The verb phrase

The verb phrase is the clause constituent that functions as a predicator in the mood structure
of the clause. The verb phrase is the expansion of a verb in the same way that the noun phrase
is the expansion of a noun. As a word class (i.e. in terms of parts of speech), verbs can be
divided into three major classes according to their function in the VP:
- the open class of lexical verbs
- the closed classes of primary auxiliary verbs and modal auxiliary verbs
If there is only one verb in VP, it is a main verb. If there is more than one verb, the final one
is the main verb, the other(s) that come in between are auxiliaries.

Classes of verbs realizing verb phrase structure

- lexical verbs: believe, follow, like, see

- primary auxiliary: do , be, have
- modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must
- marginal modals: dare, need, used to, ought to
- verb idioms – they can be divided into 3 groups according to whether the first element is be
(be about, be bound to, be sure to, be liable to) or have (have to, have got to) and modal
idioms (had better, would rather, would sooner)

The syntactic features of the operator

Operators evince the following syntactic features:

a) They can be marked for negation, often enclitically, i.e. to negate a finite clause we
use not immediately after the operator.
b) The operator is placed before the subject in interrogative clauses and in certain
marked structures: Only then did he realize what a mess he had got himself into. Will
he speak first? At no time was the entrance left unguarded.
c) The operator can carry nuclear stress to mark a finite clause as positive rather than
negative. You must speak to the teacher! But I have spoken to him.
d) The operator functions in a range of elliptical clauses where the rest of the predication
is omitted. The clause is understood to repeat the omitted part: Won’t you try again?
Yes I will.
e) The operator is the verbal element that appears in tag questions: you haven’t read this
book, have you? I am your best friend, aren’t I?

If there is no operator in corresponding declarative sentences, the ‘empty’ operator do is used

under the above conditions. The use of the operator do is termed do-support. The main verbs
be and have are operators in the following sentences:
I haven’t a car.
Is she your sister?
Finite VPs

A finite VP is a verb phrase in which the first or only word is a finite verb, the rest of the VP
(if any) consisting of non-finite verbs. Finite VPs can be distinguished as follows:
a) Finite VPs can occur as the VP of independent clauses.
b) Finite VPs have tense contrast, i.e. the distinction between present and past tenses.
He is a journalist now. /Vs./ He worked as a travel agent last summer.
c) There is person concord and number concord between the subject of a clause and
the finite verb phrase. Concord is particularly clear with the present tense of the verb
to be. But with most full verbs overt concord is restricted to a contrast between the 3rd
person singular present and other persons or plural number. With modal auxiliaries
there is no overt concord.
d) Finite VPs have mood which indicates the factual, nonfactual or counterfactual status
of the predication. In contrast to the unmarked indicative mood, we distinguish the
marked moods imperative (used to express commands or other directive speech acts)
and subjunctive (used to express a wish, a recommendation).

A clause with a finite verb phrase as its verbal element is called a finite (verb) clause.
Similarly, a clause with a nonfinite verb phrase as its verbal element is called a nonfinite
(verb) clause.

Nonfinite VPs

The infinitive, the ing-participle and the ed-participle are the nonfinite forms of the verb.
Hence any verb phrase in which one of these forms is the first or only word (disregarding the
infinitive marker to) is a nonfinite verb phrase. Such verb phrases do not normally occur as
the verb phrase of an independent clause.

To drive like that must be dangerous.

I regret telling him the bad news
The cigars smoked here tend to be expensive.

The verb phrases in which the first element is a modal auxiliary are always finite verb
phrases.

TIME vs TENSE

Time is a universal concept with 3 divisions: past time, present time and future time. The
concept is universal in that the units of time are extra-linguistic: they exist independently of
the grammar of any particular language. In our use of language, however, we make linguistic
reference to these extra-linguistic realities by means of the grammatical category of tense
which is realized by verb inflection. Since English has no future inflected form of the verb,
the three-fold opposition (past-present-future) is reduced to two tenses: the present tense and
the past tense, which typically refer to present and past time respectively.

