CONTACT US

Ifyouhavequestionsregardingthecontentofthismodule,pleasecontactanyofthefollowing
personsorofficesforclarification.Pleasechannelquestionstorightfulpersons/offices.

A. Professor
Name : MARICAR B. LEPORNIO, PhD
Email Address : maricar.lepornio@yahoo.com

Phone Number : +639404922293

Facebook : www.facebook.com/maricarlepornio

B. Program Head
Name : ANGEL MAE M. PONTILLO, MAED
Email Address : educprogramhead@gmail.com

Phone Number : +639956989236

Facebook : www.facebook.com/mary.virginia.94064

S.Y. 2021-2022|Education Program |Module _ Educ 306|Second Term, Second Semester Page|1
 The Marian Way
God listens to true prayers. During this trying time, we
encourage our Marians to religiously ask for the guidance of
our Almighty.

The plague dramatically breaks out borders to borders. Millions of people died, and
overwhelming numbers of infected people caused fear and panic amongst us. Let us continue to
pray and practice the Ignacian-Marian way. Together, we will survive and heal as one.
Vision Mission
Dynamic and Holistically We commit ourselves to:
developed individuals
1. promote the total formation of persons through
actively witnessing the
quality instruction and integration of activities
gospel values in the
community. 2. form vibrant, responsible community leaders
inspired by the virtues of Mo. Ignacia and imbued
with the Gospel values;

3. provide development programs for the acquisition

of appropriate skills, promotion of positive attitudes
and enhancement of personal discipline;

4. foster the development of multiple and holistic

competencies to ensure work effectiveness.

GOAL STATEMENT

St. Mary’s College is a Catholic School that is an instrumentality of the Congregation of the
Religious of the Virgin Mary that aims to provide within its community of students and
personnel Catholic values. Its goal is to provide an educational program and environment
animated by Catholic doctrine, beliefs, teachings, traditions, and practices, the exercise of
which is protected by, among others, Article III, Section 5 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
In order for us to approximate our vision and live our mission, we dedicate to produce
graduates who are God-fearing, capable of independent learning and critical thinking,
enabling them to respond successfully by continuing education in a technologically advanced
world and to serve the society, promoting justice and peace and protecting the youth against
harassment and immorality.

QUALITY POLICY

We, at the St. Mary’s College, commit to provide quality Catholic Ignacian Marian education
to mold students to be Ignacian Marian leaders of faith, excellence, and service wherever
they are at all times. We commit to collaboratively comply and maintain an effective quality
management system by periodically reviewing and validating the processes and services in
line with the quality objectives and standards for continual improvement.

Course Code/Name : Educ 306– The Teacher and the School Curriculum

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Course Credits : 3 Units

Course Description : This course includes the fundamental concepts and principles
in curriculum and curriculum development as a foundation to
engage prospective teachers as curricularists. It also focuses
on the more active role of the teacher in planning a
developmentally-sequenced teaching-learning process;
identifying constructively-aligned learning outcomes and
competencies; contextualizing, localizing and indigenizing
curricula; implementing relevant and responsive learning
programs; and evaluating the curriculum towards its
improvement. The teachers’ individual, collegial and
collaborative roles in managing school curriculum change vis-
àvis various contexts of teaching-learning, curricular
requirements and curricular reforms shall also be given
emphasis.

Prerequisite : None

Time Frame : Eight (8) weeks

Course Objectives/ : At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
Outcomes
1. Articulate the fundamental concepts and principles in
curriculum and curriculum development;
2.Demonstrate deep understanding of the historical
foundations of curriculum development in the Philippines;
3.Integrate appropriate learning styles, instructional
approaches in teaching-learning processes in curriculum
development;
4.Practice professional and ethical standards in adherence to
innovations in curriculum development;
5.Demonstrate research-based knowledge of the concepts,
theories and principles in curriculum and curriculum
development within and/or across curriculum teaching
areas;
6.Demonstrate skills in designing and developing
constructively-aligned and developmentally-sequenced
learning programs, experiences and instructional processes
consistent with curricular needs;
7.Demonstrate knowledge in implementing contextualized
learning programs and/or instructional plans that are
relevant and responsive to the needs of diverse learners;
8.Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are
inclusive of learners from indigenous groups;
9. Demonstrate skills in the selection and use of tools
appropriate for monitoring, critiquing and assessing
instructional plans; and seek advice concerning strategies
that can enrich teaching practice;
10. Critique the curriculum design, development, delivery, and
assessment of teacher agency and the teacher as
curricularist in general; and

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 11. Design a model curriculum responsive to the needs of the
learners in a specific level.
Course Requirements : • Major Exams
• Accomplished Worksheets
• Reflective Journals
Grading System : Quiz 30%
Performance Task 40%
Major Exam 30%
-------------
100%

CURRICULUM

Overview

DEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHERS is an instructional material in module form which complements

in 3-unit course of the New Teacher Education Curriculum. It closely approximates the content
of the course on curriculum Development as prescribed by CMO 30-s. 2004. Similar to the other
materials project, Curriculum Development for Teachers balances theory and practice. Each
module follows a distinct pattern or format with a short introductory part and
ContentFocus,activities to strengthen the focus of TakeofAction,a Reflection for Higher order
thinking and self -check for evaluation.

The course captures the essential concepts, nature and purpose as well as various
meanings, types, foundation, and approaches of curriculum. It also explains the
teachinglearning processes and curriculum development models. It includes curriculum design
models, dimension and principles of curriculum design and approaches to curriculum design. It
covers topics about the stakeholder in curriculum implementation, roles of technology in
curriculum delivery, monitoring and evaluating curriculum implementation. It also addresses
curriculum reforms enhancement, local and global as well as issues and concerns.

COURSE OUTLINE

Program : BEED/BSED Term Period : Prelim to Final

Year Level : Third Year Time Frame Eight Weeks (8)

DesiredLearningOutcomes
At the end of the term period, you will be able to:
1. define the major conceptions of curriculum;
2. analyze the nature of the curriculum;
3. discuss how the different foundations of curriculum have shaped the current
conceptions in curriculum;
4. gather information on how a school develops its curriculum to enrich teaching
practice;
5. demonstrate knowledge of curriculum planning, design and organization,
implementation, evaluation and improvement;
6. prepare developmentally sequenced lesson plans with well-aligned learning outcomes
and competencies based on curriculum requirements;

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 7. demonstrate research based knowledge on the different trends and issues on
curriculum and curriculum development;

8. demonstrate knowledge on the contextualization/ localization of the curriculum in the

implementation of relevant and responsive learning programs; and
9. demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are inclusive of learners from
indigenous groups.
Week Lesson Topics

PRELIM

Week 1-3 Lesson 1: Nature of the 1. Definition

Curriculum 2. Major Conceptions (purpose, types,
and components)
Lesson 2. Foundations of 1. Philosophical Foundations
Curriculum 2. Psychological Foundations
3. Historical-Sociological Foundations
4. Legal Foundations
MIDTERM

Week 4-6 Lesson 3. Phases and Processes 1. Curriculum Planning

of Curriculum Development a. Elements of curriculum Planning
b. Curriculum Influences
c. Process Models

2. Curriculum Design and Organization

a. Approaches in Curriculum Designing
b. Elements or Components of
Curriculum Designing
c. Types or Models of Curriculum
Design

3. Curriculum Implementation
a. Change Processes
b. Institutionalization
c. Role of Technology D. Stakeholders
in Curriculum
Implementation

4. Curriculum Evaluation
a. Reasons for Evaluation
b. Types of Evaluation
c. Evaluation Models

5. Curriculum Innovation
a. Approaches to Curriculum
Innovation
FINAL

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Week 7-8 Lesson 4. Trends and Issues on 1. Researches on Curriculum Development
(local)
Curriculum and Curriculum
2. Researches on Curriculum Development
(foreign/international)
Development 3. Contextualization of the Curriculum
4. Curriculum Indigenization
5. Curriculum Localization

MY TIMELINE
April 9 , 2022 May 13 , 2022
Distribution of Module Submission of: Worksheets
(Soft Copy) ( Lesson 3)
Midterm Exam

April 22 , 2022 May 27 , 2022

Submission of : Worksheets Submission of : Worksheets
(Lesson 1-2) (Lesson 4) Prelim Exam Final Exam

NOTE: All exams and worksheets must be submitted individually

in hard copy directly to my office.

LESSON
1 Nature of the Curriculum

The lesson explores significant pieces of literature and theories that will help curriculum
workers, teachers and students understand basic concepts of curriculum, types of curriculum,
its purpose, and curriculum conceptions. This introductory lesson identifies the different types of
curricula that exist in the teacher’s classroom and school. Further, it describes the important
roles of the teacher as a curricularist who engage in the different facets of curriculum
development in any educational level.

Learning Outcomes:

Attheendofthelesson,itisexpectedthatyoucan:

1. define the major conceptions of the curriculum; and

2. analyze the nature of the curriculum.

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 Let ’s Discuss!

Definitions of Curriculum
• Curriculumasalistofsubjects. This definition suggests that curriculum includes the
“permanent” or the traditional subjects offered in the school curriculum.
• Curriculumaslearningexperiences.This definition includes student’s curricular and
cocurricular activities and the learning experiences they encounter inside or outside the
school.
• Curriculumasintendedlearningoutcomes. This definition includes a list of learning
competencies or standards that students should learn in school.
• Curriculum as planned learning experiences. This definition includes documents
specifying contents, objectives, or general ideas of what students should know in schools
or in a specific discipline.
• Curriculumasadiscipline.This definition has its own principles, theories, and practices.
• Curriculumascontentorsubjectmatter.This definition views curriculum as a series of
topics under each subject area.

It is important that curriculum workers have a common understanding of what

curriculum is. Their personal definition of curriculum defines the curriculum product that
they will produce. Many curriculum projects fail, and many curriculum researches appear
vague because of an unclear understanding of the field of curriculum.

Some Definitions of Curriculum by some Authors

1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes,
formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under
the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal
social competence.” (Daniel Tanner, 1980)
2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content,
learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the
desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform
society make up curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)
4. A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program
of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives,
which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practice.” (Hass, 1987)
5. It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain
so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy,
1987)
6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a
tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned
activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of
the school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)

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 7. It provides answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are most
worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them?
(Cronbeth, 1992).

The Purpose of the Curriculum

A curriculum is often identified with a set of degree requirements: “What do I have to do

to receive my degree?” But degree requirements are not themselves sufficient to define
appropriate educational goals. One might fulfill all of the College's degree requirements and yet
fail to get a good education. It would also be possible to acquire a good education but neglect
to fulfill the degree requirements. Now, we certainly do want you to fulfill all of the degree
requirements, and we will work with you to see that this happens. But you are not here
fundamentally for the purpose of completing degree requirements. If you think of your
education solely in those terms, the result will be dull and unsatisfying.

Curriculum" comes from the Latin for "course," in the sense in which one might speak of
the course of a journey. The term denotes a means rather than an end, but it suggests better
than "degree requirements" what it is to become educated. It denotes a movement from a
starting point to a destination, a movement that proceeds along some path. You are not left to
your own devices to figure out how to get from here to there. But neither is the path straight
and narrow. You will have many choices to make as you negotiate the course of your education,
but they will be informed by the experience of the faculty, who in the curriculum offer their
considered advice for your educational journey.

Types of Curricula in Schools

Have you realized that in every classroom there are several types of curricula
operating? Let us look into each one.

1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all curricula found in our schools are

recommended. For Basic Education, these are recommended by the Department of
Education (DepeD), for Higher Education, by the Commission on Higher Education
(CHEED) and for vocational education by TESDA. These there government agencies
oversee regulate Philippine education. The recommendations come in the form of
memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines. Other professional organizations or
international bodies like UNESCO also recommend curricula in schools.
2. WrittenCurriculum. This includes document based on the recommended curriculum.
They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional
guides among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher’s lesson plan.

Examples of this type of curriculum are:

- The Kindergarten Curriculum Standards
- The K-12 Curriculum
- CHED Memorandum Order
- TESDA Modules and Competencies

A most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic Education.

3. Taughtcurriculum. From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to be
implemented or taught. The teacher and the leaners will put life to the written
curriculum. The skill of the teacher to facilitate learning based on the written

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 curriculum with the aid of instructional materials and facilities will be necessary. The
taught curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher and the
learning style of the learners.
4. SupportedCurriculum. This is described as support materials that the teacher needs
to make learning and teaching meaningful. These include print materials like books,
charts, posters, worksheets or non-print materials like Power Point presentation
movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups and other electronic illustrations.
Supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning occurs outside or inside
the four-walled building. These include the playground, science laboratory,
audiovisual rooms, zoo, museum, market or the plaza. These are the places where
authentic learning though direct experience occur.
5. AssessedCurriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find
out if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the process of
teaching and at the end of every lesson or teaching episode, an assessment is made.
It can either be assessment for learning, assessment as learning or assessment of
learning. If the process is to find the progress of learning, then the assessed
curriculum is for learning, but if it is to find out how much has been learned or
mastered, then it is assessment of learning. Either way such curricula is the assessed
curriculum.
6. LearnedCurriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always believe
that if a student changed behavior, he/she has learned. For Example, from a
nonreader to a reader or from not knowing to knowing or from being disobedient to
being obedient. The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning. These
are measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and
critical thinking and lifelong skills.
7. Hidden/ImplicitCurriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a
great impact on the behavior of the leaner. Peer influence, school environment,
media, parental pressures, societal changes, cultural practices, natural calamities, are
some factors that create the hidden curriculum. Teachers should be sensitive and
aware of this hidden curriculum. Teachers must have good foresight to include these
in the written curriculum in order to bring to the surface what are hidden.
8. Implementedcurriculum. This type refers to the actual implementation of the
curriculum or what teachers in the school teach. In many cases, teachers modify and
improve their curriculum based on the needs of the students or whatever there are
new ideas in various disciplines that are important to teach to their students.
9. Achievedcurriculumorlearnedcurricular.This refers to the result of the curriculum or
what students actually learned in school. The achieved curriculum reveals whether
the students learned or whether the schools are successful in attaining their
curriculum goals and objectives.
10. Testedcurriculum. This is a set of learning that is assessed in teacher-made
classroom tests, curriculum-referenced tests, and in standardized tests.
11. Entitlementcurriculum.This refers to what the people or the general society believes
learners should expect to learn in the educational system for them to become good
members of the society.
12. Supportedcurriculum.This refers to the curriculum that is reflected on and shaped
by the resources allocated to support or deliver the official curriculum.
13. Nullorcensoredcurriculum.This refers to various curriculum contents or topics that
must not be taught to the students.

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 In every Teachers classroom, not all these curricula may be present at one time. Many
of them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, supported, assessed and
learned curricula. However, a hidden curriculum is implied and a teacher may or may not be
able to predict its influence in learning. All of these have significant role on the life of the
teacher as a facilitator and have direct implication to the life of the learners.

Curriculum Conceptions
Curriculum workers have different ideas about curriculum matters and curriculum development
processes.
1. Academicrationalistconception – considered as the oldest among the curriculum
conceptions. It stresses the importance of different bodies of knowledge, known as
disciplines or subject areas, as the focus of the curriculum.
2. Cognitiveprocessesconception– seeks to develop a repertoire of cognitive skills that are
applicable to a wide range of intellectual problems. The subject matters are instruments
or tools for developing these cognitive skills that are lasting in the lives of individuals.
3. Humanisticconception– stresses the idea that curriculum or education is an instrument
for developing the full potentials of individuals. It seeks to help individuals discover and
develop their unique identities.
4. SocialReconstructionistconception – views the school or schooling as an agency for
social change. Hence, it stresses that curriculum should respond to the different needs,
issues, and demands of the society.
5. Technologicalconception– is preoccupied with the development of means to achieve
curriculum or educational goals. It views schooling as a complex system that can be
analyzed into its constituent components.
6. Eclecticconception– is where curriculum workers find themselves aligning their ideas
with two or more curriculum conceptions. This curriculum conception reiterates the
realities in curriculum development that each of the curriculum conceptions is to be
considered and is influential to a certain extent in designing the curriculum.

Some Points of View of other Curricularists

Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person point of view, this
has added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However, when put together, the different
definitions from diverse pointy of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever
changing.

Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to
the persons philosophical, psychological or even psychological orientations. These views can
also define what a curriculum is all about.
Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur
Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

- Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of

grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are
emphasized. The 3Rs (*Reading, Writing, ‘rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic
education whole liberal education should be the emphasis in college.

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 - Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes the mission of the school should be
intellectual training; hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual
disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should include mathematics,
science, history and foreign language.
- Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the
subject areas such a Science, mathematics, social studies, English and many more.
On college, academic disciplines are labeled humanities, sciences, languages,
mathematics among others. He coined the word disciplines as a ruling doctrine for
curriculum development.
- Philip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which
comes from various disciplines.

Collectively from the traditional view of theories like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor and
Phenix curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum is highly academic
and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological and social
issues. From a traditional view curriculum is mostly written documents such
syllabus, course of study, books and references where knowledge is found but it is
used as a means to accomplished intended goals.

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study a specific
discipline does not make a curriculum. In this broadest term, a progressive view of curriculum is
the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how curriculum is defined from
a progressive point of view.

- John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means

that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.
- Holin Caswell and Stanley Shore viewed curriculum as all experiences children
have under the guidance of teachers.
- Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan shore likewise defined curriculum
as a sequence of potential experiences a set up in schools for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
- Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by
the students.
The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a
person’s philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in a summary.

CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, a set of subjects a content, a program of

studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses. A set of performance objectives everything
that goes within the school. It is what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the
teacher, everything planned by school, a series of experiences undergone by learners in school
or what individual learner experiences of the learner under the guidance of the teacher.
The Teacher as a Curricularist

A person who is involved in curriculum knowing, writing, planning, implementing,

evaluating, innovating, and initiating may be designated as curricularist. A TEACHER’S role is
broader and inclusive of other functions and so a teacher is a curicularist.

