to potential readers.

The View from Saturday: A Review

The View from Saturday by E. L. Konigsburg
is about a boy writing a “B & B letter” to his
Author’s words grandparents. A “B & B letter,” Noah explains, “is a
are placed in
quotation marks. bread and butter letter you write to people to thank
them for having you as a houseguest.”
Noah doesn’t want to write the letter. However,
Writer provides as he thinks back on his vacation, he realizes that he
information about had an exciting time and that writing a B & B letter is
main character.
the least he could do.
The story is indeed funny. Noah takes the reader
along as he recalls his fun-filled vacation. His
Writer expresses recollections of the wedding made me laugh out loud.
opinion and Noah often calls a recollection a “Fact,” as in
supports it “Fact: The cake was beautiful.” This adds an unusual
with facts
and examples. rhythm to the story. The View from Saturday is
recommended reading for anyone who wants a
good laugh.

Writing 175
Adjectives and Articles
An adjective describes a noun or pronoun. It tells what
kind, how many, or which one.
What Kind The sun shone on the white sand.
The wind was warm.
How Many Several workers rested.
One man read a newspaper.
Which One César lives in that house.
Those houses belong to the landowner.

The articles a, an, and the appear before nouns or other

adjectives. Use a before a word that begins with a consonant
sound. Use an before a word that begins with a vowel sound.
Use the before words beginning with any letter.
He spent a long day pulling beets out of the ground.
It was an awful job.

A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun. Proper

adjectives are always capitalized.
César Chávez is an American hero.

Write each sentence. Underline adjectives once and articles twice.

1. That meeting was held at an abandoned theater in Fresno.
2. Green vineyards fill the valleys in California.
3. Plump grapes drooped on many vines.
4. César Chávez was good at solving a problem.
5. Imagination is required to find a nonviolent solution.
6. Chávez touched the new Italian suit.
7. Biographies are the stories of real people.
8. Hot sun baked the ground in Arizona.

176 Grammar
Write the adjectives in the sentences. Do not write the articles. Write
whether each adjective tells what kind, how many, or which one.
1. That family ate outside on warm nights.
2. The little boy listened as aunts and uncles told magical tales.
3. The Southwestern ranch had eighty acres of fertile land.
4. The family had lived in this place for fifty years.
5. For several years there was a terrible drought.
6. The earth became dry and hard.
7. Those people had to leave that life behind.
8. The small Hispanic boy worked in the hot fields in California.
9. By evening, every worker was exhausted.
10. Most workers lived in substandard housing.
11. The American dream was only a dream for these people.
12. Thirty years later, the boy had become a great leader.

Add your own adjectives and articles to complete each sentence.

Write the sentences.
13. landowners treated their workers badly.
14. Children of these workers missed days of school.
15. ___ man worked to improve conditions for farmworkers.
16. Their methods would be strikes and marches.
17. grapes in vineyards were left to rot.
18. workers marched with determination to spread the word.
19. By the end of the march, people had joined the cause.
20. They earned conditions for the workers.
Grammar 177
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the adjective in each sentence.

1. A shy person will not speak 6. Do you think English is

in public. difficult?
A shy C speak A English C is
B public D will B think D difficult

2. That speech took courage 7. Those boys need shoes and

and determination. coats.
A That C and A Those C and
B courage D took B coats D need

3. The entire group listened 8. Fresh produce is brought by

carefully to his words. trucks to our stores.
A group C entire A brought C Fresh
B words D to B by D stores

4. Some women wore shawls 9. Hard-working laborers give

over their shoulders. us this abundance.
A Some C wore A give
B women D over B Hard-working
C us
5. The Spanish language D abundance
sounds musical
to me. 10. The majority of these workers
A me are Mexican-American.
B language A majority
C musical B Mexican-American
D sounds C workers
D are

178 Grammar
Review
Write each sentence. Underline adjectives once and articles twice.
1. Most people do not like changes in the world.
2. Courageous, wise leaders must persuade us.
3. If we are comfortable, no change seems necessary.
4. The people who are miserable need help.
5. An action will affect the world in some way.
6. A person can help make the world a better place.
7. The task is not easy, but it is worthwhile.

Write a, an, or the to complete each sentence. Choose the article that
makes sense and follows the rules for articles.
8. migrant workers organized a protest march.
9. Hundreds of people stood quietly and watched marchers.
10. Dorothy watched them for more than hour.
11. Then she worked for the rights of migrant workers for
lifetime.
12. Any person who tries to right wrongs is called activist.

Write the adjectives in the sentences. Do not write the articles. Write
whether each adjective tells what kind, how many, or which one.
13. Six billion people live on the Earth.
14. Millions do not have clean water or decent food.
15. In some Asian countries, children work sixteen hours each day.
16. How can we solve those problems?
17. The leader’s brave words inspired every listener.
18. These excited men and women will talk until dawn.
19. The future was looking bright.
20. Determined people can do wonderful things.

Grammar 179
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Use Adjectives to Persuade

When trying to convince readers to agree with you, use
adjectives to persuade. Adjectives can be used to make
their subjects sound more positive or more negative.
However, as with other opinions, you should support
persuasive adjectives with facts.
Descriptive Adjectives
purple house, big truck, small shoes, thick smoke
Persuasive Adjectives
attractive house, monstrous truck, stylish shoes,
obnoxious smoke

Write the persuasive adjectives that the writer uses in the

following paragraph.
(1) The grape farmers had unfair rules for their migrant workers.
(2) Many noble grape pickers stood up against these written rules.
(3) The farmers took unreasonable steps to stop the picketing. (4)
There were violent confrontations between the wealthy farmers and
the downtrodden workers. (5) Many people didn’t get involved in
the righteous conflict. (6) Were they too lazy, or were they biased?

Write four sentences to support the

following opinion. Use persuasive
adjectives.
Opinion: Housework is unfair!

180 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Letter to the Editor

In a letter to the editor, a writer expresses his or her
opinion on an issue. The letter is addressed to a newspaper
or magazine and is intended for publication. The opinion
should be elaborated with facts and examples.

No Dumping!
April 9, 2
Dear Editor,
Writer states I am writing to you about the dangerous garbage
the issue and dump being proposed by the city council. The city is
her feelings planning to use vacant land between the river and
about it.
the train tracks on the west side of the city as a
new dump. This will not only be unpleasant for the
Writer continues
to use strong surrounding neighborhoods, but also harmful to our
adjectives to environment and our wildlife.
express her
The proposed dump is to the west of our city.
opinions.
Since prevailing winds come out of the west, the putrid
smell will blow across our city constantly. Furthermore,
because the site is so close to the river, harmful
pollutants can easily leach through the ground. This
Opinions are
will make the water unlivable for fish, ducks, and
supported
with facts. other wildlife.
I urge the council to vote “no” on the dump
Letter ends location and to find a place better suited for it.
with call Sincerely,
to action.
Amy Rabideaux

Writing 181
Demonstrative Adjectives
The adjectives this, that, these and those are called demonstrative
adjectives. They describe which one or which ones. This and that
modify singular nouns. These and those modify plural nouns. This
and these refer to objects that are close by. That and those refer to
objects farther away.
This myth is African. That myth we read last week is Chinese.
These clouds are small, but those clouds over there are huge.

• Do not use here or there after this, that, these, or those.

No This here animal eats grass. That there animal eats meat.
Yes This animal eats grass. That animal eats meat.

• Do not use them in place of those.

No Them stars twinkle in the sky.
Yes Those stars twinkle in the sky.

Write the word in ( ) that completes each sentence correctly.

1. (This, Those) great River ran across the continent of Africa.
2. In the rich and plentiful land, (that, these) animals have
everything they need.
3. The grasses trail their roots in (that there, that) cool, clear
river water.
4. (Those, This) hyenas drink from the river every day.
5. The people of Malawi created (this, them) myth.
6. (These, That) wildebeest keeps running away from the sun.
7. (These, This) sandy dunes were once grassy fields.
8. The River wants to go to (those, these here) stars.

182 Grammar
Write C if the sentence is correct. If the sentence contains errors in
the use of this, that, these, or those, write it correctly.
1. This here story is an example of a myth.
2. Them there shelves are filled with nonfiction books.
3. Did all of those early cultures create myths?
4. This fanciful tales occur in every civilization.
5. Those there myths were created by Greeks centuries ago.
6. In that distant past, people explained their world in myths.
7. These collection I am holding contains myths of Africa.
8. Do you remember that there Chinese myth we read last week?
9. The animals shown in this illustration can all talk and reason.
10. These art really brings the story to life.

Replace the underlined word with the correct demonstrative

adjective. Use the clue in ( ). Rewrite each sentence.
11. (far away) The mighty rivers in distant lands have a powerful
hold on our imaginations.
12. (nearby) The book on South America has a whole chapter about
the Amazon.
13. (nearby) The photographs of the Brazilian
rainforest show brilliantly colored animals.
14. (far away) The spectacular waterfall makes
the river seem like a living character.
15. (far away) Kasiya has retold the myths of
the Malawi with skill and understanding.

Grammar 183
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the demonstrative adjective that best completes
each sentence.

1. deer-like animal over 6. elephants in the river are

there is an oryx. having a good time.
A This C Them A Them C Those
B That D That there B This D That

2. dark markings on the 7. The giraffe spread long

face help me identify it. legs wide and bent down to
the water.
A Them C Those
B This D These here A them C this
B this here D those
3. animal is also called a
gemsbok. 8. berries we picked look
good, but are they poisonous?
A This C These
B That there D Those A This here C That
B These D Them
4. antelopes are larger than
most other antelopes. 9. cockatoo in the tree over
there has been eating them.
A This C This here
B That D These A These C That
B Them D Those here
5. In Africa, wildlife depends on
rivers that do not dry up. 10. bamboo shoots taste
A those C this delicious.
B that D these here A These C This
B This here D That

184 Grammar
Review
Write the word or words in ( ) that complete each sentence correctly.
1. Let’s make an African mural to go with (this, these) myth.
2. I’ll start at (this, this here) end of the wall, and you begin at
(that, that there) one.
3. (Them, These) giraffes look awkward and graceful at the same time.
4. (These, Those) trees in the distance are acacia trees.
5. (That, Those) giraffe can reach the highest leaves.
6. Why do so many large mammals live on (these, this) savanna?
7. They find food in this grassland but not in (that, them)
desert.
8. What kinds of animals live in (them there, those)
mountains?
9. (This, Those) group of lions is called a pride.
10. (That, These) large lion with the heavy
mane is the male.
11. (Those, that) adult elephants are protecting
(that, those) baby elephant.
12. (That, This here) palm tree does not
belong in (those, this) savanna scene.
13. I want to see more of (those, them)
wildebeests.
14. Thousands of wildebeest cross (these here, these) plains at
(those, this) time of year.

Correct any mistakes in the use of demonstrative adjectives. Write

the sentences correctly.
15. This here African safari is about to begin.
16. Please keep your hands and feet inside these vehicle at all times.
17. That there herd of animals in the distance is zebras.
18. Them animals are related to the horse, but they are not easily
domesticated.
Grammar 185
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Figurative Language
Figurative language is the use of words apart from their
ordinary meanings to add beauty and force. Three kinds of
figurative language, or figures of speech, are simile, metaphor, and
personification.
• A simile is a figurative comparison that uses the word like or as.
The wind was as gentle as a mother’s voice.
• A metaphor is a figurative comparison that does not use like or as.
The cold wind was an icy sword.
• Personification is figurative language that gives human qualities or
actions to nonhuman things.
The breeze sang a lullaby in the pines.

Label each example of figurative language as simile, metaphor,

or personification.
1. The stars were as bright as jewels.
2. Alex’s nose was a red cherry when he came inside.
3. Ulla’s smile wilted like day-old lettuce.
4. The cactuses were pincushions.
5. Tulips hung their heads in shame.
6. The dry ground gratefully drank in the moisture.
7. Tanya can be as pesky as poison ivy.
8. The stream mumbled to itself as it ran over the rocks.