Stative and dynamic senses of verbs

We draw a distinction between stative and dynamic senses in which verbs are used to refer
to situations. Verbs like be, have and know have stative senses when they refer to a single
unbroken state of affairs.

I have known John all my life.

Verbs like drive, speak have dynamic senses when they are used with the present perfect to
refer to a sequence of separate events.

I have driven sports cars for years.

A verb may shift in sense from one category to another. Have is usually stative:

She has two sisters.

But it has a dynamic sense in:

We have dinner at Maxim’s quite frequently.

Dynamic verb senses can regularly occur with the imperative and progressive, but
stative verb senses cannot.

Learn how to swim! *Know how to swim!

I am learning how to swim. *I am knowing how to swim.

In general, only dynamic senses follow do in a pseudo-cleft sentence.

What she did was (to) learn Spanish.

*What she did was (to) know Spanish.

Simple present tense for present time

(a) The state present is used with stative verb senses to refer to a single unbroken state
of affairs that has existed in the past, exists now, and is likely to continue to exist in
the future. It includes the timeless present which refers to “eternal truths” such as

Two and three make five.

or less extreme instances of the timeless present such as

The British Isles have a temperate climate.

It also includes more restricted time spans:

Mary is tall. He does not believe in hard work.

We live in Edinburgh. This soup tastes delicious.

(b) The habitual present is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to events that
repeatedly occur without limitation on their extension into the past or future. Like the
state present, the habitual present includes the timeless present

Water boils at 100° C. The earth moves round the sun.

and more restricted spans

We go to Brussels every year. She doesn’t smoke. Bill drinks heavily.

Whereas the state present always refers to something that applies at the time of speaking or
writing, this is very often not so for the habitual present. We can say

Bill drinks heavily

when Bill is not actually drinking.

It is a characteristic of the habitual present that one can easily add a frequency adverbial (e.g.
often, once a day, every year, etc.) to specify the frequency of the event.

(c) The instantaneous present is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to a single
event with little or no duration that occurs at the time of speaking or writing. It is used
only in certain restricted situations:
- in commentaries: Black passes to Fernandez.
- in self-commentaries: I enclose a form of application.
- With performative verbs to refer to speech acts performed by uttering the sentences:
We acknowledge your letter. I apologize for my behaviour.

Simple present for past and future

There are three additional uses for the simple present that are best seen as extended
interpretations of the basic meanings listed above.

(a) The historic present/vivid present refers to past time and is characteristic narrative
style in familiar conversations.
Just as we arrived, up comes Ben and slaps me on the back as if we’re life-long friends

It is also used as stylistically marked device in fictional narrative for imaginary events in the
past:

The crowd swarms around the gateway, excitement grows as suddenly the hero makes his
entrance.

(b) The simple present is optionally used to refer to the past with verbs of
communication and/or reception of communication to suggest that the information
communicated is still valid:

Jack tells me that the position is still vacant.

I hear that you need an assistant.
I understand that the game has been postponed.

(c) In main clauses, the simple present typically occurs with time-position adverbials to
suggest a future event is certain to take place:

The plane leaves for London at 8 o’clock tonight.

The use of the simple present for future time is much more common in subordinate clauses,
particularly in conditional and temporal clauses.

He’ll do it if you pay him

I’ll let you know as soon as I hear from her

Somewhat akin to the other optional uses of the simple present for past time is its use in
reference to writers and their works.

Dickens draws his characters from the London underworld of his time.

Simple past for past time

The simple past is used to refer to a situation set at a definite time in the past.

(a) The event past is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to a single definite event in
the past. The event may take place over an extended period (e.g. The Normans
invaded England in 1066) or at a point in time (e.g. The plane left at 9 a.m.). The
definite time may be conveyed by a previous or subsequent time expression, in the
linguistic context, for instance by a time adverbial such as in 1066. It may also be
presupposed on the basis of knowledge shared by speaker and hearer. Your brother
 was at school with me presupposes as common knowledge that a specific period of
time is spent at school.

(b) The habitual past is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to past events that
occurred repeatedly.