So what does a TEACHER do to deserve the label curricularist? Let us look at the
different roles of a teacher in the classroom and in the school. The classroom is the first place of

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curricular engagement. The first school experience sets the tone to understand the meaning of
schooling through the interactions of learners and teachers that will lead to learning. Hence,
curriculum is the heart of schooling.

Let us describe the teacher as a curricularist

The teacher as a curricularist…..

1. Knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a

learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter or the
content. As a teacher, one has to master what are included in the curriculum.
It is acquiring academic knowledge both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal
(derived from experiences, vicarious and unintended). It is mastery of the
subject matter.(knower)
2. Writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge
concepts, subject matter or content. These need to be written or preserved.
The Teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides
and reference materials in paper or electronic media as a curriculum writer or
reviewer. (writer)
3. Plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of
the teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will
serve as a guide in the implementation o0f the curriculum. The teacher takes
into consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These factors
include the learners, the support material, time, subject matter or content, the
desired outcomes, the context of the learner among others. By doing this, the
teacher becomes a curriculum planner.(planner)
4. Initiates the curriculum. In cases where the curriculum is recommended to
the school from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other educational
agencies for improvement of quality of education, the teacher is obliged to
implement. Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open mindedness
of the teacher and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance learning.
There will be many constraints and difficulties in doing things first or leading,
however, a transformative teacher will never hesitate to try something novel
and relevant.(initiator)
5. Innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an
excellent teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence it keeps on changing.
From the content, strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of
evaluating, kinds of students and skills of teachers, one cannot find a single
eternal curriculum that would perpetually fit. A good teacher, therefore,
innovates the curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum innovator.
(innovator)
6. Implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or
written will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As
mentioned previously, at the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is this role
where the teacher becomes the curriculum implementer. An implementer gives
life to the curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of an engagement with
the learners, with support materials in order to achieve the desired outcomes.
It is where teaching, guiding, facilitating skills of the teacher is expected to the
highest level. It is where teaching as a science and as an art will be observed.
It is here, where all the elements of the curriculum will come into play. The

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 success of a recommended, well written and planned curriculum depends on
the implementation. ( implementer)
7. Evaluates the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired outcomes
have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired
results? What do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are there are
some practices that should be modified? Should the curriculum be modified,
terminated or continued? These are some few questions that need the help of
a curriculum evaluator. That person is the teacher. (evaluator)

The seven different roles are those which responsible teacher does in the
classroom every day! Doing this multi-faceted work qualifies a teacher to be a
curricularist.

Three ways of approaching a curriculum

Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as

content, a process or an outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the
field, there are three ways of approaching a curriculum. First, is to approach it as contentor a
body of knowledge to be transmitted. Seconds, is to approach it as a product or the learning
outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a processor what actually happens in
the classroom happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practiced.

1. Curriculum as a content or Body of Knowledge

It is quite common for traditionalist to equate a curriculum as a topic outline,
subject matter or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a book. For example,
a primary school mathematics curriculum consists of topics on addition,
multiplication. Subtraction, Division, Distance, Weight and more. Another
example is in secondary school science that involves the study of biological
science. Textbooks tend to begin with biological science such are plants and
animals, physical science with the physical elements, force and motion, earth
science with the layers of the earth and environmental science with the
interaction of the biological and physical science and earths phenomena, climate,
vegetation followed by economic activities such as agriculture, mining, industries,
urbanized and so forth.

If curriculum is adequate as content then the focus will be the body of

knowledge to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method.
There can be likelihood that teaching will be limited to the acquisition of facts,
concepts and principles of the subject matter; however, the content or subject
matter can also be taken as a means to an end.

All curricula have contended regardless of their design or models. The fund of
knowledge is the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man
from the explorations of the earth and as a product of research. In most
educational setting, curriculum is anchored on a body of knowledge or discipline.

There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum, these
are:
1. Topic approach, where much content is based on knowledge and
experiences are included;

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 2. Concept approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and
subconcepts and their interaction with relatedness emphasized.
3. Thematic approach as a combination of concepts that develop conceptual
structures and
4. Modular approach that leads to complete units of instruction.
Criteria in the selection Of Content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge subject matter.
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2009)

1. Significance. Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and

generalization that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if
content becomes the means of developing cognitive, affective o psychomotor skills of
the learner. As education is a way of preserving culture, content will be significant when
this will address the cultural context of the learners.
2. Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge becomes
obsolete with the fast changing times. Thus there is a need for validity check and
verification at a regular interval becomes content which may be valid in its original form
may not continue to be valid in the current times.
3. Utility. Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are
going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past
but may not be useful now or in the future. Questions like: will I use this in my future
job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter be
useful in solving current concerns?
4. Learnability. The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences
of the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of the learners. This is
based on the psychological principles of learning. Appropriate organization of content
standards and sequencing of content are two basic principles that would influence
learnability.
5. Feasibility. Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources
available expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of
learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Are
there opportunities provided to learn these?
6. Interest. Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the content
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the
learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.

The selection of the subject matter or content aside from the seven criteria mentioned
earlier may include the following guide in the selection of the CONTENT.

Guide in the selection of content in the curriculum

1. Commonly used in the daily life

2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration
5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

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Basic Principles of Curriculum Content

In 1952, Palma proposed the principle of BASIC as a guide in addressing CONTENT in

the curriculum. B.A.S.I.C. refers to Balance, articulation, sequence, integration and continuity.
In organizing content or putting together subject matter these principles are useful as a guide.
Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will guarantee that
significant contents should be conveyed to avoid too much or too little of the contents needed
within the time allocation.

Articulation. As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels vertically or
horizontally across the same discipline smooth connection or bridging should be provided. This
will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness in the content is desired gaps and
can be assured if there is articulation in the curriculum. Thus, there is a need of team among
writers and implementers of the curriculum.

Sequence. The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order. This can be
done vertically for deepening the content or horizontally for broadening the same content. In
both ways the pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is
current to something in the future.

Integration. Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It has some ways
of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should infuse in other disciplines
whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified view of curriculum instead of
segmentation. Contents which can be integrated to other disciplines acquire a higher premium
than when isolated.

Continuity. Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was before, to
where it is now and where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It endures time.
Content may not be in the same form and substance as seen in the past since changes and
developments in curriculum occur. Constant repetition, reinforcements and enhancement of
content are all element of continuity.

2. Curriculum as a Process

We have seen the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other hand it can
also be approached as a process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing or a noun at
also a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content. As a
process curriculum happens in the classroom as the question asked by the teacher and the
learning activities engaged in by the students. It is an active process with emphasis on the
context in which the processes occur. Used in analogy of the recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is
the content while the ways of cooking is the process.

Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not a

package of materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The classroom is only part of the
learning environment where the teacher places action using the content to achieve an outcome.
Hence the process of teaching and learning becomes the central concern of teachers to
emphasize critical thinking, thinking meaning –making and heads-on, hands-on doing and any
others.

As a process, curriculum links to the content. While content provides materials on what
to teach, the process provides curriculum on how to teach the content. When accomplished, the
process will result to various curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection of the

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content and process is called the Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK. It will address the
question: if you have this content, how will you teach it?

This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where
learning experience is derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of
curriculum is understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum, how the contents will
be communicated and learned will be addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin: instruction,
implementation, and teaching. These three words connote the process in the curriculum. When
educators ask teachers: what curriculum are you using? Some of the answers will be: 1.
Problem-based 2. Hands-on, Minds-on 3. Cooperative learning 4. Blended Curriculum 5. On-line
6. Case-based and many more. These responses approach curriculum as a process. These are
the ways of teaching, ways of managing the content, guiding learning, methods of teaching and
learning and strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of these, there are activities and
actions that every teacher and learner do together or learners are guided by the teacher. Some
of the strategies are time tested traditional methods while others are emerging delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies is means to

achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the
desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners desire to develop the cognitive,
affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described
as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. Effective
processes will always results to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the implementation of
the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a product

Besides viewing, curriculum as content that is to be transmitted or process that gives

action using the content. It has also been viewed as a product. In other word, product is what
the students desire to achieve as a learning outcomes.

The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and
values to function effectively and efficiently. The real purpose of education is to bring about
significant changes in students pattern of behavior. It is important that any statement of
objectives or intended outcomes of the school should be a statement of changes to take place
in the students. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioral objectives as intended
learning outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching method may be organized
and the results evacuated. Products of learning are operationalized as knowledge, skills and
values.

Curriculum product is expressed in form of outcomes which are referred to as the

achieved learning outcomes. There may be several desired learning outcomes, but if the

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process is not successful, then no learning outcomes will be achieved. These learned or
achieved learning outcomes arte demonstrated by the person who has meaningful experience in
the curriculum. All of these are result of planning, content and processes in the curriculum.
Elements of a Curriculum
In general, a curriculum has four important elements. These elements must be present
in all curriculum documents or before a document can be called curriculum.

1. Curriculumintent– the direction that curriculum developers wish to go to as a result

of participating in the curriculum. It includes the aims, goals and objectives found in
any curriculum document.
• Aims – broad statements of social or educational expectations. It includes
what is hoped to be achieved by the total curriculum.
• Goals– are general statements of what concepts, skills, and values should be
learned in the curriculum.
• Objectives– it includes specific concepts, skills, and values that should be
learned by the students. Usually are used in making decisions or planning
about instruction.
2. Content – includes the different topics to be learned or covered in a curriculum.
These topics are based on the curriculum intents.
3. Learningexperiences – include all instructional strategies that are useful for the
implementation of the curriculum. These may appear in the form of activities,
strategies, methods, or approaches that are useful in implementing the curriculum or
in teaching the content.
4. Evaluation– includes the different ways and tools used for evaluating whether or not
the curriculum intent was realized and also used to evaluate the performance of the
learners after they have undergone the curriculum.

Hilda Taba (1962) observed that all curricula, no matter what their particular design, are
composed of certain elements.
• A curriculum usually contains a statement of aims and specific objectives
• It indicates some selection and organization of content

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 • It either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching whether
because the objectives demand them or because the content organization
requires them.
• It includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes.
Understanding the different elements of curriculum will help curriculum workers
especially the teachers in designing curriculum and in analyzing the different curriculum
materials that are offered to schools and students.

Processing Your Knowledge

Answer the following questions briefly?

1. Is it necessary for teachers to learn about school curriculum? Why?

2. What are the benefits and possible pitfalls of having an official curriculum prescribed
to all schools?

Check Your Progress

Do the following tasks.

1. List examples of the following:

a. null or censored curriculum.
b. hidden curriculum.
2. Browse the internet and compare DepEd Basic Education Curriculum before and
during pandemic.
3. Provide examples of curriculum content and learning experiences. Examine their
relationship.
WORKSHEET
Name : Lesson No. 1

Program/Year Level : Module No.: 1

ProcessingYourKnowledge 1.

S.Y. 2021-2022|Education Program |Module _ Educ 306|Second Term, Second Semester Page|18
2.

CheckYourProgress

1.

2.

3.

Parent’s /Guardian’s Full Name and Signature

S.Y. 2021-2022|Education Program |Module _ Educ 306|Second Term, Second Semester Page|19
 LESSON
Foundations of Curriculum
2
Curriculum development is anchored on a very solid foundation. Although considered to
be a new discipline, its significance in the light of global developments has now been
acknowledged. This lesson discusses the different foundations that influences the school
curriculum.

Learning Outcomes:

Attheendofthelesson,itisexpectedthatyoucan:

1. discuss how the different foundations of curriculum have shaped the current conceptions
in curriculum; and
2. gather information on how a school develops its curriculum to enrich teaching practice.

Let ’s Discuss!

Curriculum development scholars generally identified categories of sources for

curriculum foundations: (1) studies of learners and learning theory (psychology); (2) studies
of life (sociology and anthropology); (3) studies of the nature and value of knowledge
(philosophy); and (4) legal aspect. These foundations influence curriculum developers in
framing different curriculum conceptions and in developing curriculum.

Philosophical Foundations

The curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the

teaching and learning process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum will be organized to
achieve students’ learning at the optimum level and what amount of information they can
absorb in learning the various contents of the curriculum.

Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or
strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teacher’s
classroom or learning environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like: what
are schools for? What subject is important? How should students learn? What methods should
be used? What outcomes should be achieved?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy.
John Dewey influenced the use of “learning by doing” he being a pragmatist. Or to an
essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of reading, Writing and arithmetic are essential
subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education. Below are those presented by Orstein and
Hunkins in 2004.
A. Perennialism

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 - Aim : to educate the rational person; cultivate intellect
- Role: teachers assist students to think with reason ( critical thinking HOTS)
- Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring
- Trends: use of great books (Bible, Koran, classics) and liberal arts

B. Essentialism
- Aim: to promote intellectual growth of leaners to become competent
- Role: teachers are sole authorities in the subject area
- Focus: essential skills of the 3R’s; essential subjects
- Trends: Back to Basics, excellence In education, cultural literacy.

C. Progressivism
- Aim: promote democratic social living
- Role: teacher leads for growth and development of life log learning’s
- Focus: interdisciplinary subjects. Learners-centered outcome based
- Trends: equal opportunities for all. Contextualized curriculum. Humanistic education

D. Reconstructivism
- Aim: to improve and reconstruct society. Educational for change
- Role: teachers acts as an agents of change and reforms
- Focus: present and future educational landscape
- Trends: school and curricular reform,global education, collaboration
and convergence, standards and competencies.

Historical-Sociological Foundations

The history of one’s country can affect its educational system and the kind of curriculum.
If we trace the curriculum’s formal beginning, we get back in time to Franklin Bobbit’s book
entitled “The Curriculum,” published in 1918. From Bobbit’s time to Tyler, many developments
in the purposes, principles, and contents of the curriculum took place. Let us see how each one
contributed to curriculum development during his own time. Here are some examples among
the many, we consider to have great contributions.

 Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

 He started the curriculum development movement.
 Curriculum is a science that emphasizes students’ needs.
 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
 Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified.

 Werret Charters (1875-1952)

 Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes students’
needs.
 Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to
objectives.

 William Kilpartick (1875-1952)

 Curricula are purposeful activities which are child centered.
 The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. He introduced
this project method where teacher and student plan the activities.

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  Curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction.
 Harold
Rugg (1886-1960)
 Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered.
 Withe the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum
should produce outcomes.
 Emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in
advance.

Among the major foundations of curriculum development, the sociological theory

emphasizes the influence of society to education. It is founded on the belief that there is a
mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because it exists within
the societal context.Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, other units
of society educate or influence the way people think, such as families and friends, and
communities. Since society is dynamic, many developments are difficult to cope with and adjust
to. But the schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one’s country
but in the world as well.

Curriculum bring about social change and social factors have an influence on curriculum.
A country, like Pakistan, may teach Islamic literature as a part of school curriculum, but a
secular country like India can’t teach any religious literature.

Therefore, schools must be relevant by making their curriculum more innovative and
interdisciplinary. A curriculum that can address global learners’ diversities, the explosion of
knowledge through the internet, and the educational reforms and policies recommended or
mandated by the United Nations.

However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a curriculum that
reflects and preserves its culture and aspirations for national identity. No matter how far people
go, it is the country’s responsibility to ensure that the school serves its purpose of educating the
citizenry.

Psychological Foundations

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies
elements of the learning process. Let us review some theories in learning related to
psychological foundations.

The following are some other psychological theories in learning, highlighted by other
psychologists that served as major foundations of curriculum development:

1. Behaviorism

Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the
subject matter is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The
use of drills and repetition are common.

For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it as mechanical and routine.
Though many are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the influences it had on our
educational system.
2. Cognitivism

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Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their
thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:

• How do learners process and store information?

• How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?  How much
information can they absorb?

With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills
and popularize reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, and
others.

3. Humanism

Humanism is taken from Gestalt’s theory, Abraham Maslow’s theory, and Carl Rogers’
theory. This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential.

In this theory, the curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal
needs, not on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental
situations. In short, curriculum views founded on humanism posits that learners are human
beings who are affected by their biology, culture, and environment. They are neither machines
nor animals.

Other psychologists and their contributions to learning.

 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

 He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory, the Stimulus-Response
(S-R) Theory.
 The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want them
to become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination.

 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

 He championed the Connectionism Theory.
 He proposed the three laws of learning:
 Law of readiness
 Law of exercise
 Law of effect
 Specific stimulus has specific response

 Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

 Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity
 Keys to learning
 Assimilation (incorporation of new learning)
 Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation
 Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning)
Legal Foundations

The education sector (along with other government agencies) has the task of
contributing to the achievement of national development goals espoused in the country’s

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development plan. The general purpose and goals of education in the Philippines have been
cited in the national constitution. Section 3(2), Article XIV of the Constitution states that:

All educational institutions shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of
humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical
development of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and
spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative
thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency.

The 1982 Education Act identifies the aims of both elementary and secondary education.
For elementary education, the aims are: (a)to provide the knowledge and develop the skills,
attitudes and values essential to personal development and necessary for living in and
contributing to a developing and changing social milieu; (b) to provide learning experiences
which increase the child’s awareness of and responsiveness to the changes in and just demands
of society and to prepare him/her for constructive and effective involvement; (c) to promote
and intensify the child’s knowledge of, identification with, and love for the nation and the people
to which he/she belongs; and(d) to promote work experiences which develop the child’s
orientation to the world of work and creativity and prepare him/her to engage in honest and
gainful work.

The regional level basic education aims and objectives reflect those at the national level,
but are modified to suit local conditions and concerns. For secondary education the aims are:(a)
the provision of general education that was started at the elementary level; and(b) the
preparation of students for college and/or the world of work.

Curriculum policies are usually set forth by the Department of Education, Culture and
Sports through various orders, circulars, memorandums and bulletins. They are aligned with
national priorities and contribute to the achievement of development goals.

