Lesson 8.

Plant Reproduction and

Development

General Biology
Chemistry
2 1/2
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Plants are among
the most
successful
organisms on the
planet. Their
success can be
attributed to
various biological
adaptations that
let them thrive
many habitats. 2
 The ability of
plants to alter
between
reproduction
and
development
allowed to
colonize
environments
with diverse
conditions.
3
Plants have also
evolved various
reproductive
structures to Magnolia flower Fern spores
allow them to
increase their
chances of
successful
fertilization and
development.
Gymnosperm cones Passionfruit flower
4
How does the life cycle of a
plant begin?

5
Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Compare and contrast reproduction and

developmental processes in plants and
animals (STEM_BIO11/12 -IVa-h-1).

6
 Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Describe the life cycle of plants.

● Discuss the processes involved in plant

reproduction.

● Describe the stages of plant development.

7
Review of Plant Characteristics

Life cycle with

Multicellular Cellulosic
alternation of
organisms cell wall generations

Photosynthetic Plastids in
capacity cytoplasm

8
 Review of Major Plant Groups

}
Hornworts
Non-Vascular spore-bearing
Liverworts
Plants non-vascular plants

lignified vascular
Mosses
Land tissues absent

Plants spore-bearing
vascular plants
Pteridophytes
Vascular
Plants Gymnosperms
cone-bearing plants
lignified vascular Spermatophytes
tissues present
seed-bearing Angiosperms
vascular plants
flowering plants9
 Review of Major Plant Groups

Bryophytes (Spore-bearing non-vascular plants)

Hornworts Liverworts Mosses

10
 Review of Major Plant Groups

Pteridophytes (Spore-bearing vascular plants)

Ferns Horsetails Lycophytes

11
 Review of Major Plant Groups

Spermatophytes (Seed-bearing vascular plants)

Gymnosperms Angiosperms Angiosperms

(Monocot) (Dicot)
12
Alternation of Generations

Common life cycle pattern for

green plants

Alternation of haploid and diploid

phases

Sporophyte is the diploid stage,

while gametophyte is haploid

Meiosis forms haploid spores,

mitosis forms haploid gametes

Diploid chromosome number is

restored through fertilization
13
Floral Anatomy

The pistil
consists of
the female
structures in
flowers (i.e.,
stigma, style,
ovary)

14
Floral Anatomy

The stigma is
a structure
where the
pollen grains
must land
during
pollination.

15
Floral Anatomy

Style is the
stalk of the
stigma that
leads to the
ovary. Within
it is the pollen
tube.

16
Floral Anatomy

Ovary is the
female
structure in
flowers that
house the
female
gametes.

17
Floral Anatomy

Ovules are
small
structures
within the
ovary. Each
of them
contains an
egg nucleus.

18
Floral Anatomy

Stamen
refers to the
male portion
of the flower.
It consists of
anthers and
filaments.

19
Floral Anatomy

Anther is the
male
structure
that
produces and
stores the
pollen grains.

20
Floral Anatomy

Filament is
the staminal
structure
that serves
as the stalk
of the anther.

21
Floral Anatomy

Petals are the

colorful
leaf-life
structures in
flowers that
primarily
attract
pollinators.

22
Floral Anatomy

Sepals are
green
leaf-like
structures
that protect
the
structures in
a flower bud.

23
Floral Anatomy

Receptacle is
the thickened
portion below
the ovary
where floral
structures
grow.

24
Floral Anatomy

Pedicel is the
stalk of the
flower which
provides
support to all
floral parts.

25
 Angiosperm Life Cycle

The seeds inside a fruit

contain the developing
embryos. It is the first
sporophyte stage.

26
 Angiosperm Life Cycle

The embryos undergo

development and
differentiation to
become seedlings.

The seeds inside a fruit

contain the developing
embryos. It is the first
sporophyte stage.