Write a sentence about each object using figurative language. Use the
figure of speech indicated in ( ).
9. black hair (simile) 11. wide river (metaphor)
10. heavy backpack (simile) 12. strong wind (personification)

186 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Poem
A poem can express a writer’s feelings and get
readers to see things in new ways. Choose words
carefully to create images, or mental pictures.
You can also repeat sounds and arrange words
on the page to emphasize ideas.

Spring Is Sprung
Under a March sun
The spring’s chilly water winds its way
Words and lines
can be arranged Downward
for effect. Through the wispy grass and falls,
falls,
Alliteration: falls,
Words that have Until winter’s ice breaks,
similar beginning
sounds make
And frogs and fish find food,
interesting images. And tall trees burst into bloom because
Personification: THEY CAN’T STAND IT ANYMORE!
Trees are Spring is sprung.
given feelings.

Writing 187
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two people, places,
things, or groups. Add -er to most short adjectives to make their
comparative forms. Use more with longer adjectives. Superlative
adjectives are used to compare three or more people, places, things,
or groups. Add -est to most short adjectives to make their superlative
forms. Use most with longer adjectives.

Adjective Comparative Superlative

small smaller smallest
precious more precious most precious

• Never use more or most with -er and -est.

No more longer, most amazingest
Yes longer, most amazing

• Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms:

good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; much, more, most; little, less, least.

Write the comparative and superlative forms for each adjective.

1. fancy 11. perfect
2. much 12. early
3. delicate 13. remarkable
4. thin 14. soft
5. rugged 15. bad
6. lovely 16. elegant
7. heavy 17. wet
8. brilliant 18. tiny
9. dense 19. good
10. little 20. strange

188 Grammar
Write the correct adjective form or forms in ( ) to complete
each sentence.
1. Is silver (more valuable, valuabler) than gold?
2. Of all the precious metals, I think gold is the (better, best).
3. Twenty-four carat gold is (more finer, finer) and (more softer,
softer) than eighteen carat gold.
4. That prospector was (happiest, happier) than this one because
he discovered gold.
5. Sam Dawson had the (worse, worst) luck of all the prospectors.
6. A few miners became wealthy, but (more, most) of the other
prospectors were disappointed.
7. Merchants who sold goods to the miners became (more
prosperous, prosperouser) than the miners.
8. Of all the miners, only the (luckier, luckiest) ones found rich
veins of gold ore.
9. Lumps of gold called nuggets are the (purer, purest) natural
form of the metal.
10. The rains were (heavier, heaviest) this year than last year; they
made this the (wetter, wettest) spring on record.

Write a sentence about the given topic. Use your own words
and the adjective form indicated in ( ).
11. big vein of ore (superlative)
12. beautiful pendant (comparative)
13. amazing sight (superlative)
14. smart miner (comparative)
15. shabby cabin (superlative)

Grammar 189
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the adjective that correctly completes
each sentence.

1. Many people think gold is 5. The gold-plated bracelet

the investment of all. contains gold than the
solid gold one.
A better
B more better A little
C best B leastest
D most best C least
D less
2. people may have more
jewels than other people. 6. The brass plate was than
the copper one.
A Most wealthiest
B Wealthier A shinier
C More wealthier B shiniest
D Most wealthier C more shinier
D most shiniest
3. The china in the store
was decorated with gold. 7. Never choose the ring
of all the rings in the tray.
A most fancier
B more fancy A cheaper
C fanciest B more cheaper
D most fanciest C cheapest
D most cheapest
4. Gold has density than
copper. 8. That diamond is neither the
best one nor the one.
A greatest
B greater A most bad
C more great B worst
D more greater C worse
D baddest

190 Grammar
Review
Write the comparative and superlative forms of each adjective.
1. lonely 9. courageous
2. fat 10. shy
3. uncomfortable 11. pretty
4. silky 12. proud
5. bad 13. mysterious
6. compassionate 14. good
7. rainy 15. reliable
8. red 16. much

Write the correct forms of the adjectives in ( ) to complete

the sentences.
17. The finish on the copper pans is (duller, more duller) than it
was a year ago.
18. Adelaide polished the silver to make it (shinier, most shiniest).
19. The (plainer, more plain) silverware will be easier to shine.
20. The dining room was the (drafty, draftiest) room in the house.
21. Put the (more better, best) crystal vase on the table.
22. That fruit salad is the (deliciousest, most delicious) salad I have
ever eaten.
23. I use (least, less) sugar than the
amount that the recipe calls for.
24. The dinner guests became
(more cheerful, cheerfuller)
as the meal went on.
25. The engagement party was the
(happier, happiest) event of
the year.

Grammar 191
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Visual Images
Good writing helps the reader “see” what is happening.
Writers create strong visual images by using exact and vivid
nouns, adjectives, verbs, and figures of speech.
Weak Dr. Stedler cut the vines.
Strong Dr. Stedler slashed through the thick curtain of vines.

Read the paragraph. Then find items in the box that give stronger
visual images than the underlined words. Write and number your
answers.

struck dumb with amazement inched their way

conquerors, scavengers, and thieves gently laid
massive golden statue of an eagle flickering glow

(1) Watching their step, Dr. Stedler and the other explorers went
into the cave. (2) The only light they had was the light of their
torches. (3) Then they saw it—a large gold figure. (4) Everyone was
very quiet. (5) How could people have left this treasure untouched?
(6) Dr. Stedler put a finger on the statue, and immediately a
tremendous groan filled the cave.

Write about a real or imaginary trip to a museum. Use strong visual

images to help the reader “see” what you “saw.”
192 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Brochure
A museum brochure gives the reader information about artifacts
in a museum. It also tries to persuade the reader to visit the
museum to see the artifacts. A brochure is usually written in short
paragraphs to make it easy to “digest.”

Discover Gold!
Since the beginning of time, humans have been
First, give fascinated by the precious metal called gold. From
important facts. now through August 23, the State History Museum
invites you to view its rich new exhibit, Gold: From
Tutankhamen to the 2000s.
Provide short Mask of Tutankhamen This mask was found in 1922
paragraphs to but created in the 14th century B.C. It adorned the
describe pictures.
coffin of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen.
Roman Gold Coins These coins date from before
A.D. 79. Archaeologists found them in the ruins of
Pompeii, still clutched in the hand of their owner.
California Nugget The California Gold Rush in 1849
brought thousands of people to the West. They were
searching for valuable nuggets like this one.
Gold Audio Adapters Today gold’s noncorrosive
Give educational qualities are used in high-tech products, such as these
information in an
interesting style.
audio adapters. How much gold is in your home?
And more! See these artifacts and more at the
Provide a State History Museum, open seven days a week. Don’t
persuasive miss this golden opportunity!
“clincher.”

Writing 193
Adverbs
An adverb tells how, when, or where actions happen. An
adverb may appear before or after the verb it modifies or
between the parts of a verb phrase.
The boy walked quietly through the library. (How)
He has now read the entire book. (When)
Outside the traffic rumbled and roared. (Where)

Adverbs such as too, very, quite, really, so, nearly, and almost
can modify adjectives and other adverbs.
I was almost late. He reads very fast.

Comparative adverbs compare two actions. Add -er to most

adverbs to make them comparative. Superlative adverbs
compare three or more actions. Add -est to most adverbs to
make them superlative. If an adverb ends in -ly, use more or
most instead of -er or -est.
bright brighter brightest
carelessly more carelessly most carelessly
Some adverbs have special comparative and superlative
forms: well, better, best; badly, worse, worst; much, more, most.

Write each sentence. Underline the adverb(s). Circle the word(s)

each adverb modifies.
1. The caliph enthusiastically bought valuable books.
2. The new library is nearly completed.
3. The precious manuscripts are stored here.
4. Everywhere men sat and carefully read their books.
5. They shared their ideas very openly.

194 Grammar
If the sentence is correct, write C. If it contains an adverb error,
rewrite the sentence and correct the error.
1. The translator worked rapid but accurately.
2. People in great civilizations have always valued wisdom.
3. Scholars thoughtful study the wise ideas and writings of
past generations.
4. Baghdad once shone brightlyer than any other city in the
ancient world.
5. The library safely harbored the greatest collection of knowledge
in the world.
6. That particular manuscript is real old and priceless.
7. Ali learned most quickly than Ghassan.
8. Bev studied Arabic daily for three years.
9. She held the rare manuscript more respectful than a priceless
crown of gold.
10. The university library was always quiet, but not too quiet.
11. The librarian turned the fragile pages of the old manuscript
very slow.
12. Of all the library’s possessions, this ancient book was handled
more carefully.

Rewrite each sentence. For each sentence, add an adverb that

answers the question in ( ).
13. Some students study the night before a test. (How?)
14. Alison memorized key words and facts. (When?)
15. However, she will forget this information. (When?)
16. Real learning takes place when you understand something. (How?)
17. Plato taught Aristotle. (How?)
18. Aristotle went on to become a great teacher himself. (When?)
19. Aristotle’s pupil Alexander revered his teacher. (How?)
20. We know this bright pupil as Alexander the Great. (When?)

Grammar 195
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the correct adverb form to complete
each sentence.

1. Of all the teachers, Ms. Lin 5. The bus should have left at 8,
spoke . but it left than that.
A more clearly A latest
B most clearly B late
C clearliest C later
D clear D more late

2. You know history than I 6. Of all the grand castles, the

do. oldest one sat on its hill.
A well A grander
B good B more grandly
C best C grand
D better D most grandly

3. Allen has traveled in 7. The tired travelers

Europe than we have. climbed the stairs.
A more often A wearily
B often B more weary
C oftener C most wearier
D more oftener D weary

4. He explores ancient 8. The children slept of all

castles. the travelers.
A frequent A very deep
B frequently B very deeply
C frequenter C more deeply
D frequentest D most deeply

196 Grammar
Review
Write the comparative and superlative forms of each adverb.
1. happily 6. recently
2. well 7. remarkably
3. late 8. loud
4. fast 9. much
5. cautiously 10. proudly

Write each sentence. Underline the adverb(s). Circle the word(s)

each adverb modifies.
11. Peter always wanted a traveler’s life.
12. He constantly read travel brochures and magazines.
13. Grass-roofed huts nestled cozily among palm trees.
14. Camels strolled lazily over the windswept desert.
15. The guide waited impatiently for him.
16. Peter worked toward his very important goal.
17. Adventure travel would certainly cost a great deal of money.
18. Finally, Peter had saved enough money.
19. He traveled often and learned quickly.
20. He wisely chose his favorite places
and then planned his trips.
21. Peter now plans and leads adventure
vacations for others.
22. His work makes him really happy.
23. Vivid Vacations has certainly enjoyed
success.
24. Peter’s customers praise his trips
enthusiastically.
25. His business naturally brings him
much contentment.
Grammar 197
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Support Your Argument

When you write to persuade, use convincing details to support
your argument. Otherwise, the reader has no reason to agree
with you! Follow up all assertions with supporting statements.

Read the following advertisement. Write four supporting details from

the ad that might persuade readers to stay at this resort.

You Should Visit the Camembert Grand Hotel and Resort!

Camembert Grand Hotel and Resort is a beautiful place
to stay. It was built in 1929 and served as a playground
for “the rich and famous” for twenty years. In 1998 it
was repaired, beautified, and reopened. Last year this
showplace was voted Canada’s best vacation spot. The
food is excellent! The resort is located 70 kilometers
north of Ottawa, the capital of Canada.
There are plenty of fun activities for the
kids. Plan your next vacation at the
Camembert Grand Hotel and Resort!

Write three supporting statements for each assertion.

Assertion: Knowing how to read is important.
Assertion: Historical fiction is fun and educational.
Assertion: Every young person should stay in school and graduate
from high school.
Assertion: Summer school should (should not) be eliminated.

198 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Ad
An advertisement uses words and sometimes visual images to
sell a product, service, or idea to the reader. An ad can appear in
a magazine or newspaper, on a billboard, on television, or on the
Internet. Ads are usually catchy, short, and to the point because ad
space costs money!