Processing Your Knowledge

Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Why should I take history, philosophy, psychology or even PE subjects in college?
2. Why is it that the Department of Education is implementing K to 12 and the mother
tongue-based curriculum?

Check Your Progress

Do the following tasks.

1. Research on the Historical Timeline of Philippine Curriculum through the Years.

Construct a timeline and explain how the changes in curriculum through the years
were influenced by the different foundations of curriculum.

2. Conduct research and identify the significant contributions of the following.

a) Lev Vygotsky
b) John Dewey
c) Abraham Malow

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 d) Carl Rogers
WORKSHEET
Name : Lesson No. 2

Program/ Year Level : Module No.: 1

ProcessingYourKnowledge
1.

2.
CheckYourProgress 1.

S.Y. 2021-2022|Education Program |Module _ Educ 306|Second Term, Second Semester Page|25
2.

Parent’s /Guardian’s Full Name and Signature

S.Y. 2021-2022|Education Program |Module _ Educ 306|Second Term, Second Semester Page|26
 LESSON
Phases and Process es of Curriculum Development
3
Curriculum is a dynamic process involving many different people and procedures. Development
connotes changes which is systematic. In curriculum development, there are always changes
that occur that are intended for improvement. This lesson provides information on the process
of curriculum planning as an important phase of curriculum development.

Learning Outcomes:

Attheendofthelesson,itisexpectedthatyoucan:

1. demonstrate knowledge of curriculum planning, design and organization,implementation,

evaluation and improvement; and
2. prepare developmentally sequenced lesson plans with well -aligned learning outcomes
and competencies based on curriculum requirements.

Let ’s Discuss!
A change for the better means alteration, modification or improvement of existing
condition. To produce positive changes development should be purposeful, planned and
progressive. Usually it is linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following
phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design, and curriculum implementation and curriculum
evaluation. Generally, most models involve four phases. To do this, there are models presented
to us from well-known curricularist like Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, Galen Saylor and William
Alexander which would help clarify the process of curriculum development.

1. Curriculum Planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also includes the
philosophy or strong education belief of the school. All of these will eventually be
translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.
2. Curriculum Designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection
and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or
activities and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved
learning outcomes. A curriculum design includes the resources to be utilized and the
statement of the intended learning outcomes.
3. Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the
curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The teacher is the
facilitator of learning and together with learners, uses the curriculum as design guides to
what will transpire in the classroom with the need in the view of achieving the intended
learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place. It involves
the activities that transpire in every teachers classroom becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcome has been
achieved. This procedure is ongoing as in finding out the progress of learning (formative)
or the mastery of earning (summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the
factors that have hindered and supported the implementation. It will also pinpoint where
improvement can be made and corrective measures, introduced. The results of evaluation
are very important for decision making of curriculum planners, and implementers.

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Curriculum Planning and its Elements

Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subjectmatter,society, and

learners. It is important to understand the nature of the subject matter in order to provide
knowledge and skills that are essential to the nature of the discipline.

It is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of the society in developing a

curriculum. This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs, demands and problems of
the society and the available resources that can utilized in the development and implementation
of the curriculum.
Understanding the nature of the learners is also important in curriculum development.
The learners are the direct subject of the school curriculum, hence, making the learners as one
of the curriculum sources is important in selecting the learning experiences for the curriculum.

Society as Source of Curriculum

Teachers need to understand the culture, socio-economic, and political conditions of the
people. Understanding the context is important in developing a relevant and responsive
curriculum. It is useful in selecting curriculum goals and objectives, content, and learning
experiences.
There are many changes in the society that need to be considered in developing the
curriculum. Science and technology continue to influence our everyday life as new science
findings come every day. The new world economy also has its own issues and demands.

Developing cultural understanding and sociocultural consciousness among the learners

is becoming a necessity. Other pressing social issues like climate change, poverty and many
others also affect our everyday life.

Educators and schools face the challenge whether to simply respond to the needs and
demands of the society or to have education through its curriculum to develop or create the
kind of society that we wish to have.

Learner as Source of Curriculum

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum. Although
the curriculum content is set by the DepEd, CHED, and TESDA, educators and curriculum
developers have tried to align the curriculum to the needs and nature of the students.

Students come from different contexts, have different cultures, languages, learning
styles, needs, socio-economic status and educational background. For these, students as major
source of curriculum are supported by several curriculum scholars and are well represented in
their curriculum development models.

Discipline or Subject Matter as source of Curriculum

Understanding the nature of the discipline or subject matter requires educators to closely
analyze the contents prescribed by the DepEd especially the K-12 Curriculum. The curriculum
framework, goals, descriptions, standards, and competencies in different subjects will help
educators understand what should be taught and how to teach the different subjects.

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 The CHED also prescribes guidelines in different courses. Several curricular innovations
and changes set by the government were considered and strictly followed. The curricular
requirements that include course title, credit and course description are based on CHED
Memorandum Orders.
TESDA also prescribes different contents of the modules offered for each particular
subject for vocational or technical courses. The skills that should be learned including the
materials needed and the time that is required for training are clearly specified in each module.

Curriculum Influences
Curriculuminfluencesrefers to these three factors that are very influential in curriculum
development: external,internal, and organizational.These influences affect the whole academic
plan that incorporates a total blueprint for action, including the purposes, activities, and ways of
measuring success.

External Influences
Society/Government
Discipline Associations
Marketplace/Alumni

Organizational Influences
Program Relationships Academic
Plan
Resources

Internal Influences
Faculty, Students, Discipline
and Program Mission

Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the different

factors that need to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides the sources of data
and information for developing curriculum. Knowing them is useful in making the curriculum
more relevant and responsive to the educational system of the Philippines.
A research on curriculum influences by Pawilen (2011) identified several curriculum
influences that they always consider whenever they plan, design, develop, revise and evaluate
the curriculum:
 Students
The students are considered as the most influential among the different curriculum
influences especially in designing the implemented curriculum. Teachers believe that the
students could learn more if their interest and learning styles are considered when planning
their courses. Students come from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations,
beliefs, language, and socio-economic status. Many teachers observe during their classes that

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student’s backgrounds, especially their demographic characteristics, influence their attitudes and
performance toward learning. Thus students bring with them their culture in the school.
For college, the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum
planning. As students took up their basic education in either public or private schools in their
provinces, their academic skills and learning habits differ from those of the city.
 School’s Vision, Mission, and Core Values
They are the fundamental bases in developing the curriculum goals and objectives,
content, learning experiences, and evaluation. They are also reflected in the planned,
implemented, and hidden curriculum of the school. All faculty members are required to reflect
this type of education in their teaching, lesson plans, and in the syllabus. They are reflections of
what the institution can contribute to the society and the development of individuals.
 Admission and retention Policies and School Rules
These policies set the standard of what kind of students are admitted and what are the
things they need to do as students of the institution until they graduate. School rules are set to
give order and provide smooth implementation of the curriculum.
 Faculty Members
Faculty members bring with them their educational background, experiences, expertise,
and personal, professional, and political views on the institution. In basic education, teachers
take the role of a second parent to their students. They are not only seen as models of a highly
ethical life, students and other people also see them as intellectuals in various subject areas.

In the college level, teachers are seen experts in their fields. They are expected to know
more about their subjects. The academic freedom allows them to modify and plan their syllabi
based on their expertise and researches.

Teachers are the key implementers of the curriculum. They need to be empowered to
make curricular ad instructional innovations in their own schools. They are expected to be
experts in the content of the subjects they teach. They should also be experts in pedagogy.

 School Administrators
School administrators including the board of trustees, play an important role in providing
curriculum leadership in schools, colleges, and universities. Apart from setting and approving
rules for the school, they administer the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the
curriculum. The administrators then serve as the curriculum and instructional leaders. Their
abilities and skills as curriculum leaders and managers are essential in curriculum development,
implementation, and evaluation.

 Accrediting Agencies
Like the DepEd and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary standards for
curriculum, instruction, faculty and facilities, and influence how the curricular programs are
governed. Accrediting agencies determine the quality of the courses being offered in an
institution.

Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the Association of Christian Schools,
Colleges, and Universities Accrediting Agency Incorporation (ACSCU-AAI), Philippine Accrediting
Association of Schools, Colleges, and Universities (PAASCU), and the Accrediting Agency for
Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP). They are in charge for

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evaluating the quality of education for each member institution based on criteria set by the
accrediting agency.
 Government Policies and Agencies
In basic education, the DepEd issues Department Orders and memoranda that serve as
guide for all public and private schools in the country. DepEd also prescribes the official
curriculum for basic education and issues the guidelines for operations for private schools.

For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum orders, prescribes
the minimum general education and professional courses, course credits, and course
descriptions to be taken by the students. CHED also prescribes the faculty qualifications,
facilities, and other requirements for the implementation and administration to the courses.
 Market Demands
It is imperative that students are prepared in terms of knowledge, values, and skills to
meet the needs and demands of different institutions in the society. For example, graduates are
expected to develop or possess 21 st century skills. Schools are expected to develop graduates
that can be assets and good citizens of the society.
 Alumni
They are very helpful in terms of donating money for supporting programs for students,
faculty scholarships, professional chairs, school facilities, and financing students’ activities.
Besides financial help, their evaluation feedback based on their previous experiences as
students are very useful information for improving the implemented curriculum of the school.
They are the living testimony of the curriculum of the quality of education offered by a
particular school.
 Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT)
The presence of technology, especially the internet, enables the students and teachers
to access almost all the information from online journals and papers they need for teaching and
learning. Technology connects the school to the global community.

ICT not only changes the landscape of the schooling, it is also changing how the courses
are planned and implemented, especially how the content of the curriculum will be put together.
Computers, LCD projectors, Internet facilities, and other forms of technology are made available
for instructional purposes in the school.
 The Church and Church-related Agencies
For religious schools, the different religious orders and the church play an important role
in school. The schools offer institutional requirements such as Bible subjects, theology, and
Christian living subjects. These subjects are required to all students. Religious schools also offer
retreats, chapel services, and other religious activities to their students.
 School Facilities and Other Resources
School facilities like classrooms, libraries, laboratories, ICT equipment, dormitories,
school clinics, guidance office, canteen, chapel for sectarian schools, and laboratories are very
useful in providing quality education, especially in implementing the curriculum.
 School Services
 Campusministry– helps in spiritual nourishment of the students in sectarian schools
 Guidanceandcounselingservices – provides professional help to students with
various personal and psychological concerns
 Healthservices – responds to various health – related concerns of the students
through a clinic with full-time health workers

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  Financialassistanceandscholarships – provides financial assistance to deserving
students
 StudentsAffairsOffice– guides the students in organizing activities and provides all
forms of support for academic and personal development of the students in the
school
Responding to these curriculum influences helps workers and developers in planning,
developing and implementing a relevant and responsive curriculum for different learners and
schools. Moreover, when evaluating a curriculum, these curriculum sources and influences are
the ones that are looked into and reviewed.

Curriculum Development Process Models 1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles

Also known as Tyler’s Rationale, the curriculum development model emphasizes the
planning phase. The linear models of curriculum development prescribe a rational step-by-step
procedure for curriculum development starting with objectives.
This is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and instruction. He posited
four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the following questions:

1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain?

2. What educational experience can be provided that are likely to attain these
purpose?
3. How can this educational experience be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
Tylers model show that in curriculum development, the following consideration should be made:

1. Purpose of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experience 4. Evaluation of the experience

Figure 3.1 Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model

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2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model. She believed that teachers should
participate in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach, Taba begins
from the bottom, rather than from the top as what Tyler proposed. She
presented seven major steps to her linear model which are the following:
1. Diagnosing of learners need and expectation of the larger society.
2. Formulation of learning contents
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experience
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing.

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as

consisting of four steps. Curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning
opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for
an identifiable population served by a single school center”.

1. Goals, objective and Domains. Curriculum planners begin by specifying the

major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplished. Each
major goal represents a curriculum domain: personal development, human
relations, continued learning skills and specialization. The goals, objectives and
domains are identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation
standards, and views of the different stakeholders.
2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate
learning opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will
the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according
to student’s needs and interest along themes? These are some of the question
that needs to be answered at this stage of the development process.
3. Curriculum implementation. A designed curriculum is now ready for
implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans where instructional
objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are
utilized to achieve the desired learning outcome among students.
4. Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum models evaluation. A comprehensive
evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It should
involve the total educational programmed of the school and the curriculum plan,
the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of the students. Through
the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine
whether or not the goals of the school and the objective of instruction have been
met.

4. Standard-based Curriculum Development Model

This model was developed by Allan Glatthorn intended for developing curriculum
standards for any discipline from basic education to higher education. The model is rational
and descriptive, stressing on the development of standards as the first activity in curriculum
development. The model recognizes the importance of using multiple sources in developing
curriculum standards. This model also recognizes teacher’s input in development of standards,

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 which are often neglected in curriculum projects in the Philippines because of the top-down
approach to curriculum development and implementation.
Another important feature of Glatthorn’s model is its relevance and applicability in any
educational institution in developing curriculum standards for various courses. The linear nature
of Glatthorn’s model is also one of its weaknesses.

In Glatthorn’s model, developing curriculum standards is a separate activity from the

overall curriculum development process. This makes the model incomplete. The model should
recognize that developing curriculum standards is an integral part of the curriculum
development process. This model does not include situational analysis nor needs analysis.
While the model specified the development of standards using multiple sources, it
cannot replace the important function of situational analysis in curriculum development process.
Situational is helpful in understanding the context in which the curriculum is developed.

5. Understanding by Design Model (UbD)

Developed by Wiggins and McTighe (2002). It has become a byword in the Philippine
educational system because it was used to design the current basic education curriculum. The
model is also called backward design for putting emphasis on starting with the goals and
objectives in designing curriculum. The model puts emphasis on designing curriculum to engage
students in exploring and deepening their understanding of important ideas and the design of
assessments.

Stage 1 includes what students should know, understand, and be able to do. It also asks
the questions about what is worthy of understanding and what enduring understandings are
desired for the learners. Stage 2 calls for designing assessment evidence for documenting or
validating whether the desired learning has been achieved. Stage 3 includes planning learning
experiences that are useful in implementing the curriculum. In this stage, teachers decide on
the type of activities that the students will do and the materials that will be needed for the
planned activities.

The UbD model is prescriptive and rational, focusing on the development of goals as the
starting point of the curriculum development process. UbD’s advocacy of planning for authentic
assessment before planning learning experiences is essential in connecting the assessment with
the goals and learning experiences of the curriculum.

Stage 1: Identify
desired results

Stage 2: Determine Stage 3: Plan the

learning
acceptable evidence.
experiences and
instruction.

6. Systematic Design Model

The model was developed by Robert Diamond (1960’s). The model has two basic phases:
(1) project selection and design; and (2) production, implementation, and evaluation. Like the
previous models, it follows a linear process of curriculum development.

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 The Systematic Design model is prescriptive and rational. It presents a systematic and
linear view of curriculum development. As shown in its first phase, some curriculum influences
and sources are also acknowledged in the process of curriculum development.

The model relies heavily on data; therefore, it is important to gather necessary

information before proceeding to each of the processes. The second phase of the model allows
curriculum workers to design for the production and implementation of the curriculum and on
the importance of the evaluation of instructional materials to ensure the smooth implementation
of the curriculum.

Similar to the weaknesses of linear models, Diamond’s model ends in Phase II. It
assumes that the product, which is the curriculum, is final and good as planned. There is no
provision where curriculum workers can review their actions and decisions in relation to the
factors identified in Phase I.

The model, if applied in the Philippines, will probably be difficult to adapt because of the
lack of research culture in our education institutions. Having a research culture among faculty
members can improve the way higher education curricula are planned.

All models utilized the process of (1) curriculum planning, (2) curriculum designing, (3)
curriculum implementing and (4) curriculum evaluating.

Curriculum Design and Organization

Curriculumdesign refers to the arrangement of elements of a curriculum. The four
elements of a curriculum are the aims, goals, and objectives; subject matter or content;
learning activities; and evaluation. In many books, curriculum design is used interchangeably
with curriculum organization. Posner (1997) classified the activity of arranging curriculum
elements or contents into two:

• Macrolevel deals with the arranging or organizing the total curriculum from the
philosophy down to the contents of different subjects.
• Microlevelon the other hand deals with organizing the content of a specific subject
or discipline.
The macro level of arranging the elements and contents of the curriculum can be
referred to as functionofcurriculumdesignwhile the micro level is a functionofcurriculum
organization. It is important to note that curriculum organization is based on the curriculum
design.

A curriculum as a planned sequence of learning experiences should be at the heart and

mind of every teacher. Every teacher as a curricularist should be involved in designing a
curriculum. In fact, it is one of the teachers’ roles as a curricularist. As such, you will be a part
of the intellectual journey of your learners. You will be providing them the necessary
experiences that will enable the learner what you intend them learn.

As a curriculum designer this task was not given much attention in the past. Every single
day, a teacher designs a lesson or utilizes a curriculum that has been made and was previously
written. Designing a curriculum is a very challenging task. It is here where the style and

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creativity of the teacher come in. Thus this module will provide the necessary concepts and
activities that you as a teacher can refer to as you prepare yourself to be a curriculum designer.

Approaches to Curriculum Design

How will a particular design be approached by the teacher? After writing a curriculum
based on the specific design, let us see how a teacher will approach this. We will find out the
utilization of the example design.

Child or Learner-Centered Approach. This approach to curriculum design is based

on the underlying philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of the educational
process. It means that the curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and
abilities of the learners. The curriculum is also built upon the learners’ knowledge, skills,
previous learnings and potentials.
From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be approached? Let us consider
these principles.

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child. 2. Make all activities
revolve around the overall development of the learner.
2. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
3. Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching.
4. Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for all the learner.