27
 Angiosperm Life Cycle
Continuous growth and
development allows a
seedling to reach maturity.

The embryos undergo

development and
differentiation to
become seedlings.

The seeds inside a fruit

contain the developing
embryos. It is the first
sporophyte stage.

28
 Angiosperm Life Cycle
Continuous growth and The adult stage becomes
development allows a sexually mature.
seedling to reach maturity.

The embryos undergo

development and
differentiation to
become seedlings.

The seeds inside a fruit

contain the developing
embryos. It is the first
sporophyte stage.

29
 Angiosperm Life Cycle
Continuous growth and The adult stage becomes
development allows a sexually mature.
seedling to reach maturity.

The embryos undergo

development and
differentiation to The adults now produce
become seedlings. gametophytes in pollens
and ovules.

The seeds inside a fruit

contain the developing
embryos. It is the first
sporophyte stage.

30
 Angiosperm Life Cycle
Continuous growth and The adult stage becomes
development allows a sexually mature.
seedling to reach maturity.

The embryos undergo

development and
differentiation to The adults now produce
become seedlings. gametophytes in pollens
and ovules.

The seeds inside a fruit

contain the developing
Fusion of the gametes
embryos. It is the first
occurs during pollination.
sporophyte stage.

31
 Angiosperm Life Cycle
Continuous growth and The adult stage becomes
development allows a sexually mature.
seedling to reach maturity.

The embryos undergo

development and
differentiation to The adults now produce
become seedlings. gametophytes in pollens
and ovules.
Thereafter, the ovary
develops into a fruit. The
ovules become seeds.
The seeds inside a fruit
contain the developing
Fusion of the gametes
embryos. It is the first
occurs during pollination.
sporophyte stage.

32
 Gymnosperm Life Cycle

Female Cones Male Cones

33
 Gymnosperm Life Cycle

Embryos develop into

seedlings and into
mature sporophyte.
34
 Gymnosperm Life Cycle

Upon reaching sexual

maturity, gametophytes
are produced in the male
and female cones.

Embryos develop into

seedlings and into
mature sporophyte.
35
 Gymnosperm Life Cycle

Upon reaching sexual

maturity, gametophytes
are produced in the male The pollens from the male cones
and female cones. pollinate the ovules in female
cones.

Embryos develop into

seedlings and into
mature sporophyte.
36
 Gymnosperm Life Cycle

Upon reaching sexual

maturity, gametophytes
are produced in the male The pollens from the male cones
and female cones. pollinate the ovules in female
cones.

Fertilization
occurs, which
Embryos develop into transforms ovules
seedlings and into into seeds.
mature sporophyte.
37
 Fern Life Cycle

Spores at the underside of fertile A heart-shaped, free-living

fronds (sporophyte) of a fern species gametophyte of a fern species 38
 Fern Life Cycle

The young
sporophyte
develops into
mature ferns.
39
 Fern Life Cycle

Fertile ferns
produce spores
through meiotic
division.

The young
sporophyte
develops into
mature ferns.
40
 Fern Life Cycle

Fertile ferns The spores from the

produce spores sporangium develop
through meiotic into gametophytes.
division.

The young
sporophyte
develops into
mature ferns.
41
 Fern Life Cycle

Fertile ferns The spores from the

produce spores sporangium develop
through meiotic into gametophytes.
division.

The mature
gametophyte
produces
eggs and
sperms.

The young
sporophyte
develops into
mature ferns.
42
 Fern Life Cycle

Fertile ferns The spores from the

produce spores sporangium develop
through meiotic into gametophytes.
division.

The mature
gametophyte
produces
eggs and
sperms.

The young Fertilization

sporophyte occurs, which
develops into forms the
mature ferns. zygote.
43
 Fern Life Cycle

Fertile ferns The spores from the

produce spores sporangium develop
through meiotic into gametophytes.
division.