We spent our holidays in Spain when we were children.

(c) The state past is used with stative verb senses to refer to a single unbroken state of
affairs in the past.

I once liked reading novels.

The habitual and state meanings of the past can be paraphrased by used to.

Special uses of the simple past tense

There are three special uses of the simple past.

(a) In indirect speech, the simple past in the reporting verb may cause the verb in the
subordinate reported clause to be backshifted into the simple past:

She said she knew you.

I thought you were in Paris

(b) The attitudinal past is optionally used to refer more tentatively (and therefore more
politely) to a present state of mind.

Did you want to see me now?

I wondered whether you are/were free tomorrow.

(c) The hypothetical past is used in certain subordinate clauses, especially if-clauses, to
convey what is contrary to the belief or expectation of the speaker.

If you knew him, you wouldn’t say that.

If she asked me, I would help her.
I wish I had a memory like yours.

>> you don’t know me

>> she will not ask me
>> I do not have such a memory
The perfect aspect
Aspect is a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the meaning of a verb is
viewed with respect to time. There are two aspects in English, the perfect and the progressive
which may combine in a complex verb phrase and are marked for present and past tense:
- present perfect present progressive
- past perfect past progressive

- present perfect progressive

- past perfect progressive

The present perfect

The present perfect is used to refer to a situation set some indefinite time within a period
beginning in the past and leading up to the present.

(a) The state present perfect is used with stative verb senses to refer to a state that began
in the past and extends to the present and will perhaps continue in the future:
She has owned the house since her father died.
They have been unhappy for a long time.

(b) The event present perfect is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to one or more
events that have occurred at some time within a period leading up to the present. We
distinguish two subtypes:
1. The event or events are reported as news; usually they have occurred shortly before the
present time:
I’ve just got a new job.
There has been a serious accident.
2. The event or events occurred at some more remote time in the past, but the implicit time
period that frames the event or events leads up to the present.
She has given an interview only once in her life (but she may yet give another interview).
Have you seen the new production of King Lear at the National Theatre (you still can do so)?

(c) The habitual present perfect is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to past events
that repeatedly occur up to and including the present.

The magazine has been published every month since 1975.

I’ve been reading only science fiction till now.

Unlike the simple past, the present perfect does not normally co-occur with adverbials that
indicate a specific point or period of time in the past.

I saw her e week ago.

*I have seen her a week ago.
The use of the present perfect for recent events may imply that the result of the recent event
still applies.

He’s broken his arms (>> His arm is still broken)

The train has arrived on platform 4 (>> The train is now on platform 4)

The simple past is often used in place of the present perfect for recent events especially in
Am E:

I just got a new job.

Some adverbials co-occur with the present perfect and not with the simple past. They include
the adverb since, prepositional phrases and clauses introduced by since (since Monday; since
I met you), the phrases till/ up to now and so far. The simple past must be used if the implicit
time period does not reach up to the present moment:

She gave an interview only once in her life. (She can give no more interviews since she is
dead)
Did you see the production of King Lear at the National Theatre? (You can no longer do so,
because the production has closed)

If will or shall is combined with future, the resulting future perfect conveys the
meaning ‘past in future’

By next week, they will have completed their contract.

A similar meaning may be conveyed with other modals:
By next week, they may have completed their contract (It is possible that they will have
completed…)

In temporal clauses future perfect is replaced by present perfect.

The past perfect

The past perfect refers to a time earlier that another past time. It may represent the past of the
simple past:

They had moved into the house before the baby was born.

The simple past can often replace the past perfect in such cases if the time relationship
between the two situations is clear:

They moved into the house before the baby was born.
The past perfect may also represent the past of the present perfect.

She had owned the house since her parents died – entails that she does not own it now
She has owned the house since her parents died – entails that she still owns the house

The past perfect has special uses similar to those for the simple past.

(a) In indirect speech constructions it indicates a backshift into the more remote past.
I told her the parcel had not arrived.

(b) The attitudinal past perfect refers more politely than the simple past to a present state
of mind.

I had wondered whether you are/were free now.

