UNIT II.

CALLED TO HAPPINESS ● The angelic doctor adds, “although the end be

last in the order of execution, yet it is the first
A: Search For The True Happiness order of the agent’s intention and it is in this way
that it is a cause.”
1. Worldviews/Trends in Achieving Happiness ● St. Thomas Aquinas on Happiness: What it is,
Hedonism What it consists, and How to obtain it (ST I-II,
● To seek the pleasurable is the primary reason of Q.2, Prologue).
human behavior. ● Kevin Vost, Psy.D., One Minute Aquinas: The
● Happiness equates with pleasure. Pleasure Doctor’s Quick Answers to Fundametal
ranges from the physical exhilaration to the Questions, (Manchester, New Hampshire,
material things which the world cunningly offers. Sophia Institute
● The hedonist chases physical pleasures as ● St. Thomas asserts that human beings are not
gateway to what will satisfy inner longings. In the so much pawns who are pushed by the random
end, after the fleeting feeling has welled up, the events of their past as masters of their fates who
emptiness remains and the same cycle of are pulled by future goals of their own making.
chasing after pleasure continues without ● Aquinas insists that an end acts as a final cause,
providing the authentic remedy to their insatiable a cause for the sake of which human beings
yearnings. undertake to do something.
● Aristotle and Aquinas agree that although each
Materialism and Consumerism individual has his/her own personal likes and
● Material possession, success, and progress are dislikes, he/she acts, most of the time, for the
the highest values in life. This doctrine highly very same final, last end.
values the material realm and is opposed to ● So, what then is that final end?
intellectual and spiritual values.
● An upshot of materialism is Consumerism, which False happiness.
believes that personal wellbeing and happiness ● According to St. Augustine, “all men agree in
depend, on a very large extent, on the level of desiring the last end, which is happiness.” Why,
consumption, particularly on the purchase of then, do individual men and women act so very
material goods. differently and achieve such differing degrees of
● Like hedonism, buttressing one’s happiness on happiness?
material things, in the end, only throws a person ● St. Thomas notes that “to desire happiness is
into a cycle of dissatisfaction and constant nothing else than to desire that one’s will be
yearning for something that is temporal and satisfied. And this is what everyone desires.”
fleeting. And yet, “all do not know Happiness; because
they know not in what the general notion of
Eudaimonism happiness is found.”
● The highest form of happiness can be acquired ● In determining what will bring happiness, St.
through the practice of virtues. For Aristotle, Thomas starts by enumerating some common
these virtues are actions turned into good habits false contenders, which are as popular and
which lead a person to transcend his/her alluring today as they were in the thirteenth
passions. century, namely: wealth, power, honor, fame and
glory.
2. God As The Ultimate Happiness Of The ● These are only means to the end of happiness
a. St. Thomas Aquinas on Happiness itself and none of them ever completely brings
● Happiness as end. Human beings have the satisfaction.
power of reason to determine what seems good Two Kinds of Happiness:
for them and the power of free will to choose ● An imperfect happiness while here on earth.
what goods they will seek and how they will go ● A perfect happiness consisting of the beatific
about obtaining them. vision of the Uncreated Good (i.e., God) in
● Thus, according to Aquinas we are masters of heaven. Augustine expressed this so beautifully
our own actions. in his writing, “Our hearts are restless until they
● Those goods that we seek are goals or ends, rest in you.”
the things we hope to achieve by our actions.
→ Augustine refers to God who is the ultimate source of ● Jesus brings the question about morally good
every good thing and the end towards whom human action back to its religious foundations, to the
beings ought to direct all their actions. acknowledgment of God, who alone is
goodness, fullness of life, the final end of human
b. Happiness in God as the Ultimate Goal of Human activity, and perfect happiness.
Beings ● “Do not be conformed to this world but be
● Happiness is associated with the meaning of life. transformed by the renewal of your mind, that
JPII you may prove what is the will of God, what is
● “In the depths of his heart there always remains good and acceptable and perfect” (Rom 12:2).
a yearning for absolute truth and a thirst to attain
full knowledge of it. This is eloquently proven by c. God’s Commandments: Criteria in Attaining Eternal
man's tireless search for knowledge in all fields.” Life
JPII ● JPII elucidates the connection between eternal
● St. Thomas Aquinas points out: “every agent life and obedience to the decalogue in his
acts for an end; otherwise, one thing would not remark:
follow more than another from the action of the ● “God's commandments show man the path of
agent.” life and they lead to it.”