The child-centered approach is illustrated in the example below:

School X is anchored on the theory of multiple intelligences in all its curricular and
cocurricular activities. Every classroom provides activity centers where children can learn on
their own with the different learning resource materials. Learners can just choose which
learning center to engage in with different resources. This arrangement allows for the
capacity of every learner to be honed. It also allows learning how to learn, hence will develop
independence. The teacher acts as guide for every learner. The learner sets the goal that can
be done within the frame of time.

Subject-Centered Approach. This is anchored on a curriculum design which

prescribes separate distinct subjects for every educational level: basic education, higher
education or vocational-technical education. This approach considers the following principles:

1. The primary focus is the subject matter.

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher’s role is to dispense the content.

Example of subject-centered approach is given below.

In another setting, School Y aims to produce the best graduates in the district. Every
learner must excel in all academic subjects to be on top of every academic competition. The
higher the level of cognitive intelligence is, the better the learner. Hence the focus of learning
is mastery of the subject matter in terms of content. Every student is expected to be always

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on top in terms of mastery of discipline. Memorization, and drill are important learning skills.
The school gives emphasis to intellectual development, and sets aside emotional,
psychomotor and even value development. Success means mastery of the content.

Problem-Centered Approach. This approach is based on a design which assumes

that in the process of living, children experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the
learners to become increasingly able to achieve complete or total development as individuals.

This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs:

1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving problems, thus
developing every learner to be independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct
participation in different activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in seeking
solutions. Learners are problem solvers themselves.
Example of the problem-centered approach is presented below.

School Z believes that a learner should be trained to solve real life problems that come
about because of the needs, interests and abilities of the learners. Problems persistent in life
and society that affect daily living are also considered. Most of the school activities revolve
around finding solutions to problems like poverty, drug problems, climate change, natural
calamities and many more. Since the school is using a problem-based design, the same
approach is used. Case study and practical work are the teaching strategies that are utilized.
Problem-centered approach has become popular in many schools.

We have given examples of curriculum design and the corresponding approaches. Again,
the choice of the design is influenced by philosophical and psychological beliefs of the designer.
It is very important that as a curricularist, you will be able to understand the different design
models and how to approach each one.

Building on Peter Oliva's 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers

Before a teacher designs a curriculum, it would be of great importance to connect to the

fundamental concepts and ideas about the curriculum mentioned in Modules 1 and 2. Every
curriculum designer, implementer, or evaluator should take in mind the following general
axioms as a guide in curriculum development (Oliva, 2003):

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable. Earlier it was stated

that one of the characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. Because of this,
teachers should respond to the changes that occur in schools and in its context. Societal
development and knowledge revolution come so fast that the need to address the
changing condition requires new curriculum designs.
2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should respond to changes
brought about by current social forces, philosophical positions, psychological principles,
new knowledge, and educational reforms. This is also called timeliness

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 3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer
curriculum changes. A revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often,
curriculum is gradually phased in and phased out, thus the changes that occur can
coexist and oftentimes overlap for long periods of time.
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change.
Teachers who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its development,
hence should know how to design a curriculum. Because the teachers are the
implementers of the curriculum, it is best that they should design and own the changes.
This will ensure an effective and long lasting change.
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in some
aspects of curriculum development are suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when
possible will add to a sense of ownership. Even learners should participate in some
aspect of curriculum designing. Any significant change a the curriculum should involve a
broad range of stakeholders te gain their understanding, support, and input.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of
alternatives. A curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach,
philosophy or point of view to support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what
methods or strategies, and what type of evaluation to use.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous monitoring,
examination, evaluation, and improvement of curricula are to be considered in the
design of the curriculum. As the needs of learners change, as society changes, and as
new knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must change.
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process,
rather than a “piecemeal”. A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan,
should clearly establish intended outcomes, support resources and needed time available
and should equip teaching staff pedagogically.
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic
process. A curriculum design is composed of desired outcomes, subject matter content
complemented with references, set of procedures, needed materials and resources and
evaluation procedure which can be placed in a matrix.
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is. Curriculum
planners and designers should begin with existing curriculum. An existing design is a
good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a curriculum.

Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how to design a curriculum by
identifying its components. For most curricula the major components or elements are answers
to the following questions:

1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes)

2. What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter)
3. What learning experiences and resources should be employed? (Teaching-Learning
Methods)
4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved
Learning Outcomes)

Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design

There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a syllabus, or
a lesson plan. Some would call it a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is the name of the

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design, the common components for all of them are almost the same. However some schools,
institutions or departments may add other minor parts or trimmings to the design.

Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. A lesson plan or teaching guide
includes (1) Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO)
formerly labelled as behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or Content, (3) Teaching and
Learning Methods, and (4) Assessment Evaluation. Each of these components or elements is
described below.

I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the
reasons for undertaking the learning lesson from the student’s point of view; it is desired
learning outcome that is to be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in by the
learners under the guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the
learning journey is the learning outcomes to be achieved. In this way, both the learner and the
teacher are guided by what to accomplish.

The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes or desired learning outcomes are
expressed in action words found in the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives (Andersen and
Krathwohl, 2003) for the development of the cognitive skills. For the affective skills, the
taxonomy made by Krathwohl and for the psychomotor domain by Simpson.
The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result oriented and
Time bound. For a beginner, it would help if you provide the Condition, Performance and Extent
or Level of Performance in the statement of the intended earning outcomes.

For example, if a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of a simple flower as
stated in the desired learning outcomes, then students should have identified the parts of a
simple flower, at the end of the lesson.

Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes is used to refer to the anticipated results
after completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it is good practice
to:

• Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do. For
example, rather than stating Students will be able to explain the reason why… it should
be: ‘Students must have explained the reasons why…’ This helps students to focus on
what they have to achieve as learning. It will also help curricularist devise appropriate
assessment tasks.
• Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive objectives
(learning facts, theories, formulae, principles etc.) and performance outcomes (learning
how to carry out procedures, calculations and processes, which typically include
gathering information and communicating results). In some contexts, affective outcomes
are important too (for developing attitudes or values, e.g. those required as a person
and for a particular profession).

II. Content/Subject Matter

The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be covered. In
selecting content, you should bear in mind the following principles in addition to those
mentioned about the content in previous lessons:

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 • Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An effective
curriculum is purposive and clearly focused on the planned learning outcomes.
• Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit. An effective
curriculum is progressive, leading students towards building on previous lessons.
Contents which are too basic or too advanced for the development levels of learners
make students either bored or baffled, and affect their motivation to learn.
• Subject matter should be up to date and, if possible, should reflect current knowledge
and concepts.

III. References
The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been
taken. The reference may be a book, a module, or any publication. It must bear the author of
the material and if possible, the publications. Some examples are given below.

1. Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary

Conservation and Environmental Education Program. Council of Environmental
Education, Bethesda, MD

2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An Introduction to Physical Science.

Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston MA

3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Course. Lorimar Publishing

Inc.
Quezon City
4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). The Teaching Profession 2 nd Ed.
Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to keep in
mind the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures, laboratory classes,
fieldwork etc.) and make them learn. The teaching-learning methods should allow cooperation,
competition as well as individualism or independent learning among the students. For example:

• Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are guided to
learn on their own to find solutions to their problems. The role of the teachers is to
guide the learners. Democratic process is encouraged, and each one contributes to the
success of learning. Students learn each other in ways. Group projects and activities
considerably enhance the curriculum.
• Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility. The
degree of independence to learn how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is more
appropriate for fast learners.
• Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another in a
healthy manner allow learners to perform to their maximum. Most successful individuals
in their adult life are competitive, even in early schooling. They mostly become the
survivors in a very competitive world.
• The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is recommended.
Online learning and similar modes are increasingly important in many curricula, but
these need to be planned carefully to be effective.

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 V. Assessment/Evaluation
Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive
information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by which this
information is generated is assessment. It has three main forms:

• Self-assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own
learning. This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to
produce graduates who are appropriately reflective and self-critical.
• Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning. This can
be viewed as an extension of self-assessment and presupposes trust and mutual
respect.
Research suggests that students can learn to judge each other’s work as reliably as staff.
• Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives
feedback on the student’s performance.
Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or
summative (expressing a judgment on the student’s achievement by reference to stated
criteria). Many assessment tasks involve an element of both, e.g. an assignment that is marked
and returned to the student with detailed comments.

Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or grades. This helps the
teacher make decisions about the progress or performance of the students.

Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of their work
than by knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this reason, summative assessment tasks
(including unseen examinations) should include an element of formative feedback, if possible.

Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs

While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a mini curriculum,
similar components will also be used in making a syllabus for teaching higher education courses
or other curricular projects. Based on the curriculum models we have learned, the fundamental
components include the following:

Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus

1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)

2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

All other additional components are trimmings that each designer may place. This additional
part may be an institutional template, suggested by other curriculum experts and as required by
educational agencies like the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education,
Accrediting Agencies, Professional Organizations that would serve the purposes they intend to
achieve.

Different Curriculum Designs

Print (1988) classified the different curriculum designs in four groups.
1. Subject-centereddesigns.Majority of the curricula used in schools are arranged or
organized in terms of subject. The subject-centered designs are classified into four
specific designs:

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 a. Subjectdesign. The subjects are organized in a fragmented manner.
Connections between and among these subjects are not emphasized in the
subject design. Instead, the nature of the subject is highlighted to provide
students with a general knowledge of each subject.

b. Academicdisciplinesdesign.This type of design is mostly used in high school

or in college. The contents are highly specialized especially in the college
level.

c. Integrateddesign. This curriculum design is based on the principle that

learners learn in an integrated manner. Thus, this type tries to merge two or
more related subjects. There are three types of integration:
i. Interdisciplinary– includes the merging of two related disciplines or
subjects. An example is the integration of Science and Health. One needs
science knowledge in order to understand health concepts. ii.
Multidisciplinaryorbroadfield – include the integration of three or more
related disciplines. An example is the Social Studies curriculum. This subject
integrates Civics, History, Geography, and Economics. iii. Core– requires
that all subjects be put together using single theme. Usually this type is
used in preschool where subjects are combined using curriculum themes.
2. Learner-centereddesigns.Focus on the needs, nature, and interests of the learners
in the curriculum. The aim of these designs is to develop the potentials and abilities
of the learners and to make the curriculum relevant and responsive to them.
a. Activity/experience design. This concentrates on activities that are
meaningful and interesting to the learners. Learners will develop skills like
process skills, communication skills, problem-solving skills, critical-thinking
skills, and creativity that are important for the learners.
b. Humanistic design. The curriculum composed of topics and learning
experiences that focus on the holistic development of an individual. Its goal is
the development of a well-rounded individual.
3. Problem-centereddesigns. These curriculum designs focus on understanding and
finding solutions to individual and social issues and problems.
a. Thematicdesign.This design suggests the thematic approach to integration.
Almost all models advocate this approach. The only difference is the main
focus of the theme.
b. Problemdesign. The learners are exposed to different lessons in problem
solving involving real-life problems. The learners are exposed to some
practical situations or issues that are important to them and to their
community.
4. Corelearningdesigns.These curriculum designs focus on learning a set of common
subjects, disciplines, courses, skills, or knowledge that is necessary for students to
master. It aims to provide a uniform type of education based on a certain philosophy
or educational theory. It also aims to develop a habit of mind or cultivate the critical
and creative thinking of students that they can employ in their everyday life.
a. Coredesign.This is a set of common subjects, disciplines, or courses that are
required for students to study before they graduate or move to a different
level.

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 b. Nationalcorecurriculumdesign.This is a set of subjects or courses that are
required to be taught to all students across the country.

Things to Consider in Designing Curriculum

There are two major forces considered in designing curriculum.
1. Horizontalorganization– often referred to as scope and horizontal integration that is
considered with the arrangement of curriculum components at any point in time. It
focuses on establishing relationship and integration among subjects areas in the
elementary or secondary curriculum.
2. Verticalorganization – focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum contents. It
focuses on the distribution of curriculum contents from Kindergarten to Grade 12. . This
enables teachers to focus on developing students’ mastery of the content by examining
prerequisite knowledge and skills in learning.

Curriculum Implementation
As a teacher, this is one of the major roles that you do in the school. Many of the
curricula that you use may have been recommended and written down. Your task is to
implement such. Daily your plan should be ready for implementation. The success of learning
depends on your implementation effort.

There is a miniscule curriculum like your lesson plan, or a big one like the K to 12
curriculum. You will be both an implementor and a manager of these curricula. You will put
action to what has been planned and designed. It is you, a teacher, who will add more meaning
to the various activities in the classroom. This is what we call teaching styles. You have to make
the day of the learners interesting, engaging and unforgettable. No curriculum should stop at
planning or designing phase. It has to be implemented.

Following the curriculum models of Tyler, Taba, Saylor and Alexander or Lewis, is the
next step to curriculum designing which is curriculum implementing. This is the phase where
teacher action takes place. It is one of the most crucial processes in curriculum development
although many education planners would say: “A good plan is work half done.” If this is so,
then the other half of the success of curriculum development rests in the hands of the
implementor who is the teacher.

Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum that has
been designed in syllabi, course of study, curricular guides, and subjects. It is a process wherein
the learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are aimed at
enabling the same learners to function effectively in society. (SADC MoE Africa, 2000)

Ornstein and Hunkins in 1998 defined curriculum implementation as the interaction

between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the persons (teachers) who are
in charge to deliver it. To them, curriculum implementation implies the following:

• Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum.

• Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes of the persons involved.  Change in behavior
using new strategies and resources.
• Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable.

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 Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as the trying out of a
new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a school system. It simply means that
implementation should bring the desired change and improvement.

In the classroom context, curriculum implementation means “teaching” what has been
written in the lesson plan. Implementing means using the plan as a guide to engage with the
learners in the teacher-learning process with the end in view that learning has occurred and
learning outcomes have been achieved. It involves the different strategies of teaching with the
support instructional materials to go with the strategy.

In a larger scale, curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into operation
with the different implementing agents. Curriculum implementation takes place in a class, a
school, a district, a division, or the whole educational system. In higher education, curriculum
implementation happens for the course, a degree program, the institution, or the whole higher
education system. It requires time, money, personal interaction, personal contacts, and support.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Kurt Levin (1951), the father of social psychology explains the process of change. The
model can be used to explain curriculum change and implementation.

In the education landscape, there are always two forces that oppose each other. These
are the driving force and the restraining force. When these two forces are equal, the state is
equilibrium, or balance. There will be a status quo, hence there will be no change. The situation
or condition will stay the same. However, when the driving force overpowers the restraining
force, then change will occur. If the opposite happens that is when the restraining force is
stronger than the driving force, change is prevented. This is the idea of Kurt Levin in his Force
Field Theory.

We shall use this theory to explain curriculum change. The illustration below shows that
there are driving forces on the left and the resisting forces on the right. If look at the illustration
there is equilibrium. If the driving force is equal to the restraining force, will change happen?
Do you think, there will be curriculum change in this situation? Why?
Driving Force E Restraining Force
Government Intervention Q Fear of the Unknown
Society’s Values U Negative Attitude to Change
Technological Changes I Tradition Values
Knowledge Explosion L Limited Resources
Administrative Support I Obsolete Equipment
B
R
I
U
M
According to Levin, change will be better if the restraining forces shall be decreased,
rather than increasing the driving force. As a curricularist, how would you do this?

Let us look first at the different changes that occur in the curriculum. It is important to
identify these as part of our understanding of curriculum implementation.

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Categories of Curriculum Change

McNeil in 1990 categorized curriculum change as follows:

1. Substitution. The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one.

Sometimes, we call this a complete overhaul. Example, changing an old book to entirely
new one, not merely a revision.
2. Alteration. In alteration, there is a minor change to the current or existing curriculum.
For example, instead of using a graphing paper for mathematics teaching, this can be
altered by using a graphing calculator.
3. Restructuring. Building a new structure would mean major change or modification in
the school system, degree program or educational system. Using an integrated
curriculum for the whole school for K to 12 requires the primary and secondary levels to
work as a team. Another example is a curriculum that will be restructured when there is
a significant involvement of parents in the child’s instead of leaving everything to the
teacher. Using the “In-school Off-school” or a blended curriculum is an example of
restructuring.
4. Perturbations. These are changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to
them within a fairly short time. For example, if the principal changes the time schedule
because there is a need to catch up with the national testing time or the dean, the
teacher has to shorten schedule to accommodate unplanned extra curricular activities.
5. Value orientation. To McNeil, this is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps this
classification will respond to shift in the emphasis that the teacher provides which are
not within the mission or vision of the school or vice versa. For example, when new
teachers who are recruited in religious schools give emphasis on academics and forget
the formation of values or faith, they need a curriculum value orientation. Likewise, all
teachers in the public schools, undergo teacher induction program which is a special
curriculum for newly hired teachers.

Regardless of the kind of change in curriculum and implementation, the process of

change may contain three important elements. As a process, curriculum implementation should
be developmental, participatory and supportive.

It should be developmental in the sense that it should develop multiple perspectives,

increase integration and make learning autonomous, create a climate of openness and trust,
and appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher. There should be teacher support in trying
new tasks, reflection on the new experiences and challenge.

There are simple stages in the developmental change process for the teachers. First, is
orientation and preparation. The initial use is very mechanical or routinary. However, as the
skills are honed and mastery of the routine is established, refinement follows. This means
adjustments are made to better meet the needs of the learners and achieve the learning
outcomes. In this step, there will be continuous reflection, feedback and refinement.

Participatory. For curriculum implementation to succeed, it should be participatory,

specially because other stakeholders like peers, school leaders, parents and curriculum
specialists are necessary. Characteristics of teacher styles, commitment, willingness to change,
skills, and readiness are critical to implementation. This should be coupled with organizational
structure, principal style, student population characteristics and other factors. Trust among key
players should also be sought as this is a positive starting point. Involvement and participation
encourage sense of ownership and accountability. Participation builds a learning community
which is very necessary in curriculum implementation.