The mature
gametophyte
produces
eggs and
sperms.
The diploid zygote
develops into a
young sporophyte.
The young Fertilization
sporophyte occurs, which
develops into forms the
mature ferns. zygote.
44
 Comparison of Reproductive Structures and Processes

Structures and Pteridophytes and

Angiosperm Gymnosperm
Processes Bryophytes
Floral Structures Present Absent Absent

Cones Absent Present Absent

Primary Dispersal
Seeds Seeds Spores
Structures
Pollination Present Present Absent

Fruit Formation Present Present Absent

Some sporophyte,
Dominant Stage Sporophyte Sporophyte
some gametophyte
45
 Forms of Reproduction in Angiosperms

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

46
 Forms of Reproduction in Angiosperms

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

May either involve single

Requires a single or lone parent
(self-pollination) or two parents
(cross-pollination)

47
 Forms of Reproduction in Angiosperms

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

May either involve single

Requires a single or lone parent
(self-pollination) or two parents
(cross-pollination)

Does not involve the fusion of Requires the fusion of a sperm cell
gametes and egg cell during fertilization

48
 Forms of Reproduction in Angiosperms

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

May either involve single

Requires a single or lone parent
(self-pollination) or two parents
(cross-pollination)

Does not involve the fusion of Requires the fusion of a sperm cell
gametes and egg cell during fertilization

Offspring are genetically identical Enhances genetic variation

to the parent organism because the parents and offspring
are not genetically identical
49
 Asexual Reproduction: Apomixis

Floral units/flowers Mature fruits and seeds

Apomixis in some species of dandelions allows the
production of embryos from unfertilized eggs in ovules. 50
 Asexual Reproduction: Apomixis

Apomixis is a genetic feature in dandelions, which therefore, allows

them to produce viable seeds without undergoing pollination. 51
Asexual Reproduction: Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative propagation allows plant parts to produce buds

that can develop into new individuals. 52
 Asexual Reproduction: Vegetative Propagation

Stolon Stolon Stolon

Main Plant Buds Bud

Strawberries (Fragaria sp.) performs vegetative propagation

through the buds that emerge from stolons or runners. 53
Sexual Reproduction: Pollen Grains

Pollen grains contain the male

gametophytes in angiosperms.

Each pollen grain consists of two sperm

nuclei from the generative nucleus.

The tube nucleus will transport the

sperm during pollination.

54
Sexual Reproduction: Ovules

Each ovule or embryo sac in the ovary

of the flower consist of eight nuclei.

The primary sex cell that is fertilized

is the egg nucleus or egg cell.

Only the polar nuclei and egg nucleus

will have descendant in seeds.

55
Sexual Reproduction: Double Fertilization

Pollen grains land on the stigma of the

pistil. The pollen tube extends itself.

The pollen tube moves down the style

towards alongside two sperm nuclei.

In the embryo sac, one of the sperm nuclei

fertilizes the egg nucleus to form embryo.

The other sperm nucleus fertilizes the

polar nuclei to produce endosperm.

Double fertilization produces a diploid

embryo and a triploid endosperm.
56
Sexual Reproduction: Double Fertilization

The fate of the sperm nuclei, egg nucleus, and polar nuclei
during double fertilization in angiosperms 57
Plant Development

The shoot apical meristem

allows the continuous
upward growth of the plant.

58
Plant Development

The shoot apical meristem

allows the continuous
upward growth of the plant.

The cambium allows further

growth of stems and roots by
increasing their thickness.

59
Plant Development

The shoot apical meristem

allows the continuous
upward growth of the plant.

The cambium allows further

growth of stems and roots by
increasing their thickness.

The root apical meristem

allows the continuous
downward growth of roots.

60
Plant Development: Embryogenesis

The fate of different floral structure upon the maturity into a fruit
61
Plant Development: Embryogenesis

The differentiation of the ovary wall into exocarp,

mesocarp, and endocarp in different types of fruits 62
 Plant Development: Organogenesis

During germination, water is imbibed,

which ruptures the seed coat.