Grab readers’
attention Cover-to-Cover Adventure!
with title. (Playful drawing of a girl in the cockpit of a World
Provide War I plane, reading a book about airplanes)
descriptions
Take off! Libraries are your windows to the world.
for visual
images. Your local library has thousands of books for you
to read: fiction, nonfiction, even books on tape for
Tell readers
why they when you’re on the go!
should buy
or use what (Drawing of a boy sitting in a group of gorillas,
you’re selling.
reading a book about gorillas. One gorilla is
scratching its head and looking confused.)
Get in the mix! If you can’t find the book you’re
looking for, ask the librarian! He or she can get it to
you the next day.

(Drawing of a family in a castle surrounded by fairy-

tale characters. The mom is reading to the children.)
There’s fantastic fun for the whole family! Let your
imagination run wild at your local library.
Give readers
a call to
action. Get into fun—visit your local library today!

Writing 199
Modifiers
Adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases are modifiers,
words or groups of words that tell more about, or modify, other
words. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Prepositional phrases can act as
adjectives or adverbs.
As Adjective He read books about knights.
As Adverb He dreamed about knights.
• To avoid confusion, place modifiers close to the words they
modify. Adjective phrases usually come right after the word
they modify. Adverb phrases may appear right after a verb or at
the beginning of a sentence.
• Meaning can be unclear if a modifier is misplaced.
No Fair and sweet, every knight needs a lady.
Yes Every knight needs a lady, fair and sweet.
• The position of only in a sentence can affect meaning. Place only
directly before the word(s) it modifies.
Example: Only she laughed at him. (Nobody else laughed at him.)
She only laughed at him. (She didn’t do anything except laugh
at him.)
She laughed only at him. (She laughed at no one else.)

Write adj., adv., or prep. phrase to identify each underlined modifier.

Write adj. or adv. to identify how a prepositional phrase is used.
1. We watch a movie about medieval knights.
2. Two armies battle fiercely.
3. The scene is noisy and confusing.
4. The king swings his heavy sword.
5. One knight falls to the ground.
200 Grammar
Write each sentence. Underline adjectives once and adverbs twice. (Do
not underline the articles a, an, and the.) Circle prepositional phrases.
1. A fierce dragon terrorized the good people
of the kingdom.
2. The king quickly called his faithful
knights around him.
3. “I will handsomely reward the
one who slays the dragon.”
4. The youngest knight stepped
forward fearlessly.
5. He had a golden ring with
magical powers.
6. On his fast horse, he rode
from the castle.
7. Black smoke and flames rose from a mountain cave.
8. Sir Arnold cured the miserable dragon of his heartburn.

Add the kind of modifier indicated in ( ) to each sentence.

Reposition the misplaced modifiers that are in the final five
sentences. Write the new sentences.
9. Fairy tales intrigued the children. (prepositional phrase)
10. The knight charged the dragon. (adjective)
11. Dragons bring good luck. (prepositional phrase)
12. King Arthur ruled England. (adverb)
13. Tales grew out of his legend. (adjective)
14. Camelot is a kingdom. (adjective and prepositional phrase)
15. Knights defended their king. (prepositional phrase and adverb)
16. She wore a gown to the feast with feathers.
17. We read about knights who lived long ago on the Internet.
18. The girl could only wed the man who saved her, no one else.
19. The knight saved the damsel with a sword.
20. Jon read late at night about medieval monsters in bed.
Grammar 201
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the choice that correctly identifies the underlined
word or words in each sentence.

1. What makes a hero 4. In animated films of today,

admirable? heroes may be funny.
A adj. A adj.
B adv. B adv.
C adj. prep. phrase C adj. prep. phrase
D adv. prep. phrase D adv. prep. phrase

2. Strength and goodness are 5. Shrek wins our hearts with

often traits of a hero. his ogre-like charm.
A adj. A adj.
B adv. B adv.
C adj. prep. phrase C adj. prep. phrase
D adv. prep. phrase D adv. prep. phrase

3. A hero doesn’t always have 6. For all his faults, Shrek is

to be handsome. good and kind.
A adj. A adj.
B adv. B adv.
C adj. prep. phrase C adj. prep. phrase
D adv. prep. phrase D adv. prep. phrase

Write the letter of the sentence that has a misplaced modifier.

7. A A loyal friend, others 8. A Villains in today’s movies

admire Shrek. are not always all bad.
B They may argue and B We may recognize their
disagree at times. faults in ourselves.
C When they need him, C However, the villain
they can count on Shrek. steps over the line.
D Shrek is a good and D Someone must defeat the
dependable friend. villain of good character.
202 Grammar
Review
Write adj. or adv. to identify how the underlined prepositional
phrase is used in each sentence.
1. A cluster of windmills stood on the horizon.
2. A breeze turned their arms in lazy circles.
3. The hooves of the horses made plopping sounds in the dust.
4. The knight on his quest looked for enemies everywhere.
5. At sunset, he believed he had found one.
6. He did not shrink from his duty.

Write each sentence. Underline adjectives once

and adverbs twice. Circle prepositional phrases.
7. Windmills once were the main source of power.
8. They harnessed energy from the wind.
9. The rough millstones turned and ground
grain into flour.
10. The meal had been freshly ground and
smelled delicious.
11. Farmers from everywhere brought corn and wheat to the mill.
12. The heavy sacks of grain returned later as flour for baking.
13. Crisp, fragrant loaves of bread emerged magically from a great
stone oven.
14. The smell of wood smoke made the knights hungry.

Rewrite each sentence fixing the misplaced modifier.

15. Enormous tables stood in the center of the stone floor of
rough wood.
16. They just ate meat, no vegetables.

Grammar 203
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Topic Sentence
All the sentences in a paragraph should tell
about one main idea. Often the main idea is stated in a
topic sentence. This sentence may appear anywhere in
the paragraph, but often it is the first sentence.

Match the letter of each topic sentence with its details.

Topic Sentences
A La Mancha is an area of Spain you’ll enjoy visiting.
B Knights were an important part of the feudal system.
C Sancho Panza was Don Quixote’s faithful squire.
D Reading books feeds your imagination.
Details
1. Fought for the lords and monarch
Protected the serfs
Lived by the code of chivalry
2. Followed him everywhere
Vowed to stay with him
Helped him when he was hurt
3. Historical setting of Don Quixote
Castles and windmills still standing
Known for cheese making and vineyards
4. Learn about faraway places
Inspired Señor Quexada to become Don Quixote
Humor, drama, whimsy, and more

Write two topic sentences about horses based on the following

details: Can carry heavy loads; Gallop at very fast speeds; Are
highly intelligent

204 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Symbolism
A handshake, an American flag, and a red cross—these
things have special meaning to most people because they are
symbols. A symbol is an object, person, action, or situation
that has a meaning of its own but suggests other meanings.

Windmills Everywhere You Look

Topic sentence
states symbolism Don Quixote’s windmills are symbols of the obstacles
of windmills. we meet in everyday life, whether imagined or real. A
modern reader can view Quixote’s battles and positive
Writer refers to outlook as a lesson in survival.
specific things in Even though the hero’s battles are comic, we identify
the selection. with his efforts to face obstacles. When Quixote sees
windmills, he views them as giants. Then he lowers his
lance and attacks them head-on. I “battle windmills”
Writer gives a every time I face a stack of homework or a difficult
modern example
assignment. A positive attitude like Quixote’s makes
of “windmills.”
the battle easier.
Although he gets stuck on the sails and is tossed
around by the windmills, Quixote inspires me. He rides
off with dignity and hope. Like our hero, we need
to believe in ourselves, even if we appear foolish
at times. Whether it’s windmill giants or mountains of
homework, we should follow Quixote’s attitude and
tackle life as it comes.

Writing 205
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that is used to join words, phrases, or
sentences.

Coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, and or are used to

combine two or more subjects, predicates, or sentences to make
compound subjects, predicates, or sentences.
Chariot races and foot races were part of the games.
Athletes might perform in many sports or focus on one sport.
I wanted to see the long jump, but I was too late.

Subordinating conjunctions such as because, if, when,

although, before, and after are used to link dependent clauses and
independent clauses in complex sentences.
Before the games began, all wars stopped.
She is a good runner because she practices.

Write the coordinating conjunction in ( ) that correctly completes

each sentence. Write compound subject, compound predicate, or
compound sentence to identify the parts that the conjunction joins.
1. The Greeks made carvings on the walls (or, but) covered them
with paintings instead.
2. The Iliad (but, and) The Odyssey are epic Greek poems.
3. Phoenician art (and, but) shipbuilding would be great subjects
for our reports.
4. Free male citizens of Athens could vote on laws, (or, but)
women and slaves could not.
5. The Minoan king Minos was supposedly the son of Zeus (and,
or) therefore possessed special powers.
6. Was Athens the capital of ancient Greece, (and, or) was it Troy?

206 Grammar
Write the conjunction in each sentence. Write CC
if it is a coordinating conjunction and SC if it is
a subordinating conjunction
1. There will be a ceremony before the
games begin.
2. Will the athletes march in through the
east or the west gate?
3. He carried his country’s flag with pride
and honor.
4. If she makes this jump, she will win a gold medal.
5. Athletes train for years but can lose by a fraction of a second.
6. Perhaps they will relax after they complete their events.
7. The Swiss team will win the silver or the bronze medal.
8. The Olympic Games inspire greatness because they test the
abilities of the world’s best athletes.

Rewrite the following paragraph. Combine related subjects, predicates,

or sentences using conjunctions to make the paragraph smoother.
Where appropriate, drop repeated words or replace repeated nouns
with pronouns.
(9) The Minoan civilization arose on the island of Crete around
2200 B.C. The Minoan civilization came to an end around 1450 B.C.
(10) We know about this civilization. Archaeologists have uncovered
Minoan palaces. (11) Beautiful paintings on the palace walls show
happy, peaceful people. The paintings also show a country with
strong sea power. (12) The Minoans wrote in a type of hieroglyphics.
No one has been able to translate it yet.

Grammar 207
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the conjunction(s) that best complete each sentence.

1. Spartan soldiers were 6. Sparta Athens were

disciplined aggressive. quite different both
were Greek city-states.
A and C when
B after D because A or, if
B and, because
2. Spartan boys lived in military C but, until
training camps, girls D and, although
lived at home.
A before C until 7. Athenians were open to new
ideas, Spartans avoided
B but D if
change.
3. they were given little A until C because
food, they had to fend for B but D or
themselves.
8. the wealthy ruled
A Until C Because
Sparta, an elected assembly
B Or D Although made decisions in Athens.

4. Both boys girls trained A And C While

hard and were superb B If D But
athletes.
9. Spartan soldiers were famous
A so C but for their skill bravery in
B after D and battle.
A and C but
5. he trained for years,
every boy would become a B if D when
soldier.
10. Athens Sparta battled
A After C Unless for 27 years Athens
B Or D But finally surrendered.
A and, until
B but, because
C or, after
D and, so
208 Grammar
Review
Write the coordinating conjunction in ( ) that correctly completes
each sentence.
1. I like history, (and, but) I prefer literature.
2. Did you read The Iliad, (but, or) did you choose the myths?
3. The Iliad (and, or) The Odyssey are the most famous Greek epics.
4. Is Odysseus (but, or) Paris the hero of The Odyssey?
5. Odysseus (and, or) his men sailed the Mediterranean for years.
6. They had many exciting adventures, (or, but) their real goal
was to return home.
7. Once they were trapped by a one-eyed monster named
Cyclops, (and, or) many men were lost.
8. Odysseus was not perfect, (and, but) he was certainly clever
and larger than life.

Write the conjunction in each sentence. Write CC if it is a

coordinating conjunction. Write SC if it is a subordinating
conjunction.
9. The Romans conquered the Greeks, but they adopted much of
the Greek culture.
10. Because the Romans admired Greek art, they used it in many of
their creations.
11. The gods and goddesses of Greek mythology appear in Roman
mythology too.
12. Was Poseidon or Neptune the Roman god of the sea?
13. While Zeus was the chief god of the Greeks, the Romans called
him Jupiter.
14. Before Venus ruled as Roman goddess of love, she was called
Aphrodite by the Greeks.