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 Supportive curriculum implementation is required in the process of change. Material
support like supplies, equipment and conductive learning environment like classrooms and
laboratory should be made available. Likewise, human support is very much needed. The school
leader or head should provide full school or institutional support to the implementation of the
new curriculum. They too have to train to understand how to address curriculum change as part
of their instructional as well as management functions.

Time is an important commodity for a successful change process. For any innovation to
be fully implemented, period of three to five years to institutionalize a curriculum is suggested.
Time is needed by the teachers to plan, adapt, train or practise, provide the necessary
requirements and get support. Time is also needed to determine when the implementation
starts and when it will conclude, since curriculum implementation is time bound.

Support from peers, principals, external stakeholders will add to the success of
implementation. When teachers share ideas, work together, solve problems, create new
materials, and celebrate success, more likely that curriculum implementation will be welcomed.

Implementing a Curriculum Daily in the Classroom

Before the class begins everyday, a teacher must have written a lesson plan. The main
parts of a lesson plan are (1) Objectives or Intended learning outcomes (ILO), (2) Subject
Matter (SM), (3) Procedure or Strategies of Teaching, (4) Assessment of learning outcomes
(ALO) and (5) Assignment or Agreement

I. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO). These are the desired learning that will be the focus
of the lesson. Learning outcomes are based on Taxonomy of Objectives presented to
us as cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Bloom’s Taxonomy has revisited by his
own student Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl. Let us study both in the
comparison below.
Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) Revised Bloom’s by Anderson (2001)
Evaluation Creating
Synthesis Evaluating
Analysis Analyzing
Application Applying
Comprehension Unserstanding
Knowledge Remembering
Somehow the two are similar, however the highest level of cognition in the revised
version, is creating. Take note that the original version is stated as nouns while the revised
version is stated as verbs which implies more active form of thinking.

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy: A Quick Look

There are three major changes in the revised taxonomy. These are:

a. Changing the names in the six categories from nouns to verbs.

b. Rearranging these categories.
c. Establishing the levels of the knowledge level in the original version.

Let us study the cognitive categories with the example key words (verbs) for each in the
new version of Bloom’s Taxonomy that follow.

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 In writing objectives or intended learning outcomes, it is always recommended that
more of the higher order thinking skills (HOTS) should be developed and less of the low level
thinking skills (LOTS) for learners. The low level categories will develop LOTS and thinking skills
progress as the categories move higher.

Another revision is the expansion of the concept of Knowledge which was not given
emphasis nor discussed thoroughly before.

Levels of Knowledge

1. Factual knowledge - ideas, specific data or information

2. Conceptual knowledge - words or ideas known by common name, common features,
examples which may either be concrete or abstract. Concepts are facts that interrelate with
each other to function together.

3. Procedural knowledge - how things work, step-by-step actions, methods of inquiry.

4. Metacognitive knowledge – knowledge of cognition in general, awareness of knowledge

of one’s own cognition, thinking about thinking.

Intended learning outcomes (ILO) should be written in a SMART way. Specific,

Measurable, Attainable, Result Oriented (Outcomes) and Time Bound.

I. Subject Matter or Content. (SM) comes from a body of knowledge (facts, concepts,
procedure and metacognition) that will be learned through the guidance of the teacher.
Subject matter is the WHAT in teaching. In a plan, this is followed by the references.
II. Procedure or Methods and Strategies. This is the crux of curriculum
implementation. How a teacher will put life to the intended outcomes and the subject
matter to be used depends on this component.

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 Let’s take a closer view. How will you as a teacher arrange a teaching-learning situation
which will engage students to learn? Here are some points to remember.

The Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum

Instructional media may also be referred to as media technology or learning technology,

or simply technology. Technology plays a crucial role in delivering instruction to learners.

Technology offers various tools of learning and these range from non-projected and
projected media from which the teacher can choose, depending on what he sees fit with the
intended instructional setting. For example, will a chalkboard presentation be sufficient in
illustrating a mathematical procedure; will a video clip be needed for motivating learners?

In the process, what ensues is objective-matching where the teacher decides on what
media or technology to use to help achieve the set learning objectives.

Factors in Technology Selection

In deciding on which technology to use from a wide range of media available, the factors
on which to base selection are:

1. Practicality. Is the equipment (hardware) or already prepared lesson material (software)

available? If not, what would be the cost in acquiring the equipment or producing the
lesson in audial or visual form?
2. Appropriateness in relation to the learners. Is the medium suitable to the learners’ ability
to comprehend? Will the medium be a source of plain amusement or entertainment, but
not learning?
3. Activity/suitability. Will the chosen media fit the set instructional event, resulting in
either information, motivation, or psychomotor display?
4. Objective-matching. Overall, does the medium help in
achieving the learning objective(s)?

The Role of Technology in Curriculum Delivery

It can easily be observed that technological innovation in the multifarious fields of

commerce, science and education, is fast developing such that it is difficult to foresee the
technological revolution in the millennium, inclusive of educational changes. For certain,
however, technological changes in education will make its impact on the delivery of more
effective, efficient and humanizing teaching-and learning.

But presently, we can identify three current trends that could carry on to the nature of
education in the future. The first trend is the paradigm shift from teacher-centered to
studentcentered approach to learning. The second is the broadening realization that education
is not simply a delivery of facts and information, but an educative process of cultivating the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and much more the contemplative intelligence of the learners
of a new age. But the third and possibly the more explosive trend is the increase in the use of
new information and communication technology or ICT.

Already at the turn of the past century, ICT, in its various forms and manifestations has
made its increasing influence on education, and the trend is expected to speed up even more
rapidly. Propelling this brisk development is the spread of the use of the computer and the
availability of desktop micro-computers affordable not only to cottage industries, businesses,
and homes but also to schools.

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 For now, the primary roles of educational technology in delivering the school
curriculum’s instructional program have been identified:

• Upgrading the quality of teaching-and-learning in schools

• Increasing the capability of the teacher to effectively inculcate learning, and for
students to gain mastery of lessons and courses

• Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through non-traditional

approaches to formal and informal learning, such as Open Universities and lifelong
learning to adult learners

• Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational paradigm shifts that give
importance to student-centered and holistic learning.

Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

1. Learners are at the core of the curriculum.

To what extent are the students involved in curriculum development? The old view that
students are mere recipients of the curriculum, now changing. Learners have more dynamic
participation from the planning, designing, implementing and evaluating. However, the degree
of their involvement is dependent on their maturity. The older they are in high school or college,
the more they participate. From another angle, whether learners are in the elementary or
college level, they can make or break curriculum implementation by their active or
noninvolvement. After all, learners together with the teachers, put action to the curriculum.

At the end of the curriculum development process, the fundamental question asked is:
Have the students learned?

When some college students were asked about their role in curriculum development,
here are their answers.

Student1:Ineverrealizethatasastudent,Ihaveaparticipationincurriculumdevelopment.
Itistruethatasstudents,ourlearningisthebasisofthesuccessorfailureofthecurriculum.
Forexample,ifallofuspasstheboardexamination,itmeansthattheteachereducation
curriculumisasuccess.

Student2:Inhighschoolourteacherswouldalwayslookintowhatwearelearning.The
wholeyearround,wehavevariedcurricularandco-curricularactivitiesinsidetheclass.I
think,weasstudents,shouldbeconsideredinwritingthecurriculum.

Student3:Whenwewereintheelementarylevel,ourlessonswereverysimple.Butnow
thatweareincollege,thecontentwelearnhasbecomecomplicated.Ilearnedthatactually,
ourcurriculumisspiral,andthatthedifficultyofthesubjectmatterisalsoadjustedtoour maturitylevel.

Why do curricularists place of lot of premium on the students? Is because, the learners
make the curriculum alive. A written curriculum that does not consider the students, will have a
little chance to succeed.

2. Teachers are curricularists.

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 Teachers are stakeholders who plan, design, teach, implement and evaluate the
curriculum. No doubt, the most important person in curriculum implementation is the teacher.
Teachers’ influence upon learners cannot be measured. Better teachers foster better learning.
But teachers need to continue with their professional development to contribute to the success
of curriculum implementation. Teachers should have full knowledge of the program philosophy,
content and components of curriculum and ways of teaching.

A teacher designs, Enriches and modifies the curriculum to suit the learners’
characteristics. As curriculum developers, teachers are part of textbook committees, teacher
selection, school evaluation committee or textbooks and module writers themselves.

When a curriculum has already been written, the teacher’s role is to implement like a
technician, however, teachers are reflective persons. They put their hearts into what they do.
They are very mindful that in the center of everything they do, is the learner.

Some of the roles that the teachers do in curriculum implementation are:

1. Guiding, facilitating and directing the activities of the learners;

2. Choosing the activities and the methods to be utilized; 3. Choosing the materials that
are necessary for the activity,
3. Evaluating the whole implementation process, and
4. Making a decision whether to continue, modify or terminate the curriculum.

All these roles are very crucial to achieve success in the implementation. Unsuccessful
implementation may even lead to educational failure.

Let us read how the teachers are viewed as curriculum implementer.

Student:Ibelievemyteachersknowverywellourcurriculum.Sheknowswhattoteachand
howtoteachitwell.Idonotmissmyclasseverydaybecausesheguidesusinallourlesson
activities.Withoutourteacher,Iamnotsureifwecanlearnmorethanwhatweare achievingnow.

Teacher:Asaclassroomteacher,itismyresponsibilitytomakemystudentslearn.Ihaveto
giveactiontothewrittencurriculum.Ihavetoseetoitthatmystudentsareprovided
experiencestolearnfrom.Ikeepinmymind,howIcansustaintheinterestofmystudents
byusingteachingstrategiesthatareeffective.Attheendoftheday,Iamveryhappyto
knowthatmystudentshaveachievedtheintendedlearningoutcomes.Idothisbecauseasa
teacher,Iamacurriculumimplementer.

Truly, the teacher has a great stake in the curriculum. Curriculum planning, designing
and implementing are in the hands of a good teacher. In the educational setting, it is clear that
the teacher has a very significant role in curriculum development.

3. School leaders are curriculum managers.

Principals and school heads, too, have important roles in curriculum implementation
process in schools. They should understand fully the need for change and the implementation
process. They should be ready to assist the teachers and the students in the implementation.
Communication line should be open to all concerned should the school leaders lead in
curriculum teamwork.

Convincing the parents on the merits of the new curriculum is the job of the school
heads. They should be committed to change and should employ strategies to meet the needs of

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the teachers, and learners like buildings, books, library, and other needed resources. Let us
listen to the two school heads on how, they understand their stakes on the curriculum.

Principal:Iamaprincipalofabigcentralelementaryschool.Itispartofmyfunctiontolead
myschoolinanycurriculuminnovation.Firstofall,Imakesurethatmyteachersunderstand
therestructuringoralterationofourschoolcurriculumthatisforthcoming.Ialsocallonthe
parentstoparticipateinthechangethatwillhappenbykeepingtheminformed.Ihaveto
makesurethatmaterialsneededareavailablefortheteachersandstudentstouse.Ialways
keepinmindmyroleasaninstructionalleader.

HeadTeacher:Leadingasmallschoolinafarflungbarriohasitsprosandcons.First,there
arefewteacherstosuperviseandfewerstudentstosupport.Asaproactiveschoolhead,I
alwaysseetoitthatwekeeppacewiththechangesintheschoolcurriculum.While
preparingfortheimplementationofKto12,Irealizethatchangeprocessisinevitable.My
teachershavetoberetrained.Andtheirattitudesshouldbechanged.Iamresponsiblein
seeingtoitthatthecurriculumisimplementedasitshouldbeandattheendoftheyear,our
schoolcanshowevidencethatlearninghastakenplaceasdesignedbytheKto12
recommendedcurriculum.

4. Parents
Parents are significant school partners. Besides the students, teachers and school
administrators, play an important role in curriculum implementation. When children bring home
a homework from school, some parents are unable to help. Schools need to listen to parents’
concerns about school curriculum like textbooks, school activities, grading systems and others.
Schools have one way of engaging parents’ cooperation through Brigada Eskwela. In this event,
parents will be able to know the situation in the school. Most often parents volunteer to help.
They can also be tapped in various co-curricular activities as chaperones to children in Boy and
Girl Scouting, Science Camping and the like. Parents may not directly be involved in curriculum
implementation, but they are formidable partners for the success of any curriculum
development endeavor.

Here are two examples of how parents think of their stake in curriculum development.
Parent:Iamproudthatmychildgoestothisschool.Theteachersarehardworkingandthe
schoolheadisverysupportive.Onmypart,Ialwayscooperatewiththeschool’sconcernthat
willmakemychildlearn.IvolunteerforworkwhereIamneeded.We,parents,supportthe
BrigadaEskwelaandotherschoolactivities.Iftheycallonusparents,wealwaysanswer
theirrequest.Wealsomakesuggestionsonhow,theparentsathomecanassistinthe
learningofthechildren.

Guardian:Iamaguardian.Istandasasecondparentofmyniecesandnephew.Iknowthat
asaparent,Ishouldnotleaveentirelytotheschooltheresponsibilityofeducatingthechild.
Although,Idonotreallyknowmuchofnewcurriculum,Iwelcomethechangesthatthe
schoolismaking.Iamalwaysreadytogivesupporttoschoolconcernsofmywards.

How do parents help shape the curriculum in schools? Here are some observations.

• The school composed of parents who are positively involved in school activities have
better achievement than schools with uninvolved parents. Disciplinary problems are

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 minimal, and students are highly motivated. When parents take interest in their child’s
learning, they become closer to the school.
• The home is the extended school environment. In lifelong learning, the achieved
learning in schools are transferred at home. Thus, the home becomes the laboratory of
learning. Parents see to it that what children learn in school are practiced at home. They
follow up lessons, they make available materials for learning and they give permission
for the participation of their children.
• In most schools, parent associations are organized. This is being encouraged in School
Based Management. In some cases, this organization also includes teachers to expand
the school learning community. Many school projects and activities are supported by this
organization. This is considered as the best practice in most performing schools.

5. Community as the Curriculum Resources and a Learning Environment

“It takes the whole village to educate the child” goes the statement of former
First Lady Hillary Clinton. What do you think of this statement?

Yes, it is true that the school is in the community, hence the community is the extended
school ground, a learning environment. All the barangay leaders, the elders, others citizens and
residents of the community have a stake in the curriculum. It is the bigger school community
that becomes the venue of learning. The rich natural and human resources of the community
can assist in educating the children. The community is the reflection of the school’s influence
and the school is a reflection of the community support.

6. Other Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation and Development

Some stakeholders may not have direct influence on the school curriculum. These are
agencies and organizations that are involved in the planning, design, implementation and
evaluation of the school curriculum. To name a few, the list follows.

6.1 Government Agencies

- DepEd, TESDA, CHED- trifocalized agencies that have regulatory and mandatory
authorities over the implementation of the curricula.
- Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) and Civil Service Commission (CSC)- the
agency that certifies and issues teacher licenses to qualify one to teach and affirms and
confirms the appointment of teachers in the public schools.

- Local Government Units (LGU) include the municipal government officials and the
barangay officials. Some of the teachers are paid through the budget of the LGUs. They
also construct school buildings, provide equipment, support the professional
development teachers and provide school supplies and books. They are the big
supporters in the implementation of a school curriculum

6.2 Non-Government Agencies

Non-government agencies are organizations and foundations that have the main
function to support education. To name a few, this includes the following:

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 - Gawad Kalinga (GK) – to build communities means to include education. The full support
of GK in early childhood education is very significant. In each village, a school for pre
school children and out-of-school youth have been established

- Synergia – an organization/foundation that supports basic education to elevate

education through Reading, Science, Mathematics and English.

- Metrobank Foundation – supports continuing teacher development programs.

- Professional Organizations like Philippine Association For Teachers and Educators

(PAFTE), State Universities and Colleges Teacher Educators Association (SUCTEA),
National Organization of Science Teachers and Educators (NOSTE), Mathematics
Teachers Association of the Philippines (MTAP) and many more.

A school curriculum, whether big or small is influenced by many stakeholders. Each one
has a contribution and influence in what should replace, modify and substitute the current
curriculum. Each one has a significant mark in specific development and change process of
curriculum development.

Curriculum Evaluation
Curriculum evaluation is a component of curriculum development that responds to public
accountability. It looks into educational reforms or innovations that happen in the teacher’s
classrooms, the school, district, division or the whole educational system as well. It is
establishing the merit and worth of a curriculum. Merit refers to the value and worth of the
curriculum. Test results will only be used as one of the pieces of evidence of evaluation. For in
the end, the purpose of evaluation is to improve and not to prove.

Do you have a clear understanding of what curriculum evaluation is all about? Is it

synonymous to assessment of learning? Analysis of the various definitions reveals that
evaluation is both a process and a tool. As a process it follows a procedure based on models
and frameworks to get to the desired results. As a tool, it will help teachers and program
implementers to judge the worth and merit of the program and innovation or curricular change.
For both process and a tool, the results of evaluation will be the basis to IMPROVE curriculum.

Various curriculum scholars defined curriculum evaluation based on how they view
curriculum, the purposes of curriculum, curriculum influences, and how curriculum is
implemented:
• the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing information useful for making
decisions and judgments about curricula (Davis 1980);
• the process of examining the goals, rationale, and structure of any curriculum (Marsh
2004).
• the process of assessing the merit and worth of a program of studies, a course, or a
field of study (Print 1993);
• the means of determining whether the program is meeting its goals (Tuckman 1985);
• the broad and continuous effort to inquire into the effects of utilizing content and
processes to meet clearly defined goals (Doll 1992); and
• the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging
decision alternatives (Stufflebeam 1971).

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 Curriculum evaluation is also concerned with finding out whether the curriculum is
relevant and responsive to the needs of the society and the learners. It is a scientific and
dynamic process of understanding the merit of any curriculum.