The radicle emerges from the seed,

which becomes the root of the plant.

The hypocotyl emerges from the

seed, which become the stem.

The cotyledons serve as the primary

embryonic leaves in the seedlings.

Eventually, the epicotyl from plumule

The fate of plumule, hypocotyl, cotyledons,
gives rise to mature leaves.
radicle, and epicotyl in the developing seedlings 63
How do you think plant cells
develop highly organized
structures like leaves, stems,
and roots?

64
 Check Your Understanding

Determine the accuracy of each of the following

statements. Write true if the statement is correct and
false if otherwise.

1. During pollination, the seed imbibes water for

activation and develops and forms a seedling.
2. The embryo in a seed is the first sporophyte stage of a
plant.
3. Flowers are vegetative organs that contain the pollen
from the anther and ovule in the pistil, which are
needed for fertilization.
65
 Check Your Understanding

Complete the Venn diagram by comparing and

contrasting the given terms below.

Reproduction Development

66
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● The life cycle of plants, such as bryophytes,

pteridophytes, and spermatophytes, is
characterized by the alternation of generations.
In this mechanism, a plant alternates between the
diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte
stages.

67
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● In a generalized angiosperm life cycle, a plant

starts as a seed.
○ The seed imbibes water for activation, and it
develops and forms a seedling.
○ The seedling will reach an adult tree that will
bloom and produce flowers.
○ The flowers contain the pollen from the anther
and ovule in the pistil that is needed for
fertilization. 68
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Fertilization happens one the pollen penetrates

the ovary of the flower.

● A fertilized ovule then develops to form a fruit

containing the seeds that must be dispersed to
produce new individuals, which will sexually
mature.
69
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Both embryogenesis and organogenesis are

important processes that take place after the
formation of seeds in a plant. They ultimately lead
to the formation of functional organs in a plant
body.

70
Let’s Sum It Up!

The general pattern of reproductive and developmental phases of

the plant life cycle 71
Challenge Yourself

How do you think are plant

reproduction and development
related?

72
Photo Credits

● Slide 2: Mossy forest floor - geograph.org.uk - 157198, cropped, by Callum Black is licensed
under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 4: Magnolia sieboldii flower 1 by William (Ned) Friedman is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 4: Spores under a fern leaf, cropped by kaibara87 is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 10: Hornwort (3144429129), cropped, by Jason Hollinger is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 10: Polytrichum Formosum1 by Alexander Klink is licensed under CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons.

● Slide 11: Mattlummer Lycopodium clavatum 2, cropped, by Calle Eklund/V-wolf is licensed

under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

73
Photo Credits

● Slide 12: Norway Spruce cones (Picea abies), cropped, by MrPanyGoff is licensed under CC
BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 33: Male Cones (3618723565), cropped, by Axel Kristinsson from Reykjavík, Iceland is
licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 38: Onoclea sensibilis 3 crop, cropped, by Vlmastra is licensed under CC BY 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slides 46–49: Stolons with Flowers (12558469495), cropped, by incidencematrix is licensed

under CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

74
Bibliography

Coyne, Jerry. 2009. Why Evolution Is True. Oxford University Press. Genetic Science Learning Center.
July 1, 2013.

Johnson, G.B., and Raven, P.H. 2001. Biology: Principles & Explorations. Austin: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.

Klug, W.S., Spencer, C.A., and Cummings, M.R. 2016. Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson.

Mader, S.S. 2014. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Reece, J.B., and Campbell, N.A. 2011. Campbell Biology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings/Pearson.

75
Lesson 8.2

Animal Reproduction and

Development

General Biology 2
1/2
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Animals,
alongside plants,
are among the
most successful
organisms on
the planet due
to the diversity
of their
adaptations.
2
The alternation
between the
reproduction and
development in
animals
significantly
contributes to
their survival for
many
generations.
3
Diverse forms of
reproductive
mechanisms exist
in the animal
kingdom, all of
which allows the
next generations
to inherit the
genetic material of
the species.
4
How does the life cycle of an
animal begin?