Grammar 209
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Paraphrase
When you take notes on facts in a book or article, you
paraphrase information. To paraphrase, choose the most
important facts and restate them in your own words.

• Paraphrase only the main ideas, not unimportant

details. Make sure you paraphrase the facts correctly.
• Use your own words, not the words and word order
used by the author.
• If a phrase or sentence is especially interesting, write it
in quotation marks.

Read the paragraph below. Write the letter of the sentence that is the
best paraphrase of the paragraph.
Women in Athens were not citizens and could not participate in
the assembly, vote, or serve on juries. In wealthy families, women
were educated to run the household. In poor families, they worked
alongside men as laborers.
A Wealthy Athenian women had more rights than poor
Athenian women.
B Athenian women were much like slaves, for they could not
vote or hold office.
C In Athens, women had neither citizenship nor a voice in
government but managed the home or labored.
D You would not like to be a woman in ancient Greece.

Write a paraphrase for the paragraph below.

Pericles was the leader of Athens from 461 to 429 B.C. He supported
democracy. He also started a system of payment for government
service. The earlier system did not pay government workers.

210 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Taking Notes
Taking good notes is important for any research report.
Without notes, you could not remember what you read and
where you read it. Good notes include the important ideas
written in an organized way and information about the source,
including the title, the author’s name, and the page numbers.
The notes below are based on a chapter in a history book.

Notes on Ancient Greece, Chapter 1

Source Ancient Greece by Kim Covert
information
is included
Chapter 1, Ancient Olympics, pages 678–679
for later use. 1. Events
Running and chariot races
Wrestling, boxing, pentathlon (incl. discus, javelin,
long jump)
Notes are Wreath of olive leaves to winner
short and 2. History
written in
the order First recorded Olympics: 776 B.C. in Olympia, Greece
of reading. Honored Zeus, ruler of Olympian gods
Every 4 years for 1,000 years
All wars stopped during Olympics
Direct quotations 3. Ancient Greece “called the cradle of Western
have quotation civilization”
marks.
Government, art, architecture, literature, science,
drama, athletics
“The modern Olympics are one of many traditions
developed in Greece.”

Writing 211
Commas
You already know some uses of commas, such as with words in a
series and in compound sentences. Here are some more uses.
• After an introductory word or phrase, such as well or yes:
By the way, I want to stop at the store. Yes, let’s go.
• To set off a noun of direct address:
Mrs. Lin, come in. I hope, sir, you will join us.
• After a dependent clause at the beginning of a sentence:
Because he was shy, Tom was uneasy in crowds.
• Before and/or after an appositive—a noun or noun phrase
describing another noun:
The waiter, a refined gentleman, wore a tuxedo.
• Before and after interrupting words or phrases:
Prawns, as you may know, are shrimp.
• Between a day of the week and a month and between a date
and a year:
The party is Saturday, June 1. Their wedding was on
December 12, 2007.
• Between the street address and the city and between the city
and the state in an address, but not before the ZIP code:
She lives at 99 North Street, Little Rock, AR 72204.

Write the parts of the letter. Add commas where they are needed.
1. Saturday September 6
2. Dear Meg
3. O’Fallon Illinois 62269
4. Meg how are you?
5. This summer by the way we will go to China Japan and India.
6. Yes I have to pinch myself but it is happening.

212 Grammar
Write each sentence. Add commas where
they are needed.
1. Han what can you tell us about
Chinese food?
2. I can make egg rolls wonton soup
and sweet and sour chicken.
3. Hop’s Chinese Restaurant is located at 1034 Peach Road
DeKalb GA.
4. The bowling banquet always a favorite of mine will be held
there on Friday October 13.
5. Will you pass the sauce Barb when you get a chance?
6. General Tsao’s chicken the most popular item on the menu is
both spicy and sweet.
7. Mr. Ta will you teach Marie Paul and me how to make fortune
cookies for our party?
8. The letter was dated February 12 1944 and it began “Dear Hal
You must come and visit.”

Write sentences with the parts described in ( ). Be sure to use

commas correctly to set off these parts.
9. (appositive)
10. (interrupting word or phrase)
11. (dependent clause at beginning of sentence)
12. (noun of direct address)
13. (introductory word or phrase)
14. (complete mailing address)
15. (day, month, date, and year)

Grammar 213
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the item that completes each sentence correctly.

1. The dinner party is on . 5. Which one is ?

A Saturday September 30 A the salad fork, Bree
B Saturday September, 30 B the, salad fork Bree
C Saturday, September, 30 C the salad fork Bree
D Saturday, September 30 D the salad, fork Bree

2. We will serve . 6. After the will be served.

A salad, lasagna, and rolls A soup, is cleared salad
B salad, lasagna and rolls B soup is cleared salad,
C salad, lasagna and, rolls C soup is cleared salad
D salad lasagna, and rolls D soup is cleared, salad

3. RSVP to 510 . 7. Please at our table.

A Mesa Austin TX, 78730 A join us Casey
B Mesa, Austin, TX 78730 B join us, Casey,
C Mesa Austin, TX, 78730 C join us, Casey
D Mesa, Austin, TX, 78730 D join us Casey,

4. Karen taught me 8. The are seafood.

etiquette.
A scallops, as I said,
A Xidis my favorite aunt B scallops as I said,
B Xidis, my favorite aunt C scallops, as I said
C Xidis, my favorite aunt, D scallops as I said
D Xidis, my favorite, aunt

214 Grammar
Review
Write the parts of the letter. Add commas where they are needed.
1. Dear Todd
2. 613 Taylor Drive Blythewood SC 29016
3. My flight arrives Monday November 20 2008.
4. I can’t wait to see you Todd!
5. I will stay a whole week and I hope we can
go hiking.

Write each sentence. Add commas where

they are needed.
6. We learned origami the Japanese
art of paper folding.
7. Ashley is that a crane you have made?
8. Zach arranged seashells and Brent carved driftwood.
9. The bouquet contained roses daisies and larkspur.
10. If you will help me I will try eating with chopsticks.
11. Yes I did drop that piece of chicken on the floor.
12. No Sam I don’t think you should spear the fish with
your chopsticks.

Rewrite each sentence. Add commas where they are needed. Delete
any unnecessary commas.
13. Frank traveled, to India Indochina and Australia.
14. The trip began on Wednesday July 12 and, it ended on Sunday
August 20.
15. Would you, rather travel on your vacation Tonia or stay in one
interesting place?

Grammar 215
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Strong Conclusions
A strong conclusion summarizes your ideas in a
memorable way that keeps your message in your reader’s
mind. A good conclusion should be more than just a
restatement of what went before. It could provide an insight,
present a twist, or pose a challenge or a question to readers.

Read the following paragraph and the four possible conclusions.

Write the letter of the sentence that is the strongest conclusion for
the paragraph. Then explain your choice.
Always try to be a good guest when you visit another country.
Some customs and foods may seem strange. Keep an open mind and
try them. Some of your habits might strike your hosts as rude or odd.
If possible, learn about the proper way to behave in your host country.
Possible Conclusions
A In summary, be polite and observant when you are a visitor.
B People who are rude tourists give Americans a bad reputation.
C Making mistakes in another country can be embarrassing.
D If you know about a country and its people, both you and they
are likely to enjoy your visit.

Write a strong conclusion for the following paragraph.

Immigrants to America have brought us a wealth of new foods.
Strudel is a delicious pastry introduced by German newcomers. Shish
kebab comes to us courtesy of the Turks. If you enjoy a fragrant
curry, thank the immigrants from India.

216 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Newsletter
A newsletter article should be fairly brief, focused, and
directed to an audience likely to read the newsletter. The
style is usually informal and friendly. The following article
was written for a monthly newsletter called Zoo News.

Lori Manz, Employee of the Month

First two Lori Manz is being watched as she walks toward
sentences
her charges. They get a good view since they have
grab readers’
attention. eyes on both sides of their heads. Lori is a zookeeper
at the reptile house at Hill Street Zoo. “I have always
Quotations
found snakes beautiful and fascinating,” Lori says.
show that
Lori knows “Throughout history, snakes have been the subjects
and cares of many myths and superstitions. Some cultures even
about snakes.
honor them.”
Lori is responsible for feeding, cleaning, and
watching over the snakes and other reptiles. Every
morning she checks each snake. If one looks unhealthy,
she contacts the zoo veterinarian. How does she examine
Article mentions a poisonous snake? She uses a snake hook to get it out
special tools
needed on the job. of the cage and wears leather gloves to hold it down.
Zoo News salutes Lori for her latest effort—
bringing snakes and other reptiles to the Children’s
Writer ends
with a strong Zoo. Her class, titled “Slithers and Scales,” introduces
conclusion. kids to her beloved reptiles.

Writing 217
Quotations and Quotation Marks
A direct quotation gives a speaker’s exact words. Begin each
quotation with a capital letter and enclose it in quotation
marks. Use commas to set off words that introduce, interrupt,
or follow a direct quotation. Place the end punctuation or the
comma that ends the quotation inside the quotation marks.
“Are you going to the festival tonight?” I asked. “I will go,”
he replied.

Do not begin the second part of an interrupted quotation with

a capital letter. Set off the interrupting words with commas.
“My baby is ill,” said the woman, “so I can’t attend.”

If the interrupted quotation is two complete sentences, use a

period and a capital letter.
“Look at that warrior,” I said. “He is brave.”

An indirect quotation is a quotation that is reworded instead

of being quoted directly. It does not need quotation marks.
Sara said she was going to the festival.

Write I if the sentence is punctuated or capitalized incorrectly.

Write C if the sentence is correct.
1. “When you study Aztec history” said Mr. Dale, “you will
learn about Montezuma.”
2. “We burned the temple as a sign to the world,” boasted
the warrior.
3. The warrior shouted, “Round up the captives”!
4. “I am an Eagle warrior,” he said, “And my brother is a Jaguar.”
5. “Put this gold in the treasury,” he ordered. “Montezuma will
be pleased.”

218 Grammar
If a sentence needs quotation marks and other punctuation, rewrite
it correctly. If it does not need corrections, write C.
1. What do you know about the Aztec kingdom asked Mr. Hadley.
2. They had a wealthy civilization said Aaron and they built a city
on a lake.
3. Jahlil said he thought their temples were interesting.
4. Mr. Hadley remarked Tenochtitlán was an Aztec city built by
making an island on a shallow lake.
5. It had canals, streets, causeways, and a great temple at the
center he added.
6. The system of canals was brilliant said Alice because it provided
constant irrigation for crops.

Write the following paragraph. Add quotation marks, punctuation,

and capitalization. Use a paragraph indent to indicate each time the
speaker changes.
How did the Aztec empire end asked Will. It fell to Spanish
conquistadors Mom replied. They were adventurer-soldiers with
armies in search of wealth. The Aztecs were warriors said Will why
couldn’t they beat the Spanish? They lacked the guns, cannons, and
horses of the Spaniards Mom explained and Montezuma believed
the leader Cortés might be a god. That’s ridiculous Will hooted how
could he believe that a person was a god? It was 1519 she went on
and in that year the Aztecs believed the exiled god Quetzalcoatl
would return to reclaim his throne.

Grammar 219
Test Preparation
Write the letter of the item that correctly completes each sentence.