● St. Thomas Aquinas clarifies the how rational ● the decalogue sheds light on the dignity of the
beings differ from irrational beings in their pursuit human person, and consequently our obligation
of an end: to respect it, to wit:
○ Irrational creatures seek their end by
means of natural inclination. The 10 Commandments are:
○ In rational creatures, this inclination is ● Reflections about the good of the person at the
caused by the deliberation of the level of the many different goods which
intellect, which knows the end as good, characterize his identity as a spiritual and bodily
and the free decision of the will.” being in relationship with God, with his neighbor
● As the faculty that chooses, the will empowers and with the material world.
the person to choose which path to take on the ● Teach us man's true humanity. They shed light
way to happiness: whether right or wrong. on the essential duties, and so indirectly on the
fundamental rights, inherent in the nature of the
Relationship between the Human Person’s Rationality human person.
and the Totality of His Being: ● You shall not murder; You shall not commit
○ All human persons are oriented towards the adultery; You shall not steal; You shall not bear
good, in virtue of their rationality. false witness” are negative precepts, which
○ This good is broken down and made up of the express with particular force the ever urgent
basic goods of the person, which are perfective need to protect human life, the communion of
of him, or her. persons
○ The knowledge, right ordering, and harmonizing
of the human goods by reason, and the moral d. Beatitudes: Call to Perfection
effort to pursue them throughout a lifetime, are ● The Beatitudes respond to man’s natural desire
necessary for human happiness. for happiness.
○ If disorder enters in here it upsets the balance of ● This desire is of divine origin. God has placed it
a person’s life and affects their happiness. E.g., in the human heart in order to draw man to the
housing and nourishment and material One who alone can fulfill it.”
well-being serve human life and not vice verse. ● The Beatitudes are more about basic attitudes
and dispositions than about particular rules of
● “Man seeks his last end in his actions by behavior.
knowing that last end (God) and wanting it.” ● There is no separation between them and the
● “How is it, then, that I seek you, Lord? Since in
seeking you, my God, I seek a happy life, let me The Beatitudes:
seek you so that my soul may live, for my body ● Suggest commitment to live out the different
draws life from my soul and my soul draws life suggested attitudes to attain the graces
from you. God alone satisfies.” St. Augustine, promised by God.
Confessions
 ● Give an idea that the true happiness that we indicate a way of life, a life that finds its full
should pursue cannot be totally attained in this actualization in God, the one true source of
world through temporal things but eternally happiness.
reside in heaven.
● Articulate that the destiny of man can be
achieved through service and the contemplation
of

The first three beatitudes are dedicated to removing the

obstacles, which purely material goods can present to be B: The Moral Good Of Human Acts
genuine happiness.
● Blessed are the poor in spirit, refers to the need → Three major moral theories that offer varying
for detachment either from riches or honors, solutions, view good differently, and expect people to in
which results from humility. The next two certain specific ways
beatitudes restrain and moderate the irascible
and concupiscible appetites respectively. a. Consequentialism
● Blessed are the meek, protects man’s irascible ● Focuses on the results or consequence of our
nature from falling into excessive anger and actions and treats intentions as irrelevant
keeps it within the bounds of reason. because good consequences are equivalent to
● Blessed are those that mourn, moderates man’s good actions.
desire for pleasure by keeping it in proportion, ● Main Proponents
which is the effect on us when we suffer trials, ○ 18th century, Jeremy Bentham and John
tribulations and the death of loved ones. Stuart Mill and much earlier the Greek
(341 to 270 B.C.E.) Epicurus, taught
The second group explains our duty to serve our that the merits of actions should be
neighbor. gauged in terms of the happiness or
● Blessed are those who hunger and thirst after pleasure that they produce.
righteousness. The active life should be devoted ○ Ultimately, we want the things that we
principally to one’s duty and spontaneous want because they give us happiness.
inclination to serve one’s neighbor. ○ Utilitarians agree that a moral theory
● Blessed are the merciful. But spontaneous should be grounded on something
inclination also leads us to go beyond what is intuitive, basically in the primal desire of
strictly due to others and show them generosity, humans to seek pleasure and avoid
understanding and forgiveness, and indeed pain. Utilitarianism is like “Hangga’t
gratuitously without expecting anything in return. pasok ka sa standards ko, akin ka.”