5
Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Compare and contrast reproduction and

developmental processes in plants and
animals (STEM_BIO11/12 -IVa-h-1).

6
 Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Describe the life cycle of animals.

● Discuss the processes involved in animal

reproduction.

● Describe the stages of animal development

7
 General Animal Life Cycle

Embryo
Embryogenesis Organogenesis

Zygote Young

Fertilization Maturation
Gametogenesis
Gametes Adult
8
 General Animal Life Cycle
Fertilization
Embryogenesis
Gametogenesis

Organogenesis

Maturation

9
 Metamorphosis: Atlas moth (Attacus sp.)

Larva Adult

Metamorphosis is a feature in some organisms that involves a rapid

change from an immature larvae and juvenile to a sexually mature adult.
10
 Metamorphosis: Sea stars

Juvenile Adult

Metamorphosis is a feature in some organisms that involves a rapid

change from an immature larvae and juvenile to a sexually mature adult.
11
 Metamorphosis: Lady bugs

Larva Adult

Metamorphosis is a feature in some organisms that involves a rapid

change from an immature larvae and juvenile to a sexually mature adult.
12
Complete Metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis
(holometabolous) is characterized
by distinct larval and pupal stages.

13
Complete Metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis
(holometabolous) is characterized
by distinct larval and pupal stages.

The larval stage does not resemble

the adult individual.

14
Complete Metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis
(holometabolous) is characterized
by distinct larval and pupal stages.

The larval stage does not resemble

the adult individual.

The larval stages also undergo

several molting stages.

15
Complete Metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis
(holometabolous) is characterized
by distinct larval and pupal stages.

The larval stage does not resemble

the adult individual.

The larval stages also undergo

several molting stages.

The pupa stage is a period when

drastic changes occur.

16
 Complete Metamorphosis

European Stag Beetle (Lucanus cervus)

Larva Pupa Adult

17
 Complete Metamorphosis

Mosquito (Aedes albopictus)

Larva Pupa Adult

18
 Complete Metamorphosis

Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus)

Larva Early pupa Late pupa Adult

19
Incomplete Metamorphosis: Hemimetabolous

Incomplete metamorphosis
(hemimetabolous) is characterized
by an aquatic juvenile stage.

20
Incomplete Metamorphosis: Hemimetabolous

Incomplete metamorphosis
(hemimetabolous) is characterized
by an aquatic juvenile stage.

The larval stage somehow

resembles the adult stage.

21
Incomplete Metamorphosis: Hemimetabolous

Incomplete metamorphosis
(hemimetabolous) is characterized
by an aquatic juvenile stage.

The larval stage somehow

resembles the adult stage.

The larval stages also undergo

several molting stages.

22
Incomplete Metamorphosis: Hemimetabolous

Incomplete metamorphosis
(hemimetabolous) is characterized
by an aquatic juvenile stage.

The larval stage somehow

resembles the adult stage.

The larval stages also undergo

several molting stages.

The pupa stage does not exist in

the individual’s life cycle.

23
 Incomplete Metamorphosis: Hemimetabolous

Dragonflies

Naiad Adult

24
Incomplete Metamorphosis: Paurometabolous

Incomplete metamorphosis
(paurometabolous) is characterized
by a terrestrial juvenile stage.

25
Incomplete Metamorphosis: Paurometabolous

Incomplete metamorphosis
(paurometabolous) is characterized
by a terrestrial juvenile stage.

The larval stage somehow

resembles the adult stage.

26
Incomplete Metamorphosis: Paurometabolous

Incomplete metamorphosis
(paurometabolous) is characterized
by a terrestrial juvenile stage.

The larval stage somehow

resembles the adult stage.