1. “Are those Aztec or Mayan 5. “It was used for religious

asked Mary. purposes,” she served as
a landmark.”
A ruins,”
B ruins?” A continued “and
C ruins?,” B continued “And
D ruins” C continued, “and
D continued. “And
2. Ellen cultures built step
pyramids.” 6. noted Buddy. “It has
steps on all four sides.”
A said, Both
B said, “both A “Cool”
C said. “Both B “Cool!”
D said, “Both C “cool,”
D “cool”
3. “I think,” added were
built after the Egyptian 7. “Each set has 91 steps,” she
pyramids.” went one for almost
each day of the year.”
A Jorge, “these
B Jorge. “These A on. “That’s
C Jorge “these B on, “that’s
D Jorge, these C on. That’s
D on, that’s
4. “Often a temple was built on
said Ms. Gramley. 8. “Step pyramids were meant
to be told us.
A top,”
B top”? A climbed.” she
C top” B climbed,” she
D top.” C climbed” she
D climbed,” She

220 Grammar
Review
Rewrite each sentence. Add quotation marks and
punctuation as needed.
1. Would you like to end our Aztec study
with a feast asked Ms. Nissing
2. Hurray we shouted. What shall
we eat
3. We should have fresh, hot tortilla pancakes
suggested Rosa
4. Didn’t the Aztecs drink chocolate Drew asked
5. Yes replied Ms. Nissing but it wasn’t like our hot cocoa
6. She said that corn, beans, and squash were common foods of
the Aztecs
7. Let’s dress up like the Aztecs too offered Danielle
8. Ms. Nissing suggested that we wear jewelry made of gold, silver,
jade, or seashells

Rewrite each sentence, adding quotation marks, capitalization, and

punctuation as needed.
9. European soldiers of the 1500s wore armor and carried metal
weapons Mr. Pappas said
10. The metal protected them well he added but it was incredibly
hot and heavy
11. Can you imagine the battle asked Sean between the Aztec
warriors and the Spanish conquistadors
12. The native warriors were armed with clubs, bows and arrows,
and spears said Una they didn’t have armor, though
13. In the city of Tenochtitlán added Brad the Aztec warriors could
also fight from swift-moving canoes
14. Mr. Pappas told us that the Aztecs were doomed to lose the war
to the Spaniards

Grammar 221
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Include Important Details

When you write a research report, use the facts in your
outline. Keep your topic, audience, and purpose in mind.
Then include the important details about your topic.

Below is part of an outline and a paragraph based on it. Write the

sentences in this paragraph that have unimportant details.
B. Agriculture
1. Slash-and-burn: crops planted in clearing of burned part
of forest
2. Chinampas: mud built up out of swamps to form fertile islands
3. Corn most important; avocados, beans, squash,
papayas, cacao beans
The Aztec were excellent farmers. They used
slash-and-burn methods, burning part of the forest
and planting crops in the fertile ashes. They created
chinampas by digging mud out of swamps and
planting crops on these islands. Chinampas would
be good for swampy areas today. The Aztecs’ most
important crop was corn. In addition, they grew
avocados, beans, squash, papayas, and cacao beans.
These foods are still popular.

Write about the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán using the

following details from an outline.
1. On five islands in Lake Texcoco
2. No roads; canals for canoes
3. Population: 200,000 people
4. Spanish explorers: “Venice of the New World”

222 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Outlining
An outline is a way to summarize and organize information in
a text. Main ideas are listed with Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV).
Details that support each main idea are listed with the letters
A, B, C, and so on. An outline helps you put your ideas in order
before you write a research report. Here is one student’s outline
on an article about the Aztec city, Tenochtitlán.

The Aztec News, Tenochtitlán, A Guide

Outline is I. Introduction: Tenochtitlán is a large, beautiful
divided into city that attracts many visitors.
three parts:
Introduction,
A. It is surrounded by mountains and water.
Body, Conclusion B. It is home to more than 250,000 people.
C. You can travel by dugout canoes or walk along
a causeway.
II. Body: You’ll enjoy the sights, food and markets,
and festivals.
There are A. Sights
always at 1. Visit the Great Temple and its shrines.
least two
items in 2. See cottages outside city center.
a section. B. Food and Markets
1. Buy pancakes from street vendors and
drink water from fresh mountain springs.
2. Visit Tlatelolco Market.
C. Religious Festivals
Subtopics
support
1. They are held monthly.
main topics. 2. Costumes, dancing, and music are spectacular.
III. Conclusion: Make your visit to Tenochtitlán a trip
to remember!

Writing 223
Punctuation
• A semicolon (;) can be used instead of a comma and a
conjunction to join two independent clauses.
Mr. Li moved to Chicago; he looked for a house.
• Semicolons separate items in a series if commas are already used
in the series.
The band includes John Drummond, horn; Tim Salmonson,
piano; and Jim Smelser, drums.
• A colon (:) is used after the salutation in a business letter and
to separate hours and minutes in expressions of time.
Dear Sir: 12:01 P.M.
• Colons introduce a list and set off a speaker’s name in a play.
The train stops in the following cities: Jackson, Little Rock,
and Chicago.
JOHN: I can’t wait to start my new job.
• A dash (—) sets off information that interrupts the flow of
a sentence.
Jon Bixly—he’s written a book—is an authority on the
early 1900s.
• A hyphen (-) joins compound adjectives before nouns, spelled-
out numbers, and some two-word nouns.
a well-cooked goose forty-three self-control

Rewrite each sentence. Add the missing punctuation marks.

1. I have visited these states Idaho, Montana, and Colorado.
2. Mr. Thomas he was running late caught the 504 P.M. train.
3. We found seats on the train thirty two people had to stand.
4. This train will stop in Nashville, Tennessee Louisville, Kentucky
and Indianapolis, Indiana.
224 Grammar
Match each item in the box with a numbered item to form a
logical sentence. Write the sentences, adding colons or
semicolons as needed.

one of her paintings sold for more than a million dollars

a number 2 pencil, a calculator, and a bottle of water
We hope you will approve our health fair plan
I plan to specialize in oncology
Aurora, Illinois Waco, Texas and Wilmington, North Carolina

1. For the test you will need the following

2. I have lived in these towns
3. Dear Principal Breen
4. The artist had become famous
5. I hope to be a doctor someday

Add hyphens, dashes, colons, and semicolons to the following

sentences. Rewrite the sentences.
6. The number 12 train on the Blue Line that’s the one I take to
work arrives in Chicago at 837 A.M.
7. You’ll find the train a first rate choice for commuting it never
gets stuck in rush hour traffic.
8. Fifty two riders signed the petition
that began “Dear Mayor Katz
We protest the closing of
Lincoln School.”
9. The empire fell for these reasons
corrupt leaders, social disorganization,
and an epidemic of plague.
10. I especially enjoy an action packed, fast paced
adventure tale.

Grammar 225
Test Preparation
Write the letter that identifies the correct punctuation for
each sentence.

1. The long awaited day of 5. Dear Sir I would like to

departure finally had arrived. apply for a job as a night
watchman.
A long-awaited
B day—of departure A Dear Sir:
C awaited; B for a job;
D departure: C —as a night watchman—
D I would like:
2. Five people waited on the
platform they carried all 6. EMPLOYER Tell me about your
their possessions. work experience.
A on the platform— A —about your work—
B on the platform; B Tell me,
C waited: C EMPLOYER:
D waited-on D EMPLOYER;

3. They had been sharecroppers 7. The list included these

you know the term all their jobs cook, carpenter, and
lives. gardener.
A sharecroppers; A jobs—cook
B sharecroppers-you B jobs:
C —you know the term— C jobs;
D term: D these-jobs

4. Jeremiah would search for 8. He will start work at 730 A.M.

work for thirty two days. A will—
A —for thirty two days— B work:
B days; C start-work
C for work: D 7:30
D thirty-two

226 Grammar
Review
Rewrite each sentence. Add the missing punctuation marks.
1. A new life awaited the travelers none of them knew what that
life would be like.
2. One family had spread out these foods chicken, biscuits, pickles,
and corn on the cob.
3. The baby she was cutting teeth fussed and fretted the whole way.
4. Dear Passengers For safety reasons, all windows are to be kept
closed and locked.
5. Your ticket entitles you to these items a seat in the main cabin,
a beverage, and a snack.
6. The well paid employees of Smith Construction held on to
their jobs.
7. PANSYBut where will we live? How will we survive?
JOB We’ll stay with my cousin ’til we find a place.

8. The children were exhausted they soon fell fast asleep on the
bench seats.
9. Their parents were hopeful but anxious they sat up the whole
night and watched the towns passing.
10. At 629 A.M. the train pulled into Union Station.
11. They gazed up in awe they had never seen a skyscraper as they
walked the city streets.
12. Pick one of these dates for the church picnic Sunday, July 10
Saturday, July 16 or Sunday, July 17.
13. A well known activist would speak first.
14. The pace of life in the city was rapid they would have to adjust.
15. The worn out visitors walked twenty seven blocks to their hotel.

Grammar 227
 WRITER’S CRAFT

Stick to the Subject

When writing a job application, you should have one focus—
getting the job. Employers have only a limited time to read many
applications, so it’s important that your answers
stick to the subject. A brief, focused answer
demonstrates that you understand the question
and can communicate effectively in writing.

Write any information in the answers

below that strays from the subject
of the question.
1. Explain why you want this job at Technocraft.
That’s a good question! I want this job because it gives me an
opportunity to put my math skills to good use. Furthermore, I
am knowledgeable about technology and would like to share
this information with customers.
2. What skills do you have that are related to this telemarketing job?
I communicate well verbally, and I am fluent in Spanish. I can
ride a bicycle. My voice is clear, and I can be persuasive.
3. What are your strengths?
My strengths are my creativity and calmness. It’s easy for me to
figure out ways to solve problems. Also, it’s hard to make me
panic. If there is an emergency at work, I’m sure I can keep a
cool head. I used to oversleep, but that won’t happen now with
my new digital alarm clock.

Answer the following question. Remember to stick to the subject.

If you saw another employee stealing from the store, what would you do?

228 Writing
 WRITING MODEL

Job Application
Besides information such as your name, address, phone number,
and previous work experience, a job application may ask you
to write a short essay about yourself. This is your chance to say
why you should be hired for the job.

Tell Us About Yourself

I think I would be an ideal candidate for the job
Explain why
you would of camp counselor at Wolverine Summer Camp. My
be a good abilities, experience, and interests fit perfectly with
person for
the job. your job description.
I am just about to finish sixth grade at Carver
Middle School, where my favorite classes are language
arts, art, and P.E. These classes, for which I receive
good grades, show that I communicate well with
Show how your
others, have a knack for arts and crafts, and love
interests and
experience fit being active in the outdoors.
the job. In addition, I have experience as a babysitter and
enjoy working with children. As I stated earlier in the
application, I have tutored third graders in reading
for a year.
I have been a camper at Wolverine Summer Camp
A strong for the last five summers, so I know what it takes
conclusion
to be a good camp counselor. I look forward to
makes you
stand out. the opportunity to use my experience, interests, and
talents to make camp a fun learning experience for a
new generation of Wolverines!

Writing 229
Taking Tests
Follow these tips when writing for a test:

Before Writing
• Read the prompt carefully. What does it ask you to do?
• Write down key words that name your audience (warn people who eat
junk food), state the purpose of the composition (give directions), and tell
you how to organize your points (provide step-by-step instructions).
• Use a graphic organizer to plan your composition.
• Determine the tone of your writing (friendly, formal).

During Writing
• Reread the prompt as you write to make sure you are on topic.
• Keep in mind your graphic organizer and stay focused.
• Write a good beginning. You might engage readers with a thought-
provoking question or an interesting fact.
• Develop and elaborate ideas. Support your main idea, your
observations, or your opinion.
• Write a strong ending. Try to write a “clincher” sentence to provide a
clear ending. You might add a final comment of your own or challenge
your reader with a command.

After Writing
• Check your grammar and mechanics (punctuation, spelling).
• Reread the prompt and review your work.
There’s still time to add words or correct errors.

Taking Tests 231

Writing a Personal Narrative
A test may ask you to write a personal narrative.
Your narrative should have a beginning, middle,
and end. Use words that capture your voice,
feelings, and point of view. Follow the tips below.