○ Unlike hedonism, utilitarianism is not
The third group brings forth the importance of living a self-centered as it is other-regarding by
contemplative life. thinking that “we should always act so
● Blessed are the pure of heart. We say of men as to produce the greatest good for the
who triumph over the passions, greatest number of people even if it
● Blessed are the peacemakers. The virtues gifts, means sacrificing your own pleasure.”
which perfect man in his relations with his ○ This is known as the principle of utility,
neighbor, have peace as their effect, as we read which implies that choosing the greatest
in Isaiah: “The work of justice shall be peace” good for the greatest number of people.
(32:17).
Two Forms of Utilitarianism
● The Beatitudes do not suggest certain actions ● Act Utilitarianism.
but correct dispositions and attitudes they ○ Holds that in any given situation, you
remain necessary in forming our will to choose should choose the action that produces
the Good and turn to God. the greatest good for the greatest
● They are reminders that are given to us so that number of people;
we can become “morally good persons and ● Rule Utilitarianism.
attain our integral human fulfillment (everlasting ○ Teaches that we ought to live by rules
happiness) in Jesus Christ.” The Beatitudes that, in general, are likely to lead to the
 greatest good for the greatest number. pinnacle of humanity or achieve what is known
Rule utility differs from Act utility by as eudamonia, i.e., a life welllived also known as
allowing us to refrain from acts that human flourishing.
might maximize utilty in the short run ● The kind of person who virtuously lives is the
and instead follow rules that will kind of Christian morals presuppose following
maximize utlity for the majority of the and imitating Jesus Christ, wherein every
time. Christian becomes alter Christus (another
Christ).
b. Deontological Ethics ● The supernatural virtues of faith and charity
● 18th century German Philosopher, Immanuel transform the natural principle of morality into
Kant viewed morality in terms of categorical the basic principle of specific Christian morality:
imperatives, i.e., commands that you must to live for the sake of the Kingdom, in which all
follow, regardless of your desires. things, including man, will find fulfillment in
● For Kant, moral obligations are derived from Jesus.”
pure reason and it doesn’t matter whether you
want to be moral or not because the moral law is 1. NATURE OF HUMAN ACTS
binding on all of us. a. Human acts or actus humani
● What is right and wrong is totally knowable just ● are those acts of the human person, which
by using your intellect. define him/her as human in contrast to the
actions of other material created agents more
Popular Formulations of Categorical Imperative : specifically animals.
● Universalizability Principle. ● What makes human acts basically human?
○ “Act only according to that maxim which Human acts are done with sufficient knowledge
you can at the same time will that it of the agent and full deliberate consent.
should become a universal law without According to St. Thomas Aquinas, human acts
contradiction.” “are therefore those acts that proceed from a
● Formula of Humanity. deliberate will.”
○ “Act so that you treat humanity, whether ● For Saint Thomas Aquinas, Human Acts are
in your own person or in that of another, acts:
always as an end and never as a mere ○ Which we are responsible for.
means.” ○ Done with knowledge and love.
○ Done with intellect and will.
c. Virtue Ethics ○ Freely chosen informed act.
● Aristotle emphasizes the pre-eminence of the ○ Worthy of praise or blame.
individual’s character rather than following a set ○ Has value for good or for evil.
of rules. This moral theory holds that from being
good people, right actions could follow b. Acts of Man or Actus Hominis
effortlessly. ● Those actions, which arise without the same
● Human beings who have a fixed nature, can amount of knowledge and freedom as human
flourish according to Aristotle, by adhering to acts are called acts of man or actus hominis.
their specific nature. ● “Acts of man, as opposed to human acts, are
● Nature has built in human beings the desire to actions that man perform without being master
be virtuous or to have virtues, which entails of them through his intellect and will. In principle,
doing the right thing, at the right time, in the right acts of man are not the concern of morals, since
way, in the right amount, toward right people. they are not voluntary.”
● Virtue is understood as the midpoint between ● The natural acts of vegetative and sense
the extremes of deficiency and excess, which faculties: digestion, beating of the heart, growth,
Aristotle calls vices. corporal reactions, and visual or auditive
● For Aristotle, character is developed through perceptions. However, these acts become
habituation, i.e., by doing it over and over again, human acts when performed under the direction
to the extent that eventually becomes part of of the will, as when we look at something, or
your character. arouse ourselves.
● According to Aristotle, we should become ● Acts of persons who lack the use of reason.
virtuous persons so that we can attain the Such is the case with infants or insane persons.