The larval stages also undergo

several molting stages.

27
Incomplete Metamorphosis: Paurometabolous

Incomplete metamorphosis
(paurometabolous) is characterized
by a terrestrial juvenile stage.

The larval stage somehow

resembles the adult stage.

The larval stages also undergo

several molting stages.

The pupa stage does not exist in

the individual’s life cycle.

28
 Incomplete Metamorphosis: Paurometabolous

Grasshoppers

Nymph Molting adult

29
 Asexual Reproduction

Fission

Fragmentation
Asexual
Reproduction
Budding

Parthenogenesis

30
 Asexual Reproduction

Fission

Fragmentation
Asexual
Reproduction
Budding

Parthenogenesis Fission involves the splitting of the

parent individual into two
approximately equal halves.
31
 Asexual Reproduction

Fission

Fragmentation
Asexual
Reproduction
Budding Fragmentation involves breaking body
parts into fragments. Thereafter, each
fragment will regenerate into fully
functional individuals.
Parthenogenesis

32
 Asexual Reproduction

Fission

Fragmentation
Asexual
Reproduction
Budding

Budding involves an outgrowth or bud

Parthenogenesis forming in the body of an adult.
Eventually, it will detach to develop as a
complete individual.
33
 Asexual Reproduction

Fission

Fragmentation
Asexual
Reproduction
Budding

Parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis involves the

development of an embryo from an
unfertilized egg.
34
 Sexual Reproduction

Requires two parents from Requires fusion of the egg

each of the two sexes cell and the sperm cell

Sexual
Reproduction

Relies highly on the Enhances genetic variation

efficiency of gametogenesis in biological populations

35
Sexual Reproduction

External Fertilization Internal Fertilization

36
 Sexual Reproduction

External Fertilization Internal Fertilization

Usually involves the release of Sperm cells are usually deposited

gametes into the surroundings into the female reproductive tract

37
 Sexual Reproduction

External Fertilization Internal Fertilization

Usually involves the release of Sperm cells are usually deposited

gametes into the surroundings into the female reproductive tract

The developing embryos are The young may be nourished in the

usually nourish externally or may female’s body or eggs are laid after
immediately land on a substrate fertilization

38
 Sexual Reproduction

External Fertilization Internal Fertilization

Usually involves the release of Sperm cells are usually deposited

gametes into the surroundings into the female reproductive tract

The developing embryos are The young may be nourished in the

usually nourish externally or may female’s body or eggs are laid after
immediately land on a substrate fertilization

Common in aquatic organisms Common among higher animals such

such as fishes and corals as birds, reptiles and mammals
39
Sexual Reproduction

External Fertilization Internal Fertilization

40
 Variations in Internal Fertilization

Oviparous Ovoviviparous Viviparous

Eggs are laid and the embryo Embryos are nourished in Embryos are nourished by
obtain its nourishment from eggs, which remain in the the placenta until the mother
the stored yolk nutrients. parent’s body until they hatch. gives birth to live young.
41
 Variations in Internal Fertilization

Oviparous Ovoviviparous Viviparous

Eggs are laid and the embryo Embryos are nourished in Embryos are nourished by
obtain its nourishment from eggs, which remain in the the placenta until the mother
the stored yolk nutrients. parent’s body until they hatch. gives birth to live young.
42
 Variations in Internal Fertilization

Oviparous Ovoviviparous Viviparous

Eggs are laid and the embryo Embryos are nourished in Embryos are nourished by
obtain its nourishment from eggs, which remain in the the placenta until the mother
the stored yolk nutrients. parent’s body until they hatch. gives birth to live young.
43
 Mechanism of Fertilization

1. Contact with the jelly

layer or the zona pellucida

2. Digestion by the
acrosomal enzymes
3. Species-specific fusion
of gamete membranes
(fast-block)
1
4. Cortical reaction
2 5. Formation of fertilization
envelope (slow-block)
3
4 5 44
 Mechanism of Fertilization