Understand the prompt. Read the prompt carefully. A prompt

for a personal narrative could look like this:
Write a personal narrative about an interesting adventure or difficult
experience in your life. Use the words I and me.
Key words and phrases are personal narrative, adventure, and difficult
experience.
Find a good topic. Choose an event that you recall in some detail.
Consider a visit, a lost pet, or a fun discovery.
Organize your ideas. Make a story organizer on scratch paper.

Event first ride on motorcycle

Where and when country road, last July
Details surprised me
purr of motor, rush of wind
feeling close to nature and traffic
How it ended tired but happy

Write a good beginning. Set the tone with your first sentence.
Develop and elaborate ideas. Use the information in your
organizer. Include vivid details and varied sentences.

232 Writing for Tests

 Write a strong ending. Make the ending powerful and vivid.
Check your work. Make any necessary changes. See how the
personal narrative below addresses the prompt.

If there is one thing I can count on, it’s that Aunt

1
Sass will surprise me. Last July she called and said,
2
“I’ll be over to take you for a ride.” She pulled into
our parking lot on a shiny new red motorcycle!
I breathed in the smell of leather and engine oil.
I could hardly wait to hop on. First, Aunt Sass showed
me how to sit and hold on safely and put on my
helmet. Then we were off! At first, I was nervous
3 4
because the traffic was right there in my face. We
seemed to be f lying.
Soon we puttered down a country road, and I
began to relax my grip on Aunt Sass’s waist. The grass,
trees, and fresh air smelled wonderful. I could see
blue wildf lowers along the road and goats grazing in
a field. The world seemed closer and more focused.
When I got off the motorcycle, I was tired but happy.
I’d had another amazing adventure with Aunt Sass. 5

1. The opening sentence creates interest and anticipation.

2. The writer uses personal pronouns to express feelings.
3. Details appeal to readers’ senses.
4. Connectors establish the order of events.
5. The ending ties back to the beginning.

Writing for Tests 233

Writing a How-to Report
A test may ask you to explain how to do or make something.
Include all the steps. Use words such as next and last to show the
order of the steps. Follow the tips below.

Understand the prompt. Read the prompt carefully. A prompt for

a how-to report may look like this:
Write a report that gives steps on how to make or do something.
Make your report easy to understand. Explain all the steps and
materials that are needed.
Key words and phrases are report, steps, how to make or do something,
and all the steps and materials.
Find a good topic. Choose something you can make or do well
and explain easily, such as a simple meal or a game.
Organize your ideas. Make a how-to chart with the name of your
task, the materials, and the steps.

Task Make pot pie—a colonial meal

Materials chicken, chicken bouillon, onions, potatoes, carrots,
corn, peas, frozen pie crusts, knife, cutting board, pan
Steps 1. Cut up chicken. 2. Chop onions, carrots, potatoes.
3. Cook vegetables and chicken in bouillon. 4. Thaw
crusts. 5. Pour mixture into one crust; cover with second
crust. 6. Bake an hour at 375°F.

Write a good beginning. State the task clearly.

Develop and elaborate ideas. Use the steps in your chart.

234 Writing for Tests

 Write a strong ending. You might add a personal comment.
Check your work. Is any information missing? See how the
how-to report below addresses the prompt.

1 Chicken pot pie is an all-American meal that the

colonists made to use up leftovers. You can make this 2
delicious dish too. You will need leftover chicken, a
can of chicken bouillon, onions, potatoes, carrots,
corn, peas, two pie crusts, a sharp knife, a cutting
board, and a pan.
First, set out the pie crusts to thaw. Then cut the
chicken into bite-sized pieces. Next, chop up the
3
onions, carrots, and potatoes. Pour the chicken bouillon
4
into the pan and heat it to boiling. Now add the
vegetables and chicken and cook until the vegetables
are tender.
Pour the mixture into one crust. Carefully place
the other crust upside-down on the first crust. Press
the edges firmly to seal the two. Bake the pie at
375°F for an hour or until the crust is golden brown.
5 Now enjoy a colonial feast!

1. The first sentence puts the recipe in a context.

2. The second sentence clearly states the task.
3. Time-order words help show order of steps.
4. Adverbs and adjectives give specific details.
5. The ending connects back to the historical context.

Writing for Tests 235

Writing a Compare/Contrast Essay
A test may ask you to write a compare/contrast essay.
Choose subjects that are alike and different. Follow the
tips below.

Understand the prompt. Read the prompt carefully. A prompt for

a compare/contrast essay could look like this:
Compare and contrast two real people or fictional characters, their
lives, and their accomplishments. Tell about important similarities
and differences.
Key words are compare, contrast, lives, accomplishments, similarities,
and differences.
Find a good topic. Choose two people or characters you can
compare and contrast in several ways.
Organize your ideas. Make a Venn diagram. Write differences in
the outer parts of the circles and similarities in the center.

Abraham Lincoln John Kennedy

intelligent, humorous
grew up poor from wealthy family
faced national crises
homely handsome
assassinated in office

Write a good beginning. Begin with a strong topic sentence.

Develop and elaborate ideas. Use the details in your diagram.

236 Writing for Tests

 Write a strong ending. Use the ending to restate the main idea.
Check your work. Did you signal comparisons and contrasts?
See how the compare/contrast essay below addresses the prompt.

1 At first glance, Presidents Abraham Lincoln and John

Kennedy seem like complete opposites. Compare their
portraits. Next to the gangly and rather plain Lincoln,
Kennedy looks handsome and stylish. Their backgrounds
4 are also quite different. Lincoln grew up poor in the rough
frontier country of Kentucky and Illinois. On the other hand,
2
3 Kennedy came from a wealthy Massachusetts family.
However, if you study these great Presidents
more closely, you will find many important similarities.
Both men had keen intelligence and a great sense of
4 humor—and they knew how to use both in public. Like
Lincoln, Kennedy faced a major crisis that threatened
our nation. (For Lincoln, the crisis was the Civil War. For
Kennedy it was the threat of nuclear war with Russia.)
Sadly, both men were assassinated while in office.
These two very different men share a place in our
5 hearts as leaders who made a difference and left us
too soon.

1. The first sentence tells who will be compared.

2. The writer uses signal words throughout essay.
3. The writer organizes differences, then similarities.
4. Pairs of words clarify likenesses and differences.
5. The ending sums up the essay’s main points.

Writing for Tests 237

Writing a Story
A test may ask you to write a story. Tell about an
event and how characters solve a problem. Follow
the tips below.

Understand the prompt. Read the prompt carefully. A prompt

for a story could look like this:
Write a story about a pioneer family traveling west. Tell about what
they hope for and what happens to them. Be sure your story has a
beginning, middle, and end.
Key words and phrases are story, pioneer family, hope for, what happens,
beginning, middle, and end.
Find a good topic. Imagine strong characters who can handle a
difficult or scary situation.
Organize your ideas. Fill in a story chart like the one below.

Story about how McKernans cross desert and mountains

Characters Ma, Da, Billie, Mol
Setting desert, mountains of American West
Action
Beginning A wheel falls off their wagon as the family crosses the
desert. Their water is running out.
Middle Da fixes the wheel; Ma sings a song; they reach a river,
then cross mountains; they have to walk and help the horses; Ma
must leave her good dishes and chest.
End They reach California.

Write a good beginning. Introduce the characters, setting, and

situation at the beginning.
238 Writing for Tests
 Develop and elaborate ideas. Use your chart to organize events.
Include vivid, specific words to bring events to life.
Write a strong ending. Show how the problem was resolved.
Check your work. Decide if anything needs to be changed.
See how the story below addresses the prompt.

The McKernans were worried. Ma, Da, Billie, and

1
Mol had journeyed by wagon for a month. Now they
2
were crossing a desert. It was blazing hot, and their
water was nearly gone. Suddenly, a wheel broke off
their wagon. Would they die here in the desert?
4
Da worked quietly to mend the wheel. Ma put Billie and 3
Mol in the shade of the wagon and gave them a swallow
of water. She sang songs to keep them from being afraid.
By evening, they moved slowly on. In the moonlight, they
2 finally saw trees and a river. They had made it!
At daybreak, they saw the mountains ahead. It
was hard for the horses. Everyone walked and
often pushed. Still they had to lighten the load.
Ma didn’t look back at her good dishes and oak
4
chest left by the trail. They did what they had to do.
When at last they reached California, the McKernans
5 thought they had never seen anything more beautiful.

1. The writer quickly introduces characters and setting.

2. The writer reports events in time order.
3. Vivid words set the scene and mood.
4. The writer shows characters’ feelings.
5. The ending tells that the challenge was met.
Writing for Tests 239
Writing a Persuasive Argument
A test may ask you to write a persuasive argument.
Support your ideas with examples, reasons, and language
that can convince a reader. Follow the tips below.

Understand the prompt. Read the prompt carefully. A prompt for a

persuasive argument could look like this:
What issues are important to you at home? What would you
change? Write a persuasive argument to change one family routine
or policy.
Key words are issues, important, home, change, and persuasive.
Find a good topic. Think about activities you and family members
sometimes disagree about. Ask: What could I try to change? What
persuasive words could I use?
Organize your ideas. Use an organizer like the one below to write
your argument and reasons.

Argument My bedtime should be 10:30 on school nights

and 11:30 on weekends.
Supporting Reasons
• busy schedule, can’t do homework until 8
• need time to wind down before bed
• can’t get to sleep for an hour
• eight hours recommended amount of sleep

Write a good beginning. Set the tone for your argument.

240 Writing for Tests

 Develop and elaborate ideas. Use your chart to focus your
writing. Present the reasons using persuasive language.
Write a strong ending. Make the ending convincing.
Check your work. Have you supported your argument?
See how the persuasive argument below addresses the prompt.

1 Time is a valuable resource, and I never have enough.

A 9:30 P.M. bedtime almost guarantees I won’t be able
to get everything done. Extending that time to 10:30
on school nights and 11:30 on weekends would make
life less stressful.
With my after-school activities, I don’t get to my
3 homework before 8:00, and it usually takes more than
an hour. Then right away I have to get ready for bed.
When I lie down, my mind is still racing. I lie there wide
awake for at least an hour. That is wasted time.
Studies show a person should spend some time
winding down before trying to sleep. If I had an hour
to play a game, watch TV, or listen to music, I could
go right to sleep.
2
4 Doctors recommend getting eight hours of sleep a
night. I have been spending nine and a half hours in
bed. The later bedtime would give me enough rest and
5
relieve the stress of hurrying to get everything done.

1. The first sentence sets a brisk, straightforward tone.

2. The writer uses persuasive words effectively.
3. Varied sentence structures make writing flow smoothly.
4. The argument builds to the most important reason.
5. A strong ending sums up the writer’s thoughts.
Writing for Tests 241
Writing a Summary
A test may ask you to summarize information from a chart,
diagram, or time line. You will need to read the information
carefully and use it to develop your own sentences.

1961
• First Russian manned
space flight—Yuri
Gagarin, 108 minutes
1957 First Earth orbiter, 1959 Soviets launch • Gherman Titov—in
Sputnik, launched by Russians; Luna 1, first probe space 25 hours
Sputnik 2 carries Laika, first near moon; Luna 2 • First U.S. manned
animal in outer space. crash-lands on moon. satellite—Alan Shepard

1958 First successful 1960 Tiros 1, 1962 First U.S.

launch of Explorer weather satellite, orbital flight—
satellite; NASA founded and Echo 1, first John Glenn
communications
satellite, launched

Organize your ideas. Present the information from the time line
in complete sentences. Use transition words and phrases such as soon
after and then to show the order of events.
Write a good beginning. Write a topic sentence that states the
main idea you want to present about your subject.
Develop and elaborate ideas. Include all important facts from
the time line. Connect the ideas for your reader.

242 Writing for Tests

 Write a strong ending. End with a comment of your own.
Check your work. Is your summary accurate?
See how the summary below is based on the time line.