(c) The hypothetical past perfect is used in certain subordinate clauses especially if-
clauses to imply that the situation did not occur.

If I had been there, it would have not happened (>> I wasn’t there… )

Progressive aspect
The progressive aspect focuses on the situation as being in progress at a particular time.
Therefore it may imply that the situation has limited duration and that it is not complete.
(a) Generally, verbs with stative senses do not occur in the progressive, since states of
affairs cannot be viewed as being in progress.
*I am liking your system.
* He was knowing English.
When verbs that are ordinarily stative occur in the progressive, they adopt dynamic
meanings. They may indicate a type of behaviour with limited duration:
Your are being obstinate.
Verbs expressing emotion or attitude, which are generally stative, indicate tentativeness when
they occur in the progressive:
I’m hoping to take my exam soon.
I was wondering whether you could help me.
(b) The event progressive is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to an event that has
duration and is not completed.
(1) I was reading an economics book last night.
(2) One of the boys was drowning, but I dived in and saved him.
The progressive in (1) suggests that the book was perhaps not finished. In contrast the simple
past in (3) indicates that I had finished reading the book.
(3) I read an economics book.
The simple past drowned could not replace the past progressive was drowning in (2) because
it would not be compatible with the report that the boy was saved. The present progressive is
more commonly used that the simple present for events in present time because present
events are usually regarded as having some duration.
What are you doing? I’m writing a letter.
(c) The habitual progressive is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to events that
repeatedly occur with the implication that they take place over a limited period of
time:
She’s writing some short stories.
He’s teaching in a comprehensive school.
Contrast:
She writes some short stories.
He teaches in a comprehensive school.
The progressiveness implies temporariness, whereas the non-progressiveness implies
permanence (‘She is short-story writer’, ‘He is a teacher in a comprehensive school’). The
normally stative verb have in
At the time she was having singing lessons
carries the implication of temporariness and the initial time adverbial reinforces that notion.
The habitual progressive is not used to refer to sporadic events (*She is sometimes walking to
the office); the non-progressive is required for this purpose (She sometimes walks to the
office). In combination with indefinite frequency adverbs such as always and continually, the
habitual progressive loses its temporary meaning; it often conveys disapproval:
Bill is always working late at the office.

The relationship between two simple forms is one of TIME-SEQUENCE:

When we arrived, Jane made some fresh coffee
The arrival came before the coffee-making.
The relationship between progressive and a simple form is normally one of TIME-
INCLUSION:
When we arrived, Jane was making some coffee.
The arrival took place during the coffee-making.
Verbs denoting states of bodily sensation may be used more or less interchangeably in the
progressive and the non-progressive when referring to a temporary state:
My foot hurts/is hurting.
I feel/am feeling cold.
My back aches/is aching.

Special uses of the progressive

The progressive also has some special uses:

1 To refer to events anticipated in the future, or to events anticipated in the past (future in the
past): The train is leaving at nine (tomorrow). They were getting married the following
spring.
2 After will/shall to imply that the situation will take place ‘as a matter of course’ in the
future: I’ll be seeing you next week.

Verb senses and the progressive

We have pointed out that verbs with stative senses generally do not occur in the progressive.
Below we list classes of verbs that typically occur with stative and dynamic senses, and we
give a few examples of each class. Stance verbs are intermediate between stative and
dynamic verbs.

STATIVE

1States of ‘being’ and ‘having’: be, contain, depend, have, resemble.

2 Intellectual states: believe, know, realize, think, understand.
3 States of emotion and attitude: disagree, dislike, like, want, wish.
4 States of perception: feel, hear, see, smell, taste.
5 States of bodily sensation: ache, feel, sick, hurt, itch, tickle.

STANCE: lie, live, sit, stand.