1. Contact with the jelly

layer or the zona pellucida

2. Digestion by the
acrosomal enzymes
3. Species-specific fusion
of gamete membranes
(fast-block)
1
4. Cortical reaction
2 5. Formation of fertilization
envelope (slow-block)
3
4 5 45
 Mechanism of Fertilization

1. Contact with the jelly

layer or the zona pellucida

2. Digestion by the
acrosomal enzymes
3. Species-specific fusion
of gamete membranes
(fast-block)
1
4. Cortical reaction
2 5. Formation of fertilization
envelope (slow-block)
3
4 5 46
 Mechanism of Fertilization

1. Contact with the jelly

layer or the zona pellucida

2. Digestion by the
acrosomal enzymes
3. Species-specific fusion
of gamete membranes
(fast-block)
1
4. Cortical reaction
2 5. Formation of fertilization
envelope (slow-block)
3
4 5 47
 Mechanism of Fertilization

1. Contact with the jelly

layer or the zona pellucida

2. Digestion by the
acrosomal enzymes
3. Species-specific fusion
of gamete membranes
(fast-block)
1
4. Cortical reaction
2 5. Formation of fertilization
envelope (slow-block)
3
4 5 48
Animal Development: Cleavage and Blastulation

During embryogenesis, the zygote

undergoes repeated cell division and
cell reorganization.

49
Animal Development: Cleavage and Blastulation

During embryogenesis, the zygote

undergoes repeated cell division and
cell reorganization.

Cleavage refers to the rapid cell

divisions that the zygote undergoes.

50
Animal Development: Cleavage and Blastulation

During embryogenesis, the zygote

undergoes repeated cell division and
cell reorganization.

Cleavage refers to the rapid cell

divisions that the zygote undergoes.

Continuous division forms the

solid ball of cells called morula.

51
Animal Development: Cleavage and Blastulation

During embryogenesis, the zygote

undergoes repeated cell division and
cell reorganization.

Cleavage refers to the rapid cell

divisions that the zygote undergoes.

Continuous division forms the

solid ball of cells called morula.

The cells are then organized into a

hollow ball of cells called blastula.

52
 Animal Development: Gastrulation

Gastrulation involves extensive cell migration and rearrangement,

which forms the three embryonic germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm,
and endoderm. 53
Animal Development: Organogenesis

Organogenesis is
marked by the
neurulation or the
formation of the
neural tube through
the folding of the
ectodermal neural
plate.

54
Animal Development: Organogenesis

Each of the three embryonic germ layers gives rise to specific

tissues and organs in the developing embryo.

55
What do you think will happen
if cells do not differentiate
during the development of the
embryo?

56
 Check Your Understanding

Determine the accuracy of each of the following

statements. Write true if the statement is correct and
false if otherwise.
1. Gastrulation refers to the rearrangement of the cells in
the blastula.
2. The layers of a gastrula include the ectoderm,
endoderm, and mesoderm.
3. After fertilization, the fertilized will begin a series of
rapid cell divisions.
57
 Check Your Understanding

Complete the Venn diagram by comparing and

contrasting the given terms below.

Blastula Gastrula

58
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● The life cycle of an animal usually starts from the

fusion of the male (sperm) and the female (egg
cell) gametes during the fertilization process.

● Metamorphosis is a biological feature in the life

cycle of some organisms. It can either be
complete or incomplete, depending on whether a
pupa stage is present.
59
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● The fertilized egg will undergo active cell division

and cell differentiation to form the developing
embryo during embryogenesis.

● The embryo will undergo organogenesis, where

it starts to form several types of tissues that will
lead to the formation of the organs and organ
systems.
60
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Once an individual is formed, this will grow and

mature into an adult, which will be capable of
reproducing and forming another generation
of individuals.