The Race for Space: 1957–1962

1 Space exploration began as a race between
the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1957, the
2
Russians led with Sputnik, the first Earth orbiter, and
Sputnik 2, which made the dog Laika the first animal
in space. A year later, the U.S. launched an Explorer
3
satellite and founded NASA.
In 1959, Luna 1, another Soviet satellite, was
the first probe to go near the moon. Soon after,
Luna 2 crash-landed on the moon. The next year, the 3
U.S. sent up the weather satellite, Tiros 1, and the first
communications satellite, Echo 1.
Yuri Gagarin made the first Russian manned space
f light in 1961. He remained in f light for 108 minutes.
Another Russian, Gherman Titov, was in space for 25
hours. The U.S. met the challenge with its own manned
satellite with Alan Shepard. Then, in 1962, we claimed 4
3
our first manned orbital f light with John Glenn. I
4
believe that the rivalry between the two countries made
5
space exploration move ahead by leaps and bounds.

1. The opening paragraph clearly states the main idea.

2. The writer explains what Sputnik is.
3. Transition words and phrases show order of events.
4. Pronouns help avoid repetition.
5. The ending sums up main idea and reveals writer’s voice.
Writing for Tests 243
Grammar Patrol
Grammar 245
Capitalization 253
Punctuation 254
Spelling 257
Handwriting 258
Grammar Patrol
adjective An adjective describes a noun or a pronoun.
Ponds are active places.
Several chipmunks run through the wet grass.
Adjectives have two different forms that are used to make comparisons.
• Use the –er form of an adjective to compare two persons, places,
or things.
Frogs have smoother skin than toads.
• Use the –est form of an adjective to compare three or more
persons, places, or things.
Snails are the slowest pond creatures.
• The words more and most are often used with adjectives of two or
more syllables to make comparisons.
The ducks were more comical than usual.
The goose is the most common bird here.
• Some adjectives show comparison in a special way. The correct
forms of good, bad, much, and little are shown below.
good weather better weather best weather
bad storm worse storm worst storm
much snow more snow most snow
little fog less fog least fog
article The words a, an, and the are a special kind of adjective.
They are called articles. The is used with both singular and plural
nouns. A and an are used only with singular nouns.
The animals at the pond are very busy.
A friend and I spent an afternoon there.
• Use a before a word that begins with a consonant sound.
a beaver a pleasant afternoon
• Use an before a word that begins with a vowel sound.
an owl an underwater plant

Grammar Patrol 245

adverb A word that describes a verb is an adverb.
• Some adverbs answer the question “How?”
The fox hides slyly behind the bushes. (how?)
• Some adverbs answer the question “Where?”
Aesop wrote fables here. (where?)
• Other adverbs answer the question “When?”
Often a fable tells about one event. (when?)
Adverbs can be used to compare actions.
• Use the -er form or more to compare two actions. Most adverbs
that end in -ly use more.
The ant worked harder than the cricket.
The tortoise moved more steadily than the hare.
• Use the -est form or most to compare three or more actions. Most
adverbs that end in -ly use most.
The ant worked hardest of all the insects.
The tortoise moved most steadily of all.
The word not is an adverb. It means “no.” Do not use two words
that mean “no” in the same sentence.
Wrong: It wouldn’t never matter to me.
Right: It wouldn’t ever matter to me.
Right: It would never matter to me.
contraction A contraction is a shortened form of two words.
An apostrophe replaces a letter or letters.
• Some contractions join a pronoun and a verb.
I have never been in a dairy shed before.
I’ve never been in a dairy shed before.
• Some contractions are formed from a verb and the word not.
I cannot believe you did not bring your banjo.
I can’t believe you didn’t bring your banjo.

246 Grammar Patrol

noun A noun names a person, place, or thing.
The settlers came to America on a ship.
(person) (place) (thing)
A singular noun names one person, place, or thing.
The settler kept the cow in the barn.
A plural noun names more than one person, place, or thing.
The settlers kept their cows in their barns.
• Add -s to form the plural of most nouns.
colonists rivers peas chickens
• Add -es to form the plural of nouns that end in ch, sh, s, ss, x, or z.
benches bushes buses boxes
• If a noun ends in a consonant and y, change y to i and add -es to
form the plural.
Singular: library city cherry
Plural: libraries cities cherries
• Some plurals are formed by changing the spelling of the singular noun.
Singular: man child foot mouse
Plural: men children feet mice
• A few nouns have the same singular and plural forms.
Singular: elk moose deer sheep
Plural: elk moose deer sheep
A common noun names any person, place, or thing.
A colonist founded the town.
A proper noun names a particular person, place, or thing.
William Penn founded Philadelphia.

Grammar Patrol 247

A possessive noun shows ownership.
• To form the possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and
s (’s) to the singular noun.
Ben Franklin’s many talents amazed people.
• To form the possessive of a plural noun ending in s, add an
apostrophe (s’).
shoemakers’ hammers blacksmiths’ forges
• To form the possessive of a plural noun that does not end in s,
add an apostrophe and s (’s).
men’s hats mice’s tails two deer’s tracks
preposition A preposition is a word that shows how a noun or
pronoun is related to other words in the same sentence.
We sing in the car.
A preposition begins a group of words called a prepositional
phrase. At the end of the phrase is a noun or pronoun called the
object of the preposition.
Preposition: The dog buried its bone in the yard.
Prepositional phrase: in the yard
Object of the proposition: yard
pronoun A pronoun takes the place of a noun or nouns.
Nouns: Linda writes poems.
Pronouns: She enjoys writing them.
The pronouns I, you, she, he, it, we, and they are subject pronouns.
Use these pronouns to replace nouns that are the subjects of
sentences.
Robert Frost had been a teacher and a farmer.
He wrote many poems about nature.

248 Grammar Patrol

The pronouns me, you, him, her, it, us, and them are object
pronouns. You can use these pronouns to replace nouns in the
predicate of a sentence.
Paul read poems to Jill.
Paul read them to her.
The pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our, and their are possessive
pronouns. A possessive pronoun shows ownership. Possessive
pronouns can replace nouns.
That writer’s home is in the mountains.
Her poems usually involve nature.
sentence A sentence is a group of words that expresses a
complete thought.
People of all ages enjoy hobbies.
A declarative sentence makes a statement. It ends with a period (.).
Hobbies are important in people’s lives.
An interrogative sentence asks a question. It ends with a
question mark (?).
What is your hobby?
An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request.
It usually ends with a period (.).
Please get your kite ready. Come to our party!
An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling. It ends with
an exclamation mark (!).
That kite will crash! How happy I am!
A simple sentence has one subject and one predicate. It expresses
one complete thought.
Kites come in many different shapes.

Grammar Patrol 249

A compound sentence contains two simple sentences joined
by the word and, but, or or. Use a comma in a compound sentence
before the word and, but, or or.
The day was cool, and clouds drifted across the sun.
subject and predicate The subject is the part of the sentence that
names someone or something. The predicate tells what the subject
is or does. Both the subject and the predicate may be one word or
many words.
Currents/move ocean water around the world.
The most common mineral/is salt.
Ocean water/moves.
Sea water/flows in vast streams.
The simple subject is the main word in the complete subject.
The five biggest oceans are really one huge ocean.
A sentence may have more than one simple subject. The word
and may be used to join simple subjects, making a compound
subject. The simple subjects share the same predicate.
Spiny crabs and colorful fish scurry along the underwater reef.
The simple predicate is the main word or words in the complete
predicate.
Ocean waters flow in vast streams.
A sentence may have more than one simple predicate. The word
and may be used to join simple predicates, making a compound
predicate. The simple predicates share the same subject.
Some worms live and feed in the ocean.
verb A verb is a word that shows action or being.
Nina paints in art class. (action)
That picture is beautiful. (being)

250 Grammar Patrol

An action verb shows action. It tells what the subject of a
sentence does.
The art teacher welcomed the students.
A verb can be more than one word. The main verb is the most
important verb. A helping verb works with the main verb.
Many people have admired Picasso’s paintings. (main verb)
His name is known all over the world. (helping verb)
A linking verb shows being. It tells what the subject is or was.
Grandma Moses was a famous artist.
When the correct subject and verb are used together, we say they
agree. The form of the linking verb be that is used depends on the
subject of the sentence. Study the following chart.
Using the Forms of be
Use am and was with I
Use is and was with she, he, it, and singular nouns
Use are and were with we, you, they, and plural nouns
The tense of a verb shows the time of the action.
A verb in the present tense shows action that happens now.
Eli forms the tiles.
A verb in the present tense must agree with the subject of the sentence.
• With he, she, it, or a singular noun, add -s or -es to the verb.
The student learns. My cousin teaches. He walks.
• If a verb ends in ch, sh, s, ss, x, or z, add -es. Notice the word
teaches above.
• With I, you, we, they, or a plural noun, do not add -s or -es.
The students learn. My cousins teach. They walk.
A verb in the future tense shows action that will happen. The
future tense is formed with the helping verb will.
Ann will create a vase.
Grammar Patrol 251
A verb in the past tense shows action that already happened.
Lee washed pots.
The past tenses of irregular verbs are not formed by adding -ed.
Some irregular verbs are shown in the following chart.
Past with have,
Verb Past has, or had
begin began begun
bring brought brought
come came come
do did done
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
find found found
fly flew flown
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
ride rode ridden
run ran run
see saw seen
take took taken
throw threw thrown
write wrote written
The spelling of some verbs changes when -es or -ed is added.
• If a verb ends in a consonant and y, change the y to i before
adding -es or -ed.
study studies studied
• If a verb ends in one vowel and one consonant, double the final
consonant before adding -ed.
trap trapped stir stirred

252 Grammar Patrol

Capitalization
first word of a sentence Every sentence begins with a capital
letter.
People enjoy having special projects.
proper noun Each important word in a proper noun begins with
a capital letter.
• Capitalize each word in the name of a person or pet.
Patrice Gomez owns a cat named Duke.
• Capitalize an initial in a name. Put a period after the initial.
William L. Chen is a doctor in our neighborhood.
• Capitalize a title before a name. If the title is an abbreviation (a
shortened form of a word), put a period after it.
President Jefferson Dr. Jonas Salk
• Capitalize every important word in the names of particular places
or things.
Statue of Liberty Ellis Island New York Harbor
• Capitalize names of days, months, holidays, and special days.
Tuesday April Fourth of July
pronoun I The pronoun I is always capitalized.
May I go skating this afternoon?
letter Capitalize the first word of the greeting and the first word
of the closing of a letter.
Dear Mother, Dear Sir: Sincerely yours,
title of books, movies, songs, and other works Capitalize
the first word, the last word, and all of the important words in the
titles of works.
The Secret Life of Harold the Bird Watcher
“The Star-Spangled Banner”

Grammar Patrol 253

quotation Begin the first word in a quotation with a capital letter.
The Hare asked, “How about a race?”

Punctuation
period Declarative sentences and imperative sentences end with
a period (.).
I stood on the corner. Wait for the signal.
• Put a period after an initial in a name.
J. P. Jones Abigail S. Adams
• Put a period after an abbreviation (a shortened form of a word).
Mr. Mrs. Ms. Dr.
question mark An interrogative sentence ends with a
question mark (?).
Do you have more than one hobby?
exclamation mark An exclamatory sentence ends with an
exclamation mark (!).
That kite will crash!
comma A comma (,) is a signal that tells a reader to pause.
• Use a comma after yes, no, or well at the beginning of a sentence.
Yes, I saw the display of Eskimo art.
Well, my favorites were the bears made of silver.
• Use a comma to set off the name of the person spoken to.
Your painting is very beautiful, Roberta.
• Use a comma to separate words in a series. A series is made up of
three or more items. No comma is used after the last word in the
series. The last comma goes before the word and.
The artists carve, smooth, and polish their work.