Stance verbs may be used with either the progressive or the non-progressive, often with little
to choose between the variants. But sometimes they seem to be used with the non-progressive
to express a permanent state and with the progressive to express a temporary state:
James lives in London. [permanent residence]
James is living in London [temporary residence]

DYNAMIC DURATIVE (taking place over a period of time)

1 Activities performed by inanimate forces: (wind) blow, (engine) run, rain, snow, (watch)
work.
2 Activities performed by animate agents: dance, eat, play, sing, work.
3 Process (denoting change of state taking place over a period): change, deteriorate, grow,
ripen, widen
4 Accomplishments (action or activity that has a goal or endpoint): finish (the book), knit (a
sweater), read (the paper), write (an essay).

DYNAMIC PUNCTUAL (with little or no duration):

1 Momentary events or acts: bang, jump, knock, nod, tap. In the progressive, they indicate the
repetition of the event:
He was knocking on the door.
2 Transitional events or acts: arrive, die, drown, land, leave, stop.
In the progressive they refer to a period leading up to the change of state.
The train is (now) arriving at platform 4.

The perfect progressive

When the perfect and progressive aspects are combined in the same VP (e.g. has been
reading), the features of meaning associated with each aspect are also combined to refer to a
temporary situation leading up to the present when the perfect auxiliary is present has or
have. The combination conveys the sense of a situation in progress with limited duration:

I’ve been writing a letter to my nephew.

If the perfect progressive sense is combined with accomplishment predications or process

predications, then the VP conveys the possibility of incompleteness:

I’ve been cleaning the windows (>the job may not be finished; contrast: I’ve cleaned the
windows)
The weather has been getting warmer (>it may get warmer still)

The present perfect progressive may be used with dynamic verb senses to refer to a habit up
to the present and possibly into the future:

John has been scoring plenty of goals (this season)

I’ve been working on the night shift for several weeks.

The perfect progressive may combine with the past tense and with modals:

The fire had been raging for over a week – the temporary event leads up to some point in the
past.
By Friday, we will have been living here for 10 years – the temporary state is earlier than a
time in the future indicated by Friday.

The combination with the past tense or a modal need not presuppose an earlier time, and it
can therefore be accompanied by an adverbial of time position.

I had been talking with him only last Monday.

I must have been talking with him last Monday.
Some means of expressing future time
There is no obvious future tense in English corresponding to the time/tense parallel for
present and past. Instead there are a number of possibilities of denoting future time. Future
time is expressed by means of modal auxiliaries and verb idioms (with be and have) or by
simple present or progressive forms.

1 Will/shall + infinitive

The most common way of expressing futurity is the construction of will or ‘ll with the
infinitive.

He will be here in half an hour.

No doubt I’ll see you next week.

Shall is also sometimes used with the infinitive (especially in Southern BrE) to indicate
futurity with a first person subject

No doubt I shall see you next week.

Although these constructions are the closest approximations to a colourless, neutral future,
they also cover a range of modal meanings.

2 Be going to + infinitive

The general meaning of the constructions of be going to + infinitive is ‘future of the present’.
We can further distinguish two specific meanings. The first, ‘future fulfillment of a present
intention’ is chiefly associated with personal subjects and agentive verbs.

Mary is going to lend us her camera.

I’m going to complain if things don’t improve.

The other meaning, ‘future fulfillment of a present cause’, is found with both personal and
nonpersonal subjects.

It’s going to rain. She is going to have a baby.

There’s going to be trouble. You’re going to get soaked.

3 Present progressive

The general meaning of the present progressive is ‘future arising from present arrangement,
plan’.

I’m taking the children to the zoo.

The orchestra is playing a Mozart symphony after this.
4 Simple present

The future use of the simple present is frequent only in subordinate clauses:

What will you say if I marry the boss?

At this rate, the guests will be drunk before they leave.

In main clauses, the future use represents a marked future of unusual certainty, attributing to
the future the degree of certainty one usually associates with the present and the past. It is
used for statements about the calendar.

Tomorrow is Thursday.
School finishes on March, 21.

Also to describe immutable events.

When is high tide?

What time does the match begin?

Like the present progressive, it is used with certain dynamic, transitional verbs (e.g. arrive,
come, leave) to convey the meaning of plan (usually, official) or programme (i.e.
timetable/schedule).