Reasons for Curriculum Evaluation

Why is there a need to evaluate a curriculum? The curriculum processes presented by

Tyler, Taba and others at the end of the line or cycle undergo an evaluation. All of them agree
that planning, designing and implementing are less useful unless there is evaluation. Here are
some of the specific reasons,

• Curriculum evaluation identifies the strengths and weaknesses of an existing curriculum

that will be the basis of the intended plan, design or implementation. This is referred to
as the needs assessment.
• When evaluation is done in the middle of the curriculum development, it will tell if the
designed or implemented curriculum can produce or is producing the desired results.
This is related to monitoring.
• Based on some standards, curriculum evaluation will guide whether the results have
equaled or exceeded the standards, thus can be labelled as success. This is sometimes
called terminal assessment.
• Curriculum evaluation provides information necessary for teachers, school managers,
curriculum specialist for policy recommendations that will enhance achieved learning
outcomes. This is the basis of decision making.

In curriculum evaluation, important processes were evolved such as (a.) needs

assessment, (b) monitoring, (c) terminal assessment and (d) decision making.

Purposes of Curriculum Evaluation

Print (1993) identified several important purposes and functions of evaluation in school
setting:
• Essentialinprovidingfeedbacktolearners- provides useful information in helping the
students improve their performance and helps teachers identify the strengths and
weaknesses of the learners
• Helpfulindetermininghowwelllearnershaveachievedtheobjectivesofthecurriculum —
describes whether the students learned or mastered the desired outcomes and
objectives of the curriculum
• Toimprovecurriculum — the result of evaluation serves as basis for improving
curriculum and for suggesting innovations to improve learning
In addition, curriculum evaluation is also useful to administrators and teachers in many
different ways. For example:
• Evaluation helps in making decisions about improving teaching and learning processes.
• It helps in shaping academic policies.
• It guides in initiating curricular changes and innovations  It ensures quality of any
curricular program.

Conducting a curriculum evaluation is a determination of an academic institution or

school’s commitment to quality and continuous improvement. It shows how a serious a school
can be in realizing its philosophy, vision, and mission.

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Curriculum Evaluation in the Classroom
Doll (1997) asserted that the classroom in fact could be the first site of gathering
important data that will lead fo curriculum evaluation. Within the classroom, teachers and
administrators can collect data using several instruments like:
• Test results
• Anecdotal records  Checklists
• Interview guides
• Observation guides
Teachers play an important role in conducting curriculum evaluation in the classroom
level. They must be guided in gathering data from these instruments and in interpreting the
data. The results of classroom-based evaluation may help in improving instruction and in.the
effective implementation of the curriculum.

Curriculum Evaluation at School System Level

Curriculum evaluation is done mostly at school system level. This is usually done to
evaluate how the curriculum goals are attained in the macro level. At this level, the following
instruments can be used to gather data for the evaluation of the curriculum:
• Opinion polls
• Surveys
• Focus-group discussion
• Follow-up studies
The school that gather and analyse data on the implementation of the curriculum can
also do research activities.

Curriculum Evaluation Models

Curriculum models by Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba end with evaluation. Evaluation is a
big idea that collectively tells about the value or worth of something that was done.

How can a merit or worth of an aspect of a curriculum be determined? Curriculum

specialists have proposed an array of models which are useful for classroom teachers and
practitioners. Let us look at some of these.

1. Bradley Effectiveness Model

In 1985, L.H. Bradley wrote a hand book on Curriculum Leadership and Development.
This book provides indicators that can help measure the effectiveness of a developed or written
curriculum. For purposes of the classroom teachers, some of the statements were simplified.
First, you have to identify what curriculum you will evaluate. Example: Elementary
Science Curriculum, Teacher Education Curriculum, Student Teaching Curriculum, Field Study
Curriculum. Then find out if the curriculum you are evaluating answers Yes or No. Answering
Yes to all the questions means, good curriculum as described by Bradley.

2. Tyler Objectives Centered Model

Ralph Tyler in 1950 proposed a curriculum evaluation model which until now continues
to influence many curriculum assessment processes. His monograph was entitled Basic
Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.

Using all the steps to evaluate the curriculum and obtaining all YES answer would mean
the curriculum has PASSED the standards. Tyler’s model of evaluating the curriculum is
relatively easy to understand which many teachers can follow.

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 Aligned to his model to curriculum development, Tyler proposed seven steps for
evaluating a curriculum:
1. Establishment of goals and objectives
2. Classification of the objectives
3. Definition of the objectives in behavioral terms
4. Identification of situations in which achievement of the objectives could be shown
5. Selection of criterion of measurement procedures
6. Collection of data about pupil performance
7. Comparison of findings with the stated objectives
The completion of the seven stages will lead to the revision of the objectives. This
evaluation model is a cyclical type of model.

3. Daniel Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process Product Model (CIPP)

The CIPP Model of Curriculum Evaluation was a product of the Phi Delta Kappa
committee chaired by Daniel Stufflebeam. The model made emphasis that the result of
evaluation should provide data for decision making. There are four stages of program operation.
These include (1) CONTEXT EVALUATION, (2) INPUT EVALUATION, (3) PROCESS EVALUATION
and (4) PRODUCT EVALUATION. However, any evaluator can only take any of the four stages
as the focus of evaluation.

• Context Evaluation- assesses needs and problems in the context for decision makers to
determine the goals and objectives of the program/curriculum.
• Input Evaluation- assesses alternative means based on the
• Inputs for the achievement of objectives to help decision
• Makers to choose options for optimal means. Process Evaluation- monitors the processes
both to ensure that the means are actually being implemented and make necessary
modifications.
• Product evaluation- compares actual ends with intended ends and leads to a series of
recycling decisions.

4. Stake Responsive Model. Responsive model is oriented more directly to program

activities than program intents. Evaluation focuses more on the activities rather than intent or
purposes.

5. Scriven Consumer Oriented Evaluation. Michael Scriven, in 1967 introduced this

evaluation among many others when education products flooded the market. Consumers of
educational products which are needed to support an implemented curriculum often use
consumer-oriented evaluation. These products are used in schools which require a purchasing
decision. These products include textbooks, modules, educational technology like softwares and
other instructional materials. Even teachers and schools themselves nowadays write and
produce these materials for their own purposes.

Consumer-oriented evaluation uses criteria and checklist as a tool for either formative or
summative evaluation purposes. The use of criteria and checklist was proposed by Scriven for
adoption by educational evaluators.

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A Simple Way of Curriculum Evaluation Process

For a very simple and practical way of curriculum evaluation, responding to the following
questions will provide an evaluation data for curriculum decision. Just ask the following
questions and any NO answer to an item will indicate a need for a serious curriculum evaluation
process.

1. Does the curriculum emphasize learning outcomes?

2. Does the implemented curriculum require less demands?
3. Can this curriculum be applied to any particular level? (kindergarten, elementary,
secondary, tertiary levels)
4. Can the curriculum aspects be assessed as (a) written (b) taught (c) supported (d)
tested and € learned?
5. Does the curriculum include formative assessment?
6. Does the curriculum include summative assessment?
7. Does the curriculum provide quantitative methods of assessment?
8. Does the curriculum provide for qualitative methods of assessment?
9. Can the curriculum provide the data needed for decision making?
10. Are the findings of evaluation available to stakeholders?

Curriculum Evaluation Through Learning Assessment 1. Achieved Learning

Outcomes
Achieved learning outcomes is defined in outcomes based education as a product of
what have been intended in the beginning of the learning process. Indicators of the learning
outcomes which are accomplished are called achieved learning outcomes. Standards and
competencies are used as the indicators and measures of these outcomes.

Our country has established the Philippines Qualification Framework (PQF) as a standard which
will be aligned to the ASEAN Reference Qualification Framework (ARQF) for the comparability of
the learning outcomes at the different levels of educational ladder.

The Philippine Educational System is divided into eight levels. In each level, the learners
are expected to achieve specific standards and competencies of the learning outcomes. The
eight levels of complexity of learning outcomes are based on three domains.

• Knowledge, Skills and Values

• Application
• Responsibility- degree of independence

After finishing Grade 11, the learner must have achieved Level 1 of the learning outcomes,
Grade 12, the level of complexity of learning outcomes achieved is labeled as Level 2.

As mentioned earlier, the PQF is the Philippines Framework which is comparable to the
ten member countries of the ASEAN. These countries are Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei
Darrussalam, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Lao PDR and Vietnam.
Each country’s national framework shall be referenced to the ASEAN Reference Qualification
Framework (ARQF). ARQF is a tool or device that enables comparisons of qualifications across
ASEAN member states. It addresses education and training that promote lifelong learning.
(Coles, M and Bateman, A. Undated).

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Knowledge, Process, Understanding, Performance (KPUP)- Levels of Learning
Outcomes

Knowledge, Process, Understanding, Performance reflect different learning outcomes

that are arranged in hierarchy or complexity. Knowledge being the basic level of learning
outcomes and Performance being the advanced level of learning outcomes.

Students who can show that they have gained knowledge, can apply such knowledge
and have achieved several meanings on the particular knowledge have achieved the learning
outcomes. The three types of learning outcomes and on the different levels can be assessed in
many ways with the use of appropriate tools.

Types of Tests to Measure Knowledge, Process and Understanding

1. Objective Tests. Tests that require only one and one correct answer It is difficult to
construct but easy to check.

1.1 Pencil-and-Paper Test. As the name suggests, the test is written on paper and
requires a pencil to write. However, with the modern times, a pencil-and-paper test can
also be translated to an electronic version, which makes the test “paperless.”

1.0.1 Simple Recall. This is the most common tool to measure Module 5-Curriculum
Evaluation and the Teachers knowledge. There are varieties of Simple Recall Test, to include:

 Fill in the blanks

 Enumeration
 Identification
 Simple recall

1.1.2 Alternative Response Test. This is the type of pencil and pencil test,
where two options or choices are provided. The items can be stated in a question
or a statement form. Examples of this are:

 True or False- Example: The Philippine population has reached one million.
 Yes or No- Example: Has the Philippine population reached one million?

1.1.3 Multiple Choice Test. This is the type identified as the most versatile
test type because it can measure a variety of learning outcomes. It consists of a
problem and a list of suggested solutions. The incomplete statement, or direct
question is called the STEM. The list of suggested solutions in words, numbers,
symbols or phrases are called ALTERNATIVES, OPTIONS or CHOICES. There
should be three to five options in each item. The correct alternative is called the
ANSWER while the remaining options or choices are called DISTRACTERS,
DISTRACTORS, or DECOYS.

1.1.4 Matching Type Test. The most common matching type test is made up
of two parallel columns, the first column (A) is the premise that presents the
problem, and the second column (B) provides the answer. There are many
modified matching types as well.
Matching type test is useful in measuring factual information as well as relationships
between two things, ideas or concepts. It reduces guessing to the minimum as compared to

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alternative response test. Some of the relationships that can be matched are found in the matrix
below:

1.2.4.1 Perfect Matching Type. The number of premises in Column A is less

than the number of responses in Column B. The response can only be used once.

Example:

In Column A are popular descriptions of Presidents during their term of office. Match
then with the names of Philippine Presidents in Column B.

1.2.4.2 Matching Type. The number of premises in Column A is not equal to the
number of the responses in Column B, or the other way around. The response or the
premise can be used more than once.

Example:

In column A are names of well-known curriculum evaluators. Match them with the
evaluation models they have been identified with in Column B. You can use the letter once or
more than once.

1.2 Subjective Test. Learning outcomes which indicate learner’s ability to originate,
and express ideas is difficult to test through objective type test. Hence in subjective type
test, answers through reflections, insights, and opinion can be given through essay.

1.2.1. Essay test items allow students freedom of response. Students are free to select,
relate and present ideas in their own words. The type of answers would reflect the extent of the
learner’s knowledge of the subject matter, ability to use higher order thinking skills and express
ideas in an accurate creative and appropriate language.

1.2.2.1 Restricted Response Item. This is like an expanded

form of short answer type objective test. There is a limit on both the
content scope and the form of student response. It is most useful in
measuring learning outcomes that require the interpretation and
application of data in a specific area.

Examples:

1. What are the main body parts of plant? Describe each part.
2. Why is the barometer one of the most useful instruments to
forecast the weather? Explain in one paragraph.

1.2.2.2 Extended Response Item. The student is generally free

to select any factual information that can help in organizing the response.
The contents of an extended essay will depend on the analysis, synthesis,
evaluation and other higher order thinking skills of the test takers.

Examples:

1. Evaluate the significance of the result of national referendum

of Scotland to the global peace condition.
2. What can you say about NATO’s position on the ISIS?
3. Comment on the term “new normal” that refers to the
environmental condition and climate change.

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Assessment Tools to Measure Authentic Learning Performance and Products (KPUP)

Level IV of the learning outcomes in KPUP can be assessed through Performance or

Product. These learning outcomes can best be done through the use of authentic evaluation.
Authentic evaluation is a test that measures real life tasks, performances and actual products.
The most common of the authentic assessments are the performance assessment and the use
of portfolio.

Performance Assessment Tools

1. Checklist is a tool that consists of a list of qualities that are expected to be observed as
present or absent. The presence to be marked ✔and the absence is marked X.
Example: Checklist on the use of microscope (10 points)

Instruction: Observe the student in a laboratory activity with the use of microscope. Check (✔)
the items which you have seen, which were done appropriately and mark (X) items which were
not appropriately done.

1. Wipes the slide with lens paper.

2. Places drop or two of culture on the slide.
3. Adds few drops of water
4. Places slides on the stage
5. Turns to low power lens
6. Looks through eyepiece with one eye
7. Adjusts mirror
8. Turns high power lens
9. Adjusts for maximum enlargement and resolution
10. Records results

2. Rating Scale is a tool that uses a scale in a number line as a basis to estimate the
numerical value of a performance or a product. The value is easier to score if the points are in
whole numbers. The most popular rating scale is called Likert Scale.

Example: Rating Scale for a Science Project (name/title)

Instruction: On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 as the lowest, and 10 as the highest score, rate the
projects on the following elements. Circle the choice of your answer.

3. Rubrics for Portfolio. A portfolio is a compilation of the experiences as authentic

learning outcomes presented with evidence and reflections. To assess the total learning
experiences as presented in a holistic package, an assessment tool called a RUBRIC is utilized.

Curriculum Innovation
In general, innovationmay mean a new object, new idea, ideal practice, or the process
by which a new object, idea, or practice comes to be adopted by an individual group or
organization (Marsh & Willis 2007). It may also mean the planned application of ends or means,
new to the adopting educational system, and intended to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of the system (Henderson 1985).

Oftentimes, curriculum innovation is associated with curriculum change--- a term in

curriculum studies which means any changes in the curriculum that are either planned or

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unplanned. Michael Fullan (1989) identified four core changes in educational context that shape
the definition of curriculum innovation:
• forms of regrouping or new grouping (structure);
• new curriculum materials;
• changes in some aspects of teaching practices (new activities, skills behavior); and  a
change in beliefs or understandings vis-a-vis curriculum and learning.

At the heart of any curriculum innovation are educators committed as agents of change
facilitating a smooth implementation of any curriculum innovation. They are professionals with
expertise in various disciplines and with extensive knowledge in pedagogy. They develop
curriculum innovations that are designed to bring about positive changes and holistic
development for the learners. Curriculum innovations may focus on the classroom or school
level, or they could be changes specific to a particular discipline.

Approaches to Curriculum Innovation

A. Standard-based Curriculum

A standard-based curriculum is designed based on content standards as explicated by

experts in the field. Curriculum standards include general statements of knowledge, shills, and
attitudes that students should learn and master as a result of schooling. They are statements of
what students should know and be able to da. Standards generally include three different
aspects:

1. Knowledgeorcontentstandards describe what students should know. These include

themes or conceptual strands that should be nurtured throughout the students’
education.
2. Skillsstandardsinclude thinking and process skills and strategies that students should
acquire.
3. Dispositionsare attitudes and values that should be developed and nurtured in students.

Curriculum standards are different from competencies. Standards are broader while
competencies are more specific and prescriptive in terms of the scope of knowledge, skills, and
values that students should learn.

Literatures offer many reasons or positive benefits for developing curriculum standards.
For instance, curriculum standards provide a structure that allows students to learn common
knowledge, skills, and values. VanTassel-Baska (2008) identified varieties of benefits of using
curriculum standards to education:

1. Ensure that students learn what they need to know for high-level functioning in the 21st
century.
2. Ensure educational quality across school districts and educational institutions.
3. Provide educators with guideposts to mark the way to providing students with
meaningful outcomes to work on.
4. Provide a curriculum template within which teachers and candidates are able to focus on
instructional delivery techniques that work.

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 In a standard-based curriculum, these curriculum standards serve as basis for designing
the content of a curriculum. As a curriculum innovation, it gave birth to the development of core
curriculum and state standards. In the Philippines, for example, curriculum standards are useful
in developing and organizing the curriculum for K-12. A standard-based curriculum empowers
the teachers to take active role in planning for the implementation of the curriculum standards
prescribed by the government.

B. Multicultural Curriculum

A multicultural curriculum aims to promote cultural literacy and cultural understanding.

Usually, this is done through cultural awareness activities by knowing the different costumes,
songs, literatures, foods, and introducing them to different historical places of different
countries as part of daily lessons. However, cultural awareness alone is not sufficient to develop
cultural understanding. All material culture has a context and a story to share.
Banks (1994) identified five dimensions that schools could adopt when trying to
implement a multicultural curriculum:
1. ContentIntegrationdeals with the extent to which teachers use examples and content
from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts, principles,
generalizations, and theories in their subject areas or discipline.
2. TheKnowledgeConstructionProcess consists of methods, activities, and questions
teachers use to help students to understand, investigate, and determine how implicit
cultural assumptions, frames of reference, perspectives, and biases within a discipline
influence the ways in which knowledge is constructed.
3. PrejudiceReduction describes the characteristics of students’ attitudes and strategies
that can be used to help them develop more democratic attitudes and values.
4. EquityPedagogyexists when teachers modify their teaching in ways that will facilitate
the academic achievement of students from diverse racial cultural, ethnic, and gender
groups.
5. AnEmpoweringSchool‘CultureandSocialStructure involves the restructuring of the
culture and organization of the school so the students from diverse racial, ethnic, and
gender groups will experience quality.