254 Grammar Patrol

• Use a comma to separate the city from the state.
I grew up in Tulsa, Oklahoma.
• Use a comma to separate the day and the year.
Pablo was born on February 7, 2000.
• Use a comma after the greeting of a friendly letter. Use a comma
after the closing of a friendly or a business letter.
Dear Kim, Your friend, Yours truly,
• Use a comma before the word and, but, or or in a compound
sentence.
The merchants crossed central Asia, and they reached China.
quotation marks A quotation is the exact words someone
speaks. Quotation marks (“ ”) show where a speaker’s exact words
begin and end.
• Use quotation marks before and after a quotation. Begin the first
word in a quotation with a capital letter. When the quotation comes
last, use a comma to separate the speaker from the quotation.
The Tortoise said, “I’m not going to lose this race.”
• When the quotation comes first, use a comma, a question mark,
or an exclamation mark to separate the quotation from the
speaker. The end mark of a quotation always comes just before the
second quotation mark. Put a period at the end of the sentence.
Statement: “Let’s do something else,” replied the Tortoise.
Question: “Are you afraid you’ll lose?” teased the Hare.
Exclamation: “I’m not afraid!” snapped the Tortoise.
• Enclose the titles of stories, songs, poems, and articles in
quotation marks.
Story: “The Use of Force”
Song: “Of Thee I Sing”
Poem: “Dear March, Come In!”
Article: “Let’s Make Music”
Grammar Patrol 255
• Underline the titles of newspapers, magazines, books, plays,
and movies.
In materials you read, these titles are printed in italics.
Newspaper: Denver Post
Magazine: Popular Mechanics
Book: A Wind in the Door
Play: Man of La Mancha
Movie: Invaders from Mars
apostrophe Use an apostrophe (’) to show where a letter or letters
have been left out in a contraction (a shortened form of two words).
we’ve (we + have) wasn’t (was + not)
• Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of a noun.
man’s James’s men’s workers’
colon Use a colon (:) after the greeting in a business letter.
Dear Mr. Kurtz: Dear Sir or Madam:

256 Grammar Patrol

Frequently Misspelled Words
a lot everything morning then
afraid except myself there
again excited of they
almost family off they’re
already favorite once thought
always February one through
another field opened to
are finally our too
athlete first outside took
basketball found people tries
beautiful friend piece truly
because getting presents TV
before government pretty two
believe grabbed probably until
brother happened radio upon
brought heard really usually
buy hero right vacation
caught his said very
chocolate hospital scared want
Christmas house school was
clothes I separate watch
control I’m should weird
could instead since went
cousin into sincerely we’re
Dad’s it’s something were
decided knew sometimes what
didn’t know special when
different knowledge started where
disappear let’s stopped which
doesn’t library successful who
don’t little sure whole
enough maybe surprised with
especially might swimming would
everybody minute that’s you’re
everyone Mom their
Frequently Misspelled Words 257
D’Nealian™ Alphabet

abcdefghi
jklmnopqrst
uvwxyz
ABCDEFG
HIJKLMNO
PQRSTUV
WXYZ.,’?
123456
7 8 9 10
258 Handwriting
Manuscript Alphabet

a b c d e f g
h i j k l m n
o p q r s t u
v w x y z
A B C D E F G
H I J K L M N
O P Q R S T U
V W X Y Z , ’ . ?
q! @
w #
e r
$ t
% y^
&
u * i
( qp
!)
Handwriting 259
Cursive Alphabet

abcdefg
hijklmn
opqrstu
vwxyz
A B C D E FG
HIJ KL MN
OPQRSTU
VWXY Z.,’?
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10
260 Handwriting
Index
A first word of sentence, 50–53
Abbreviations, 74–77
months of year, 74–77
Action verbs. See Verbs. proper nouns, 74–77
Adjectives, 176–179, 200–203, 245 quotations, 218–221
articles, 176–179 titles, 74–77, 255–256
comparative, 188–191 titles of people, 74–77
demonstrative, 182–185 Clauses, 62–65
predicate, 122–125 dependent, 62–65, 68–71,
proper, 176–179 206–209
superlative, 188–191 independent, 62–65, 68–71,
Adverbs, 194–197, 200–203, 246 206–209
comparative, 194–197 Colon, 224–227
Commas
superlative, 194–197
addresses, 212–215
Agreement,
pronoun, 146–149 appositives, 212–215
subject-verb, 98–101, in compound sentences,
158–161 68–71, 212–215
Alliteration, 187 dates, 212–215
Antecedents, 146–149, 152–155 with dependent clauses, 62–
Apostrophe 65, 212–215
in contractions, 170–173 direct address, 212–215
in possessive nouns, 86–89 interrupting words and
Articles, 176–179, 245 phrases, 212–215
introductory words and
B phrases, 212–215
Be. See Verbs. items in series, 212–215, 224–
227
C in quotations, 218–221
Capitalization, 253–254 Common nouns. See Nouns.
abbreviations, 74–77 Complex sentences. See
Sentences.
days of week, 74–77
Index 261
Index
Compound-complex sentences. F
See Sentences.
Compound predicate. See Focus/Ideas. See Writing.
Predicates. Fragments, 56–59
Compound sentences. See Frequently misspelled words,
Sentences. 257
Compound subject. See Subjects.
Conjunctions, 206–209 H
coordinating, 206–209 Handwriting, 258–260
subordinating, 206–209 Hyphen, 224–227
Contractions, 170–173, 246
Conventions. See Writing. I
Imperative sentences. See
D Sentences.
Dash, 224–227 Indefinite pronouns. See
Declarative sentences. See Pronouns.
Sentences. Independent clauses. See
Demonstrative adjectives, Clauses.
182–185 Indirect objects, 122–125,
Dependent clauses. See Clauses. 140–143
Descriptive writing. See Writing, Indirect quotations, 218–221
types of. Interjections, 50–53
Details, 2–3, 204, 222 Interrogative sentences. See
Direct objects, 122–125, 140–143, Sentences.
164–167 Irregular verbs. See Verbs.
Direct quotations, 218–221
L
E Linking verbs. See Verbs.
Evaluate your writing, 46–48
Exclamation mark, 50–53 M
Exclamatory sentences. See
Main idea, 2–3, 72, 114
Sentences.
Mechanics, 254–256
Expository writing. See Writing,
apostrophe, 86–89, 170–173
types of.
262 Index
 colon, 224–227 O
comma, 62–65, 68–71, Object of preposition,
212–215, 218–221 134–137, 140–143
dash, 224–227 Object pronouns. See Pronouns.
exclamation mark, 50–53 Objects. See Direct objects; Indirect
hyphen, 224–227 objects, Object of preposition.
Organization/Paragraphs. See
period, 50–53, 74–77
Writing.
question mark, 50–53
quotation marks, 218–221 P
semicolon, 224–227
Participles. See Verbs.
Metaphor, 186 Period, 50–53, 74–77
Misplaced modifiers, Personification, 186, 187
200–203 Persuasive writing. See Writing,
Modifiers, 200–203 types of.
Plural nouns. See Nouns.
N Possessive nouns. See Nouns.
Narrative writing. See Writing, Predicate nominatives, 92–95
types of. Predicates, 250
Negatives, 170–173 complete, 56–59
Nouns, 247–248 compound, 206–209
collective, 98–101 simple, 56–59
common, 74–77 Prepositional phrases, 134–137,
plural 200–203
irregular, 80–83 Prepositions, 134–137, 248
regular, 80–83 Principal parts of verbs. See
Verbs.
possessive
Prompts, 26, 31, 36, 41, 79, 109,
plural, 86–89 139, 169, 232, 234, 236, 238,
singular, 86–89 240
predicate, 122–125 Pronouns, 248–249
proper, 74–77 antecedents, 146–149,
titles of people, 74–77 152–155

Index 263
Index
indefinite, 158–161 S
object, 140–143 Semicolon, 224–227
possessive, 152–155 Sentences, 18–21, 249–250
referents, 146–149 capitalization in, 50–53
reflexive, 158–161 complex, 62–65, 68–71,
subject, 140–143 206–209
who and whom, 164–167 compound, 68–71, 206–209
Proofreading, 22–25 compound-complex, 68–71
Proper adjectives. See Adjectives. declarative, 50–53
Proper nouns. See Nouns.
exclamatory, 50–53
Punctuation, 50–53, 62–65, 68–
71, 74–77, 86–89, 170–173, 212– imperative, 50–53
215, 218–221, 224–227, 254–256 interrogative, 50–53
See also Mechanics. kinds of, 50–53
Purpose for writing, 2–3, 168 punctuation of, 50–53
run-on, 56–59
Q simple, 68–71
Question mark, 50–53 Simile, 186
Quotation marks, 218–221 Simple sentences. See Sentences.
Quotations, 218–221 Spelling, 257
Strategies. See Writing.
R Subject complements, 122–125
Subject pronouns. See Pronouns.
Referents. See Antecedents.
Subjects, 250
Reflexive pronouns. See
Pronouns. complete, 56–59
Review, 53, 59, 65, 71, 77, 83, 89, compound, 206–209
95, 101, 107, 113, 119, 125, 131, plural, 98–101
137, 143, 149, 155, 161, 167, simple, 56–59
173, 179, 185, 191, 197, 203,
singular, 98–101
209, 215, 221, 227
Rubrics, 26, 31, 36, 41
Run-on sentences, 56–59

264 Index
T W
Tenses, 104–107 Who and whom, 164–167
Test preparation, 52, 58, 64, Word choice. See Writing.
70, 76, 82, 88, 94, 100, 106, Writer’s craft. See topics under
112, 118, 124, 130, 136, 142, Writing. See also main entries.
148, 154, 160, 166, 172, 178, Writing
184, 190, 196, 202, 208, 214, adjectives to persuade, 180
220, 226 answer 5 Ws and How, 144
Tests. See Writing for tests.
conventions, 22–25
Titles, 74–77, 255–256
details, 2–3, 204, 222
of people, 74–77
dialogue, 102
eliminate wordiness, 126
V
figurative language, 186
Verbs, 250–252
focus/ideas, 2–5
action, 92–95, 122–125
good beginnings, 78
agreement, 98–101, 158–161
include important details, 222
am, is, are, was, were, 92–95
include important
be, 92–95
information, 84
future tense, 104–107 know audience, 132
irregular, 104–107, 116–119 main idea, 2–3, 72, 114
linking, 92–95, 122–125 models, 4–5, 8–9, 12–13,
participles, 110–113, 116–119, 16–17, 20–21, 24–25, 27–30,
128–131 32–35, 37–40, 42–45, 233,
past tense, 104–107, 110–113, 235, 237, 239, 241, 243
116–119, 128–131 ad, 199
present tense, 104–107, 110– biographical study, 121
113, 116–119, 128–131 brochure, 193
principal parts of character sketch, 61
irregular, 116–119 compare/contrast essay,
regular, 110–113 236–237
troublesome, 128–131 description of setting, 157
Voice. See Writing. directions, 85
Index 265
Index
e-mail, 133 prompts, 26, 31, 36, 41, 79,
friendly letter, 97 109, 139, 169, 232, 234,
how-to report, 234–235 236, 238, 240
hypothesis and results, 91 purpose, 2–3, 168
interview, 103 sensory details, 174
job application essay, 229 sentences, 18–21
journal entry, 67 show, don’t tell, 54
letter to editor, 181 stage directions, 162
literary review, 175 stick to subject, 228
memoir, 55
strategies, 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22
newsletter article, 217
strong conclusions, 216
news story, 145
style, 108
outlining, 223
personal narrative, 232–233 support argument, 198
persuasive argument, 240– supporting ideas, 72
241 thesis statement, 114
poem, 187 tone, 60
problem-solution essay, 73 topic sentence, 204
rules, 127 transition words, 138
story, 238–239 types of
story about animal, 151 descriptive, 31–35
summary, 242–243 expository, 41–45, 115
symbolism, 205 narrative, 26–30
taking notes, 211 persuasive, 36–40
TV script, 163 visual images, 192
order, 156 vivid words, 150
organization/paragraphs, 6–9 voice, 10–13, 66
parallel structure, 96 word choice, 14–17
paraphrase, 210 Writing for tests, 79, 109, 139,
posing questions, 90 169, 230–243
powerful verbs, 120 Writing models. See Writing.

266 Index
 ISBN 0-328-11801-X

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