The plane takes off at 2.30 tonight

5 Will/Shall + progressive

The construction of will/shall with the progressive may indicate a future period of time within
which another situation occurs:

When you reach the end of the bridge, I’ll be waiting there to show you the way.

Another use denotes ‘future as a matter of course’. It avoids the interpretation of volition,
intention, promise, etc. to which will, shall and be going to are liable. A sentence such as:

We’ll be flying at 30,000 feet

spoken by the pilot of an aircraft to the passengers implies that 30,000 feet is the normal and
expected altitude for the flight. This implication accounts for the use of the construction to
convey greater tact than the non-progressive with will/shall:

When will you be paying back the money?

6 Be (about) to + infinitive
Be to + infinitive

Be to + infinitive is used to refer to a future arrangement or plan, a future requirement and

intention.

Their daughter is to be married soon.

You are to be back by 10 o’clock. (You are required to….)
If he’s to succeed in his new profession, he must try harder. (If he intends to…. )

Be about to + infinitive simply expresses near future.

The train is about to leave.

I’m about to leave your essay.

The negative be not about to (esp. informal) may be paraphrased as ‘have no intention of’.

She is not about to complain.

7 Modals

Futurity is often indicated by modals other than will/shall.

The weather may improve (tomorrow).

You must have dinner with us (soon).

It is also indicated by verb idioms such as be sure to, be bound to, be likely to.

Future in the past

Most of the future constructions just discussed can be used in the past tense to describe
something which is in the future when seen from a viewpoint in the past

Modal verb construction with would – generally used in literary narrative style

The time was not far off when he would regret this decision.

Be going to + infinitive - often used with the sense of unfulfilled intention

You were going to give me the address (but you didn’t)

Past progressive – used to express an arrangement predetermined in the past

I was meeting him in Bordeaux the next day.

Be to + infinitive

He was eventually to end up in the bankruptcy court (= it was destined to …)

The meeting was to be held the following week – arrangement

Be about to + infinitive – it is often used with the sense of unfulfilled intention

He was about to hit me.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE
Forms of the subjunctive
There are two forms of the subjunctive. They are traditionally called the present and past
subjunctive, although the distinction relates more to mood than to tense.

The present subjunctive is expressed by the base form of the verb. For the verb be, the
subjunctive form be is distinct from the indicative forms am, is, are. For the other verbs, the
subjunctive is distinctive only in the 3rd person singular.

I insist that we reconsider the Council’s decisions – indicative or subjunctive

I insist that the Council reconsider its decisions – subjunctive
I insist that the Council’s decision be reconsidered – subjunctive

The past subjunctive (or were-subjunctive) survives only in were as a past form of be. It is
distinguishable from the past indicative of be only in the 1st and 3rd persons singular.

If she was there, you would have heard about it – indicative

If she were there, you would have heard about it – subjunctive

The indicative was is more common in less formal style. Only were is acceptable in as it were
(‘so to speak’). Were is usual in if I were you.

Negation of the present subjunctive does not require an operator.

I insist that we not reconsider the Council’s decision.

Uses of the subjunctive

Present subjunctive

We distinguish two main uses of the present subjunctive.

(a) The mandative subjunctive is used in a that-clause after an expression of such

notions as demand, recommendation, proposal, intention (e.g. we insist/prefer/request
that…; it is necessary/desirable/imperative that…..; the
 decision/requirement/resolution that….). This use is more characteristic of AmE that
BrE, but seems to be on the increase in BrE. In BrE the alternatives are putative
should and the indicative.

The employees demanded that he resign – subjunctive

The employees demanded that he should resign – putative should
The employees demanded that he resigns – indicative

(b) The formulaic (or optative) subjunctive is used in certain set expressions:

God save the Queen! Suffice it to say that…..

Long live the King! Heaven forbid that….
Come what may Be that as it may….

The past subjunctive

The past subjunctive is hypothetical in meaning. It is used in conditional and concessive

clauses and in subordinate clauses after wish, suppose.

I wish the journey were over.

If I were a rich man, I would….
Just suppose everyone were to act like you.

The subjunctive were is often replaced by the indicative was in less formal style.