There are many ways in which a multicultural curriculum can be developed and
implemented. Bennett (1999) proposed a multicultural curriculum focusing on six goals: (1)
develop multiple historical perspectives; (2) strengthen cultural consciousness; (3) strengthen
intercultural competence; (4) combat racism, sexism, and other forms of prejudice and
discrimination; (5) increase awareness of the state of the planet and global dynamics; and (6)
build social action skills. It is important to develop teaching strategies and instructional materials
that promote the development of cultural literacy and cultural understanding among teachers
and learners.

C. Indigenous Curriculum

The idea of an indigenous curriculum was a product of a vision to make curriculum

relevant and responsive to the needs and context of indigenous people. It values the
importance of integrating indigenous knowledge systems of the people to the existing
curriculum. The Author’s earlier studies on indigenous curriculum provided a framework for

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linking indigenous knowledge with the curriculum and provided several dimensions that serve as
a framework for the development of an indigenous curriculum:
1. Constructknowledgeso that young children will understand how experiences, personal
views, and how other peoples’ ideas influence the development of science concepts and
scientific knowledge.
2. Useinstructionalstrategiesthat will promote academic success for children of different
cultures.
3. Integratecontentsandactivitiesthat will reflect the learners’ culture, history, traditions,
and indigenous knowledge in the curriculum.
4. Utilizecommunity'scultural,material,andhumanresources in the development and
implementation of the curriculum.

Specifically, indigenous curriculum may consider using and implementing following strategies at
the school level:
1. Integrating contents and activities that reflect the learners’ culture, history, traditions,
and indigenous knowledge in the curriculum
2. Using the local language as the medium of instruction for several subjects like Math,
Science, Social Studies, Physical Education, Music, Values Education, and Home
Economies and Livelihood Education
3. Involving community folks and local teachers in the development of the curriculum
4. Developing local instructional materials and learning outside the classroom by utilizing
various community resources that are available for conducting observations and
investigations
5. Using instructional strategies that are relevant to indigenous learning system

As a form of innovation, an indigenous curriculum is founded on the way of life,

traditions, worldview, culture, and spirituality of the people, and it is a pathway of education
that recognizes wisdom embedded in indigenous knowledge. Thus indigenous knowledge is very
influential to the development of young children. In an indigenous curriculum, the first frame of
reference for developing a curriculum must be the community, its environment, its history, and
its people.

D. Brain-based Education

Prominent advocates in brain-based education Caine and Caine (1997) considered

curriculum and instruction from a brain-based approach. They begin withbrain-mindlearning
principlesderived from brain research findings and apply these principles in the classroom and
in designing a curriculum. These principles are:
1. The brain is a whole system and includes physiology, emotions, imagination, and
predisposition. All of these must be considered as a whole.
2. The brain develops in relation to interactions with the environment and with others.
3. A quality of being human is the search for personal meaning.
4. People create meaning through perceiving certain patterns of understanding.
5. Emotions are critical to the patterns people perceive.
6. The brain processes information into both parts and wholes at the same time.
7. Learning includes both focused attention and peripheral input.
8. Learning is both unconscious and conscious.

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 9. Information (meaningful and fragmented) is organized differently in memory.
10. Learning is developmental.
11. The brain makes optimal number of connections in supportive but challenging
environment perceptions of threat inhibiting learning.
12. Every brain is unique in its organization.

Another advocate of brain-based education, Resnick (1987), theorized that learners learn
more if they are given several ways to look at a problem and if they are asked to give more
than one way of solving it. Caine and Caine (1991) also cited studies showing that the brajn
learns best when it works to solve problems or accomplishes specific tasks instead of merely
absorbing isolated bits of information and that the brain’s primary function is to seek patterns in
new learning.

Brain-based education has direct implications in the development of Curriculum. It

postulates that brains do not exist in isolation. The brain exists in bodies, which in turn exist in a
culture, the culture in which one happens to live becomes an important determinant of the
brain’s structure and organization.

E. Gifted Education Curriculum

Gifted education curriculum is designed to respond to the needs of a growing number of

gifted learners and to develop gifted potentials. There are several examples of gifted curriculum
models presented as follows:

1. School wide Enrichment Model

The School wide Enrichment Model (SEM) is widely implemented as an enrichment

program used with academically gifted and talented students and a magnet theme or
enrichment approach for all schools interested in high-end learning and developing the
strengths and talents of all students. The major goal of SEM is the application of gifted
education pedagogy to total school improvement. SEM provides enriched learning experiences
and higher learning standards for all children through three goals: (a) developing talents ig all
children; (b) providing a broad range of advanced-level enrichment experiences for all students;
and (c) providing advanced follow-up opportunities for young people based on their strengths
and interests, SEM focuses on the enrichment of all students through high levels of engagement
and the use of enjoyable and challenging learning experiences that are constructed around
students’ interests, learning styles, and preferred modes of expression.

2. Parallel Curriculum Model

The Parallel Curriculum Model (PCM) evolved from a National Association for Gifted
Children curriculum in 1998. It promotes a curriculum model for developing the abilities of all
students and extending the abilities of students who perform at advanced levels. PCM offers
four curriculum parallels that incorporate the emerge of ascending intellectual demand to help
teachers determine course student performance levels and develop intellectual challenges to
move learners along a continuum toward expertise:

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 1. Corecurriculum focuses on the nature of knowledge that is embedded in the
discipline. This includes the core concepts, shill, and values that are unique for each
discipline.
2. CurriculumofConnection focuses on the integration or interconnectedness of
knowledge across different disciplines.
3. CurriculumofPractice involves the application of knowledge to different real-life
situations and the methodology of a practitioner.
4. CurriculumofIdentityfits the learner’s values and goals and those that characterize
practicing professionals.
The beauty of this model lies in its framework of helping the learners to experience the
nature of the disciplines rather than post accumulating information. It is designed to engage the
learners to the core of knowledge development in each discipline.

3. Autonomous Learner Model

Betts (2004) pointed out that curricular offerings typically fall into three levels. Level I is
a prescribed curriculum and instruction that focuses on state standards. Level II involves
differentiation of curriculum based on individual differences. Level III features
learnerdifferentiated options where students are self-directed and teachers provide
opportunities for the learners to be in charge of their learning. This model focuses on the third
level.
The Autonomous Learner model is divided into five major dimensions:
a. Orientationacquaints students, teachers, and administrators with the central concept
in gifted education and the specifics of this model. At this level, gifted students work
together in doing self-understanding exercises that will help them familiarize with
each other.

b. IndividualDevelopmentfocuses more clearly on developing skills, concepts, and

attitudes that promote lifelong learning and self-directed learning.
c. EnrichmentActivitiesinvolve two kinds of differentiation of curriculum which are: (1)
differentiation of curriculum by the teacher; and (2) differentiation by the student.
Students are exposed to various activities to develop their passion for learning.

d. Seminarsare designed to give each person in a small group the opportunity to

research a topic and present it in seminar format to other people or to a group.

e. In-depthStudyis one in which students pursue areas of interest in long-term

individual or small group studies. The students will decide what will be learned, the
process of doing it, the product, how content will be presented, and how the entire
learning process will be evaluated.

4. Integrated Curriculum Model

This model is a popular way of organizing or designing different kinds of curriculum.

The Center for Gifted Education at the College of William and Mary developed its curriculum
based on this model and has trained many teachers around the world in using their curriculum
materials (Davis et al. 2011). The model presented three dimensions based on the model of
VanTassel-Baska (1987) that guide the development of the curriculum:

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 a. AdvancedContentDimensionmeets the needs of gifted students for acceleration
by providing content earlier and faster than same age peers would normally
receive it.
b. Process/Product Dimension incorporates direct instruction and embedded
activities that promote higher-order thinking skills and create opportunities for
independent pursuit in areas of student interest.
c. Issues/ThemesDimensionis where learning experiences are organized. In doing
so, students are able to develop deeper ideas and philosophies that ultimately
promote understanding of the structure of knowledge learned.

5. Kids Academia Model

Kids Academia is a program for young Japanese children ages 5-8 that was
developed by Dr. Manabu Sumida in 2010. The program is designed to provide excellent science
experiences for gifted children in Japan. The kids who participate in the program are highly
selected using a checklist adapted from the Gifted Behavior Checklist in Science for Primary
Children. Faustino, Hiwatig, and Sumida (2011) identified three major phases that are followed
in the development of the curriculum:

a. GroupMeetingandBrainstormingActivities. The teachers and teaching assistants hold

several meetings and brainstorming activities to decide on the themes that will be
included in the program. A general orientation of the program is also done during this
phase.
b. Selection of Contents for Each Theme. The teachers and teaching assistants carefully
select the lessons and topics that are included in the theme. A rigorous study of the
topic is done in this phase.
c. Designing Lessons. This phase includes the careful preparation of lesson plans and other
instructional materials needed for implementing each lesson.

The activities for each lesson were selected based on the following guidelines developed
by Dr. Sumida:
a. Stimulates the interest of the children
b. Allows children to express their own ideas and findings
c. Uses cheap and easy-to-find materials
d. Teaches the correct use of scientific terms
e. Uses simple laboratory equipment
f. Allows individual or group activities
g. Encourages socio-emotional development
h. Connects to other subjects and to everyday life experiences
i. Includes topics related to family and community
j. Uses materials connected to family and community
k. Applies what children learned from their families and the society

This model was adopted from the Scientific Wheel model of the centre for Gifted
Education of the College of William and Mary to develop scientific habits of mind for
independent research investigations. The Kids Academia model is a form of curriculum
innovation that shows how experts in tertiary education could help strengthen teaching and
learning in basic education. F. Differentiated Curriculum

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 Differentiation is a philosophy that enables teachers to plan strategically in order to
reach the needs of the diverse learners in classrooms today. It is a curriculum that enhances
learning, making it learner-centered and dynamic. It enables fast learners and slow learners to
have equal opportunity to master the lesson and to develop holistically.

In differentiated curriculum, the lessons are carefully selected, learning experiences are
carefully designed based on the learning styles of the learners, and the assessment tools are
varied. According to Gayle Gregory and Carolyn Chapman (2002), there are six steps in planning
differentiated learning: (1) set standards; (2) define content; (3) activate prior knowledge; (4)
acquire new knowledge; (5) apply and adjust the learning; and (6) assess learning.

G. Technology Integration in the Curriculum

Technology offers multiple opportunities to improve teaching and learning and the total
education system. The Internet, for example, provides all the information that each individual
needs to know. It also offers different ways and opportunities for discovering and sharing
information.
Technology integration is breaking the geographical barriers in education. With
technology, it is now possible to connect and interact with other schools, educators, and other
institutions from different parts of the world. There are several innovations from basic education
to graduate education that are associated or influenced by technology integration. Some of
these innovations are:
• distance education; 
computer-assisted
instruction;  online
learning; .
• teleconferencing;
• online libraries; 
webinars;
• online journals;  e-
books.
ICT literacy is now fast-becoming an important form of literacy that is important for each
learner to learn and master. It also requires all teachers to be ICT literate to be able to utilize
technology to enhance or improve the way they teach. It is also important for teachers to teach
students how to use technology responsibly especially with the current popularity of social
networking and other technological innovations.

H. Outcome-based Education

Outcome-based education (OBE) is one of the dominant curriculum innovations in higher

education today. It came out as a curricular requirement for specific fields of study in
engineering, nursing, and tourism education, among others. ASEAN education framework for
higher education requires all colleges, universities, and institutes to transform all their
educational programs to OBE.
Outcomes are clear learning results that we want students to demonstrate at the end of
significant learning experiences, and are actions and performances that embody and reflect
learner competence in using content, information, ideas, and tools successfully (Spady 1994).

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 OBE means clearly focusing and organizing everything in an educational system around
what is essential for all students to be able to do successfully at the end of their learning
experiences. This means starting with a clear picture of what is important for students to be
able to do, then organizing the curriculum, instruction, and assessment to make sure this
learning ultimately happens (Spady 1994). It is a process that involves the restructuring of
curriculum, assessment, and reporting practices in education to reflect the achievement of
highorder learning and mastery rather than the accumulation of course credit.
It is important that when designing a curriculum for OBE, the competencies and
standards should be clearly articulated.
According to Spady (1994), there are two common approaches to an Opp curriculum:

1. Traditional/Transitional Approach emphasizes student mastery gg traditional

subjectrelated academic outcomes (usually with a focus on subject-specific content)
and cross-discipline outcomes (such a, the ability to solve problems or to work
cooperatively).
2. Transformational Approach emphasizes long-term cross-curricula outcomes that are
related directly to students’ future life roles (such a being a productive worker or a
responsible citizen or a parent).

Spady (1994) also identified four essential principles of OBE:

• Clarity of focus means that everything teachers do must be clearly focused on what they
want learners to ultimately be able to do successfully.
• Designing back means that the starting point for all curriculum design must be a clear
definition of the significant learning that students are to achieve by the end of their
formal education.
• High expectations for all students
• Expanded opportunities for all learners

Designing curriculum based on OBE principles is a noble process of making curriculum

relevant and responsive to the students’ needs and requires a paradigm shift in teaching
and learning.

Malan (2000) identified several features of outcome based learning:

• It is needs-driven. Curricula are designed in terms of the knowledge skills, and attitudes
expected from graduates and aim to equip students for lifelong learning.
• It is outcomes-driven. The model has a line that runs from taking cognizant of training
needs to setting an aim (purpose) fur the program, goals for syllabus themes, learning
outcomes, and finally assessing the learning outcomes in terms of the set learning
objectives.
• It has a design-down approach linked to the needs and the purpose of the program,
learning content is only selected after the desired outcome have been specified Content
becomes a vehicle to achieve the desired learning outcomes, which are aimed at
inculcating a basis for lifelong learning.
• It specifies outcomes and levels of outcomes.
• The focus shifts from teaching to learning. The model has a student-centered learning
approach where lecturers act as facilitator.
• The framework is holistic in its outcomes’ focus. Although the learning objectives are
aimed at learning at grassroots level, they are linked to goal s and aims at higher levels.

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 Attaining learning objectives is, therefore, not an end in itself; it provides building blocks
for achieving higher-level outcomes.

The model has a student-centered learning approach where lecturers act as facilitators.
Study guides help the learners to organize their learning activities, and group work, continuous
assessment, and self-assessment are major features. The framework is holistic in its outcomes’
focus. Attaining learning objectives is, therefore, not an end in itself; it provides building
blocks for achieving higher-level outcomes.

As a curriculum innovation, OBE is a complete paradigm shift in higher education. It

calls for an education that is more focused and purposive. An OBE curriculum is mission-driven
that requires all institutions to anchor all their curricular offerings to the curriculum and to the
vision, mission, and philosophy of the institution.

Processing Your Knowledge

1. Conduct a document review/ analysis of DepEd K to 12 Curriculum Guide focusing on
sequencing, spiraling, and integration of lessons. Identify the advantages and
disadvantages of the curriculum.

2. Examine at least 2 different learning programs or curricula and explain features of

the programs/curricula that make them successful, and suggest ways that the
programs/curricula could be improved or adapted.

Check Your Progress

1. Prepare a developmentally-sequenced learning plan with well-aligned learning
outcomes and competencies based on curriculum requirements. Use the SMCBI
format.

2. Using the learning plan in number 1, give two test items that are appropriate
for each level of learning outcomes. You can choose any type of test.
a. Knowledge
b. Process
c. Understanding
WORKSHEET
Name : Lesson No. 3

Program/ Year Level : Module No.: 1

ProcessingYourKnowledge
1.

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2.

CheckYourProgress
1.

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2.

Parent’s /Guardian’s Full Name and Signature

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 LESSON Trends and Issues on Curriculum and Curriculum
4 Development

For many decades during the 20th century, the majority of educational institutions
across the globe had imposed prescribed curricula on their curriculum users (teachers,
administrators, and students). The users had very little input or feedback in the process.
Because of their non-involvement, teachers, in particular, had to implement and follow largely
contradicting directives with hardly any conviction. This situation led to an obvious disconnect
between curriculum and instruction. Several schools of thought made great strides to deal with
this issue, notably, the progressivist-experimentalist thinkers, who called for making teachers
not only active participants but also most accountable in the process of curriculum development,
from conceptualization, to design, to implementation, to evaluation, to finally, revision and
improvement.

Trends and issues on Curriculum and curriculum development is the main focus in this
lesson.

Learning Outcomes:

Attheendofthelesson,itisexpectedthatyoucan:

1. demonstrate research based knowledge on the different trends and issues on curriculum
and curriculum development;
2. demonstrate knowledge on the contextualization/localization of the curriculum in the
implementation of the relevant and responsive learning programs; and
3. demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are inclusive of learners from
indigenous groups.

Let ’s Discuss!
Education and curriculum are a reflection of life and society; constantly changing at
increasingly faster paces, with the explosion of information and technological advancements,
the rapidly diversified social, economic, political, and cultural makeup, and a host of unresolved,
more entangled, emerging issues and conflicts, locally, nationally, and globally. More demands
have been put on further improving, or rather optimizing, student skills and abilities, curriculum
quality and vitality, and educational accountability and reinvention.

Curriculum plays very important role in the field of education. For every course
curriculum is a backbone which reflects the structure of the course and clears all the
dimensions, aims and objectives instructional strategies and so on. Curriculum should be
relevant to the changing time, if there is a lag between the requirements and components in the
curriculum then all task of teaching-learning becomes futile.