 ● Acts of people who are asleep or under the in ○ freedom depends on the available
influence of hypnosis, alcohol, or other drugs. In choices present – to choose among
this case, however, there may still be some alternative acts; to choose between
degree of control by the will. Also, there is committing or omitting an act;
indirect responsibility if the cause of the loss of ○ from the possible choices, the human
control is voluntary. person decides on what choice to take
● Quick, nearly automatic reactions, called without external influence forcing
primoprimi acts. These are reflex and nearly him/her to act (or not to act).
instantaneous reactions, such as withdrawing
one’s hand after suffering an electric shock, in c. Voluntariness
which the will does not have time to intervene. ● Voluntariness “is a formal quality of human acts
● Acts performed under violence or threat of whereby any action or omission results from a
principle within the agent and from some
2. CONSTITUENTS OF HUMAN ACTS knowledge which the agent possesses of the
→ There are three essential elements that must be end.”
present in order for an action to be considered a human ● When a person “knows the end of his work to
act, these are, namely: the greatest degree and moves towards it, the
voluntary character of his actions is present to
a. Knowledge the greatest degree.”
● The intellectual constituent of the human acts. ● Voluntariness is a characteristic of human act
● Those actions that are desired are fruit of that is not simply chosen but desired or willed.
knowledge. Having sufficient or full knowledge of the act
● Those known actions may be judged as moral itself as well as the end of the act and having full
and immoral. consent of the will in
● A person’s reason “cannot will without knowing ● Therefore, those actions performed without
what object he is concerned with, without being proper knowledge and acted out with internal
master and therefore, conscious of the act he is and external coercion (or not deliberate) cannot
to perform in order to realize the aim, and be considered voluntary.
without evaluating the action in its concrete ● All voluntary acts are human acts and not the
nature as a desirable good or undesirable evil, other way around, like a student, who knows
which appraisal also includes the judgment on cheating is a punishable school offense has
the moral value of the act.” chosen to commit the act to get good grades,
● The prerequisite of choosing to act is the makes a voluntary act.
adequate awareness of the agent in
If a man is not free to choose what he would like
b. Freedom according to his insight and will but has to act against his
● Freedom is what St. Augustine meant by his will, his actions is not free and consequently not a
phrase: liberum arbitrium, translated as human act.
“freedom of choice.” E.g. Caius who is absentminded, sometimes gets his
● It designates the sort of freedom that exists hair cut and goes away without paying.
where an agent has more than one alternative:
the alternative of doing this or that, the KINDS OF VOLUNTARY ACTS
alternative of doing or not doing a particular ● Perfectly Voluntary Act
action. In any case, the agent is in a situation of ○ Is an act which is performed with full
alternatives that are really there and really attention and full consent of the will.
available to her or him. ● Imperfectly Voluntary Act
● Freedom is an external personal value that all ○ Is an act which is performed with
human persons should realize. However, it can imperfect and partial attention or
also be an intrinsic characteristic or capacity of consent.
the will that governs the human person in ● Directly Voluntary Act
selecting among different options. ○ If the act is intended as an end in itself
● Therefore, with the later definition two senses or as a means to another end.
can be derived: ● Indirectly Voluntary Act
 ○ If an act is not intended but merely ● Because it lies at the voluntary source of an
permitted as the inevitable result of an action and determines it by its end, intention is
object directly willed. an element essential to the moral evaluation of
● Negatively Voluntary Act an action.
○ The will effects something negatively by ● The end is the first goal of the intention and
the voluntary omission of an act which indicates the purpose pursued in the action.
could have altered an evil to another ● The intention is a movement of the will toward
person or helped him secure a good. the end: it is concerned with the goal of the
activity. It aims at the good anticipated from the
PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE OF EFFECT action undertaken.
● First, The moral object may not be evil in itself. ● Intention is not limited to directing individual
● Second, The good and evil effect must proceed actions but can guide several actions toward
at least equally directly from the act. one and the same purpose; it can orient one's
● Third, The intention of agent must be good. The whole life toward its ultimate end.
agent may not approve intend or approve of the ● An indifferent act may become morally good or
evil effect. evil. Indifferent acts cannot be judged as neither
● Fourth, There must be a proportionately grave good nor evil. Their morality may depend on
reason in order to permit the evil effect. their intention. Talking, per se, is neither moral
nor immoral. However, if the intention of talking
3. SOURCES OF MORALITY is to destroy the reputation of another person,
→ The Catechism of the Catholic Church highlighted the then, it becomes evil. On other hand, talking in
three sources of morality that help us to determine the order to save an innocent man from a certain
moral character of the human act. crime that he did may be judged as good. If an
indifferent act has good intention, the act
a. Object or action itself (finis operis) becomes good, so if otherwise, it will be
● The object chosen is a good toward which the considered evil.
will deliberately directs itself. It is a matter of a ● An objectively good act may become morally
human act. evil. An evil intention will make a good act evil.