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Current Issues and Future Trends (Foreign)

A Research Paper Written by Khaled Sellami, Ph.D. emphasizes that one of the most limiting
issues that the field of education is currently not doing enough to resolve is perhaps research
bias and questionable validity. Educational research is marred with pseudo-empiricism,
arbitrariness, and researchers' bias. Under the pretext of obtaining quantifiable data and
utilizing purely scientific approaches, those researchers often ignore the essence of educational
inquiry; valuation or the qualitative conceptual design. Protecting against bias is actually the
core of meaningful research. Myrdal (1969) asserts that qualitative and quantitative data are
complementary as they constitute the mainstays of theory, policy, and practice. Educators need
to look for possibilities, opportunities, and practicalities of balanced research findings; not for
limitations in testing instruments, research design, sampling, interpretations, and conclusions.
Manipulated statistical data, maintains Myrdal, will not reveal the truth for they are seldom
objective or factual knowledge.

Other issues that need tackling are curriculum balance and equality in educational
opportunity. Those two ideals are what all parents would prefer for their own children. Coleman
(1968) affirms that heterogeneous schools and mixed ability classrooms tend to inspire and
energize the disadvantaged students much more than the opposite practice in terms of
educational attainment. Those diverse students are more likely to significantly improve
achievement when they socialize with different groups, particularly mainstream, advantaged
students and when they are enjoying a sound and inclusive curriculum, as well as enhanced
resources, expenditures, and school facilities. Perhaps the future of the curriculum field resides
in the hybrid or holistic approach, or more realistically, in the correlation design (Ornstein and
Hunkins, 2009) where a logical linkage between related subjects is established, without losing a
subject’s proper identity and distinctiveness (e.g., the idea of a broad, overarching theme as a
unit of organization). To this end, an integrative approach to curriculum design reflects the
humanistic and progressivist theories’ emphasis on the whole person, being a thinker, a feeler,
and an actor. In addition to the thinking, feeling, and acting (also termed the intellectual,
emotional, and social), there are three other important aspects to be accounted for: the
physical, aesthetic, and spiritual. All six elements must be integrated and assimilated within
comprehensive content components so that to address the various learners’ facets and make
learning truly meaningful and purposeful.

A journal written by Owen M. & et. al. (1969) summarizes teacher education trends
which are related to curriculum development in Asia and other foreign countries. The tendency
in Asia to unite all types and levels of teacher education under a single authority has the
potential either for a cooperative state board with representatives from the universities,
teaching profession, and state government or for a state-controlled board which might threaten
academic freedom. While there are also trends in Asia toward upgrading qualifications for
entering teacher education programs and broadening the curriculum, there are problems in
getting competent teachers and balancing the curriculum among community development work,
languages (especially in multilingual countries), and general and professional study. Other
foreign countries are also said to share Asian educators' concern over whether or not all
teachers should be required to study some subjects in depth, thereby giving them mobility
between elementary and secondary levels. Trends and innovations cited outside of Asia include
microteaching, simulation, feedback during practice teaching with walkie talkies, curriculum

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development centers, elimination of laboratory schools, 5-week projects to improve local school
facilities, and staff borrowing between colleges and schools.

Modern trends in curriculum construction:

1) Digital Diversity
The present age is an age of ICT technology has touched to all the wakes of human life.
Technology has made various tasks easy, convenient, and of quality. To survive in the concern
filed it is necessary for everyone to have the knowledge and skill of technology. Education
makes man enable to contribute, it strengthens the capabilities. For the effective transaction of
curriculum ICT is a must. Web 2.0 applications must be used for the effective teaching-learning
process. Curriculum makers should give clear guidelines regarding this. E.g. teacher tube is a
very useful source for educational resources. Khan academy.org also provides good videos,
lectures, and many more which makes learning meaningful, easy, and effective.

2) Need-based Curriculums
Researches in all the fields resulted in specialization. Need-based curriculum is the
foremost need of the present education system. Many universities are developing need-based
short term programs for this purpose. E.g. many Universities have introduced courses like –
certificate course in PowerPoint, certificate course in tally, certificate course in marketing, etc.

3) Modular Curriculum with credit base system

Modular curriculum gives real freedom of learning .especially in the open learning system
his approach has been adopted at first but now the majority of traditional universities also
accepting his system; this is a real emerging trend in the modern curriculum.

4) Online coerces
Need-based and choice-based curriculum are available online also. E.g. course era .com
has introduced many useful need-based courses for free of cost. The government also takes
initiative for this e.g. Right to Information certificate curse has been introduced by the
Government.

5) 21st-century skills
All the curriculum of various courses should focus on 21st-century skills. Skills like
collaboration, critical thinking, effective communication, multitasking stress management,
empathy are a must for all the personals.

6) International Understanding
Globalization has made converted the world into a global village. We should consider
the world as one family and for this international understanding must be inculcated through the
curriculum.

7) Constructivism
The constructivist approach believes that learners should be given the freedom to
construct his/her knowledge. Spoon feeding must be avoided. If a learner is fully active in the
construction of knowledge then the learning process will be highly effective. In all the
curriculums constructivist strategies must be given an important place.

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Researches on Curriculum Development (local)

Higher education in the Philippines has been challenged to adopt changes in the
curriculum given the institutionalization of K-12 basic education program in the country. In this
context, faculty and administrators of higher education institutions in the country needed to
take proactive measures to redesign its curriculum that would meet the need of a new
generation of learners and advance the thrusts of the school. This reflective paper presents the
case of Dela Salle-College of Saint Benilde’s English department and a critical analysis of its
efforts to reinforce and advance its curricular offerings on language and literature that would
meet the K-12 challenges come academic year 2018-2019. This scholarship applied qualitative
techniques to review existing empirical works and pertinent institutional documents to develop a
framework that guided the department in identifying new course offerings that are K-12
compliant. Also, the paper explores the structural implication of K-12 developments to the
department’s organization and the need for retooling the faculty. The discussion in this paper
offers an opportunity for faculty and school administrators to re-examine and reflect on their
curriculum development efforts towards meeting curricular challenges by grounding it on a
sound review of literature as basis of action and informed decisions.

The Current Education Issues in the Philippines

Even before COVID-19 struck and caused problems for millions of families, the country’s
financial status is one of the top factors that add to the growing education issues in the
Philippines. Furthermore, more children, youth, and adults can’t get a leg up and are thus left
behind due to unfair access to learning.

Moving forward, such issues can lead to worse long-term effects. Now, we’ll delve deep
into the current status and how we can take part in social efforts to help fight these key
concerns of our country.

Studies and fact-finding commissions have shown that the deteriorating quality of
education is due to the low government budget for education; poor quality of teachers; poor
management of schools; poor school facilities such as laboratory and library facilities; poor
learning environment; the content of the curriculum.

The following are identified as challenges of the curriculum in the Philippine

setting: 1) displacement of teachers in the tertiary level; 2) lack of information concerning
the guidelines for implementation; 3) lack of university students for two years; and 4) the
insufficient resources for the implementation.

Emphasis on Learner Needs and Development Levels

Researches show that the design of the Philippine curriculum appears to be

overcrowded. Learners are faced with seven subject areas everyday. When combined with the
learning competencies required for each grade/year level, this has proven to be excessive. As a
result, science and mathematics content cannot be completed in one school year. This further
leads to, a backlog and a carry-over of the previous year’s content and competencies to the
following school year , which eventually adversely affects the teaching/learning process. In
addition to this, the scopeand sequencingof education (from elementary to secondary level)
have also been identified as design defects where there are content and skills gaps as well as
overlaps and duplications. The overlap and duplication further aggravate the curriculum

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overload, and the gaps contribute to the production of half-baked elementary school graduates
who are not entirely ready for secondary school ,and of high school graduates who are half –
baked for college education. Moreover, national examinations are focused on only five subject
areas: English, Filipino, science, mathematics and social studies. Very few concepts are included
from the other subject areas.

Effective Implementation of the Curriculum design

There has been massive training of schoolteachers and orientation of school heads and
supervisors for the nationwide implementation of the curriculum; however, the training
programme was not sustained at the regional and division levels; thus the poor school
implementation . There was also lack of instructional materials like students’ textbooks, and
teachers’ manuals, science and vocational subject facilities, equipment/apparatus and
supplementary teaching/learning materials, and computer laboratories. Too large classes ,
teacher availability (for the specialized secondary subject areas) and quality of instructional
supervision further hindered curriculum implementation.

Monitoring and Evaluation of Curriculum Implementation

The monitoring and evaluation of curriculum implementation is not effectively done due
to the great number of elementary schools .On the other hand, the secondary schools are rarely
visited because supervisors are unable to provide technical assistance on specialized subject
matter. At the regional level , supervisors are subject specialists, while those at the division
level are mostly generalists.

Contextualization of the Curriculum

Culturally responsive education is concerned with how teachers skillfully mediate or

bridge cultural knowledge to help students’navigate what they are learning in formal educational
settings (Sleeter & Cornbleth, 2011). According to Gay (2000), the goal of culturally responsive
teaching to “build bridges of meaningfulness between home and school experiences as well as
between academic abstractions and lived sociocultural experiences”(p. 29). Therefore, in an
ideal classroom, all instruction is tailor-made for particular cultural groups reflecting the
sociocultural experiences of the learners (Sleeter, 2005). Thus far, most of the research on
culturally responsive teaching has focused on African- American students (e.g. Lynn, 2006;
Ware, 2006), but more recently Mexican Americans and English-language learners have
implemented this instructional approach in their classrooms (e.g. Gutstein, Lipman, Hernandez,
& de los Reyes,1997).

One of the strategies supported by culturally relevant teaching is contextualization,

which is simply defined as the verbal and conceptual bridge over which students cross to learn
new information being presented (Lee, 1995). Curriculum contextualization is the process of
matching the curriculum content and instructional strategies relevant to learners. Student
diversity requires that teachers always consider individual differences in lesson planning and
implementation. It is the act of creating relevance and meaning when linking students’ everyday
experience with academic knowledge (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). Underlying this strategy is the
belief that students come to school with a wealth of information, derived from personal and
cultural experiences that can be first harnessed and then used in the teaching and learning
process. Some researchers have referenced this prior knowledge as “funds of
knowledge,”acknowledging the role and importance of students’ personal, cultural, and

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communal knowledge in designing classroom activities (Moll et al., 1992). While all children
have funds of knowledge that they bring to the classroom, these repositories differ slightly
because they are developed in the activity settings and routines that organize households and
cultural communities (Gauvain, 2001).
The actual term Contextualization was coined by researchers working at the Center for
Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE), one of the first research and
development groups that sought to bring cultural compatibility to Native Hawaiian education
(Au & Jordan, 1981). However, as mentioned earlier, this strategy has been well documented in
educational anthropology by researchers such as Orellana (2001) who described it as
“leveraging”students’ knowledge and Paris (Paris, 2012; Paris & Ball, 2009) who described it as
“bridging”what students know from their home, school, and community to the classroom

Initiatives of DepEd and its Legal Bases in relation to contextualization

Initiatives before the K to12

1. 1998-2006: Third Elementary Education Project (TEEP)
a. development of readers using local stories
b. integration of culture and artistic expressions in learning areas

2. 2002–2007:Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao

a. “tri-people” perspective –muslims, Christians and Lumads

3.2005:Strengthening ImplementationofVisayas Education (STRIVE)

a. Systematic efforts on localization(Region)

4. 2011 -2014: Philippine’ Response to Indigenous People’s & Muslim

Education(PRIME)
a. initial attempt at generating the contextualization process

What we have now:Contextualizing Education at Various Levels

1. K to 12 Framework
a. MTB
b. SHS
2. Programs (IPEd, Muslim Ed., SPED, Special Interest Programs, ALS)
3. Learning Areas , e.g.AP–regional profiles,Art & Music–cultural artistic expressions by
regions

Curriculum Indigenization

The Philippines is 'indigenizing' its basic education curriculum for the country's
various ethnic groups to boost the development of what has been regarded as marginalized
people without dissolving their respective cultures and traditions.

Rozanno Rufino of the Education Department's Indigenous Peoples Education Office said
the process of consulting leaders of various tribes to "interface" their cultures and practices with
the curricula for elementary and high school education in their respective communities began
after the issuance of the policy in 2011 (ABS CBN, 2013). "The process of indigenizing would
depend on the pace of each community. It will not happen in one snap. Our target is that each
school with indigenous people learners should indigenize its curriculum. The curriculum should

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be culture-sensitive, contextualized, responsive and flexible for the communities," Rufino said
during last week's National Indigenous Peoples Education gathering in the capital Manila.

"And it's starting now," he added.

Out of the 20.8 million students currently enrolled in elementary and high schools all
over the Philippines, 5.7 percent, or close to 1.2 million, belong to indigenous groups. The
country has around 100 ethno-linguistic groups, the majority of them being in the southern
island of Mindanao and falling below the poverty line owing to both their traditional reliance on
agriculture and lack of access to education. The groups have kept their cultures and traditions
intact by resisting Spanish and American colonization from the 16th century up to the first half
of the 20th century.

"Most of us indigenous people cannot go to school. There's a lack of access because of

poverty. We need more scholarships because only that will sustain and give our indigenous
people youth a better place as they also try to protect the rights of the community," Leonor
Quintayo, chairwoman of the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, told Kyodo News on
the sidelines of the gathering.

Some ways to indigenize and decolonize curriculum:

• acknowledge traditional territories of First Peoples using a variety of mediums (in

lectures, course outlines and web-based course architecture, e.g. Blackboard)
• works with Elders and Knowledge Keepers to infuse cultures into curriculum
• understand Indigenous worldviews, the distinction and diversity of Indigenous People by
language, cultures and regions
• include Indigenous perspectives and learn about and use Indigenous pedagogical
approaches
• visit Indigenous communities for field trips, events, and feasts
• incorporate talking circles to facilitate communication (circle methodology)
• respect and recognize rights for distinctive Indigenous customs, spirituality, traditions
and practices
• use Indigenous Principles of Learning such as experiential, and lifelong learning
approaches
• use the oral tradition, telling stories, with guest speakers such as Elders, Knowledge
Keepers and community leaders
• use Indigenous research methodologies
• use Indigenous authored texts, articles and books
• use Indigenous film
• hire Indigenous instructors

Curriculum Localization

One of the main features of the K to 12 is the delivery of the lessons through
Contextualization and Localization. Our 1987 Philippine Constitution clearly stipulates this
principle particularly Article XIV Section 14. Likewise the same right is reflected in the DepEd’s
Mission.

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 Contextualization refers to the educational process of relating the curriculum to a
particular setting, situation or area of application to make the competencies relevant,
meaningful and useful to the learners.

On the other hand, localization, being one of the degrees of contextualization, is the
process of relating learning content specified in the curriculum to local information and
materials from the learner’s community. We localize and contextualize the curriculum and the
use of learning materials in terms of Geography, Cultural Diversity and Individuality.
With these processes, teachers can present the lesson in a more meaningful and
relevant context based on the learner’s previous experiences and real-life situations. Both of
which adhere in making the lesson flexible, fit, creative, relevant, meaningful, and adoptive to
students’ level of understanding and instructional needs. Araling Panlipunan, being an area that
deals with geography and culture, can very well maximize the advantages of utilizing indigenous
materials in classroom discussion and activities. With contextualization, learners are put in a
natural and actual learning environment letting them to manipulate, relate, and adapt to various
learning opportunities and resources available within the locality or community, profound
learning will be assured and realized. It helps teachers and students comprehend concepts by
relating and presenting lesson on the context of prevailing local environment, culture, and
resources. Hence, lessons are becoming more real-life, customized, and appropriate.

But teachers need to be extra careful too in over using them. Like all other learning
areas, not all concepts in Araling Panlipunan can be localized. Otherwise the purpose of bringing
more meaningful and relevant learning to the classroom may also be defeated. Nonetheless,
teachers should be adaptive and creative in using localization and contextualization in teaching.
Such principles were made and adapted in the academe to make the curriculum responds,
conforms, reflects, and be flexible to the needs of the learners, especially the 21st century
learners who need to be holistically and skillfully developed. Though we need to understand
more the concepts by relating them to ideas that we can easily comprehend, appreciate, and
relate in our lives, the standards of quality and relevant education should always be considered
all the times and should not be compromised just for the sake of localized and contextualized
lesson.

Processing Your Knowledge

Make a compilation of at least two developmentally sequenced lesson plans which
showcase the skills in contextualizing, localizing and/or indigenizing lessons based on
the different trends and issues in curriculum development.

Check Your Progress

Revise the lesson plan you made in lesson 3. Design an activity that is indigenized/
localized.

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 WORKSHEET
Name : Lesson No. 4

Program/ Year Level : Module No.: 1

ProcessingYourKnowledge
(Compilation)

CheckYourProgress
(LPmustbehandwritten.UsebondpaperfortheLP)

Parent’s /Guardian’s Full Name and Signature

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 References

Printed Sources

Bilbao, P. P., Lucido, P. I., Iringan, T. C., and R. B. Javier (2008). Curriculum development.
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Bilbao, P. P., Corpuz, B. B., and Dayagbil, F. T. (2015). Curriculum development. Quezon City:
Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Internet Sources

https://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/09/foundations-of-curriculum/

news.abs-cbn.com/nation/10/25/13/philippines-indigenizes-basic-education

Glossary
Conception
It pertains to the way in which something is perceived or regarded.

Contextualization
It is an educational process of relating the curriculum to a particular setting, situation, area of
application to make the competencies relevant, meaningful and useful to all learners.

Curriculum
It broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process.

Development
It is a significant event, occurrence, or change.

Foundation
It refers to a broadly-conceived field of educational study that derives its character and methods
from a number of academic disciplines.

Indigenization
It is the process by which Indigenous ways of knowing, being, doing and relating are
incorporated into educational, organizational, cultural and social structures.

Instructional Design
It refers to demonstrate planning, developing, evaluating, and managing the instructional
process.

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Localization
It refers to the process of relating learning content specified in the curriculum to local
information and materials in the learners' community.

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