● The object chosen morally specifies the act of Donating to charitable institution just to show off
the will, insofar as reason recognizes and judges makes the whole action evil. Praying is an
it to be or not to be in conformity with the true objectively good action. But if you pray for the
good. person to meet a certain misfortune will make
● Objective norms of morality express the rational the act unacceptable.
order of good and evil, attested to by ● An objectively good act may receive more
conscience.” goodness. A good act will become more
● The action itself is the material element of the praiseworthy if it has a good motive. Panizo
human act or the “substance of the moral act.” made use of the example of giving alms to the
● The object or action is the one to be judged as less fortunate for the greater glory of God. We
moral or good, immoral or evil, or indifferent. can express our love to God if we help and love
● It is important to remember that there are our neighbor.
actions which are intrinsically evil, i.e., even ● An objectively evil act can never become good
when performed with a good intention remain to in spite of good motive. The end does not justify
be evil. the means. Just like the story of Robinhood who
● Judging the morality of an act does not depend steals from the rich to give to the people may
on the act alone. To understand the totality of sound heroic, however, his good intention will
the morality of a certain act also depends on the never make his evil action be judged as good.
intention of the agent and the circumstances that Passing an examination definitely is a
define the action. worthwhile end, but if you cheat in order to pass
will never be deemed praiseworthy.
b. Intention (finis operantis) ● An objectively evil act may become more evil.
→ The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes An evil act with an evil intention will make the act
intention, thus: doubly evil, in the same manner as, a good act
● In contrast to the object, the intention resides in with a good intention will be judged doubly good.
the acting subject.
 For example you lie just to intentionally cover up ● Error
your fault. ○ Error, False Judgment or conviction.
○ Arises from deficient education, bad
c. Circumstance company or misleading information. One
● Circumstances, including the consequences, are is not responsible for the consequences
secondary elements of a moral act. of error made in good faith.
● They contribute to increasing or diminishing the ● Inattention
moral goodness or evilness of the human acts. ○ Refers to momentary deprivation of
● Circumstances themselves cannot change the insight. If attention is completely lacking,
moral quality of acts themselves; they can make there is no human act.
neither good nor right an action that is in itself
evil.” Impairments to free consent
● Circumstances are conditions that affect the ● Passion
morality of the action of an agent. A certain ○ Passion or concupiscence
circumstance may aggravate, mitigate or even ○ Movement of the sensitive appetite that
negate the responsibility of an agent toward precedes the free decision of the will;
his/her actions. Movement of the sensitive appetite
● Circumstance of Person (Who). The “subject or which is moved by the good or evil
the person who does or receives the action.” apprehended by imagination.
● Circumstance of Place (Where). The setting or ● Fear and Social Pressure
place where the agent performs an action. ○ Mental trepidation due to an impending
● Circumstance of Time (When). The time of the evil. It is fear of the senses and not
action performed. intellectual fear which is one of the
● Circumstance of Manner (How). The way the passions, (e.g., threat of torture)
agent manages to do his act. ○ The emotion of fear, which completely
● Circumstance of Means (By what means). darkens the mind or paralyses the will
“Although man’s intention may be normally excuses from imputability.
good, if the means of attainting the end are illicit ● Violence
or unlawful, his acts are immoral.” ○ Compulsive influence brought to bear
● Circumstance of Thing. The special quality of upon a one against his will by some
the direct object of the act. extrinsic agent.
○ There is imputability except in so far as
4. IMPEDIMENTS TO MORALITY the inner will may have consented or
→ Impediments to human freedom are realities with external resistance have fallen shortof
which ethics and jurisprudence must reckon concerning the degree necessary and possible in
the morality of the human act: the circumstance.
● Dispositions and Habits
Impairments of required knowledge ○ Facility and readiness in acting in a
● Ignorance certain manner acquired by repeated
○ Ignorance is lack of knowledge about a acts.
thing in a being capable of knowing. ○ Deliberately admitted habits, Opposed
○ Ignorance is divided as: habits.
■ Invincible: Ignorance which a
man is not able to dispel by
such reasonable diligence
Completely takes away the
voluntariness of the malice and
hence its responsibility too.
■ Vincible: Ignorance that can be
dispelled by simple diligence;
Voluntary in cause; provoked by
conscious negligence or even
bad will Kinds: Simply vincible,
Supine, and Affected.