61
 Let’s Sum It Up!

The general pattern of the development of a fertilized egg into an adult

organism

62
Challenge Yourself

Do you think the reproduction

process in animals is more
complicated than in plants?
Explain your answer.

63
Photo Credits

● Slide 1: Tortoise-Hatchling by Mayer Richard is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons.

● Slide 4: Grasshopper Give birth, cropped, by Badal Chandra Sarker is licensed under CC BY-SA
4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 4: Coral Outcrop Flynn Reef, cropped, by Toby Hudson is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikipedia.

● Slide 4: Culex sp larvae, cropped, by (Image: James Gathany, CDC) is licensed under CC BY 2.5
via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 10: Attacus atlas - Atlas moth caterpillar at Mayyil (17), cropped, by Vinayaraj is licensed
under CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 11: Granular sea star Chorisater granulatus displying its fat arms on the reef, cropped, by
Vardhan Patankar is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

64
Photo Credits

● Slide 11: Juvenile sea star, cropped, by Bruno C. Vellutini is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 17: Lucanus cervus larva, cropped, by Anaxibia is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 17: Lucanus cervus female pupa, cropped, by Mariafremlin is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 18: Larva A.albopictus by laboratorio diagnostica ancona IZSUM is licensed under CC BY
2.0 via Flickr.

● Slide 19: Monarch chrysalis (38005054515), cropped, by USFWSmidwest is licensed under CC BY

2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 29: Grasshopper Nymph (6933148752), by Bernard DUPONT from FRANCE is licensed
under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

65
Photo Credits

● Slide 33: Hydra oligactis by Lifetrance at en.wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slides 41-43: Pregnant male White's Seahorse-Hippocampus whitei (16175153524), cropped, by

Sylke Rohrlach from Sydney is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slides 41-43: Lambing in England -10March2012 (2), cropped, by Karen Roe is licensed under CC
BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

66
Bibliography

Coyne, Jerry. 2009. Why Evolution Is True. Oxford University Press. Genetic Science Learning Center.
July 1, 2013.

Johnson, G.B., and Raven, P.H. 2001. Biology: Principles & Explorations. Austin: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.

Klug, W.S., Spencer, C.A., and Cummings, M.R. 2016. Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson.

Mader, S.S. 2014. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Reece, J.B., and Campbell, N.A. 2011. Campbell Biology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings/Pearson.

67
Lesson 9.1

Nutritional Requirements
and Modes of
Procurement in Plants

General Biology 2
1/2
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
We all know that plant
needs sunlight, water,
and carbon dioxide in
order to synthesize
their own food.

2
But aside from this
requirements, what
other materials are
needed by the plants
in order to grow?

3
What do plants get
from the soil? What are
the roles of these
nutrients in plant
growth and
development?

4
What are the nutritional
requirements of plants?

5
Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Compare and contrast nutrition requirements

and acquisition in plants and animals
(STEM_BIO11/12 -IVa-h-1).

6
 Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Enumerate the nutritional requirements of plants.

● Identify major plant structures needed for

nutrient acquisition and transport.

● Discuss mechanisms for the flow of nutrients in

plant organs.

7
 Nutritional Requirements of Plants

The essential materials needed by plants can be divided

into macronutrients and micronutrients.

● Macronutrients refer to the materials needed by the

plants in larger amounts.

● Micronutrients refer to the materials needed by the

plants in small amounts.

8
Nutritional Requirements of Plants

Macro and
micronutrients in
plants

9
 Macronutrients

Phosphorus

Plant
Macronutrients Nitrogen

Potassium

10
 Macronutrients

This is needed for the synthesis of

Phosphorus nucleic acids and phospholipids for the
cell membrane of plant cells.

Plant
Macronutrients Nitrogen

Potassium

11
 Macronutrients

This is needed for the synthesis of

Phosphorus nucleic acids and phospholipids for the
cell membrane of plant cells.

Plant
Macronutrients Nitrogen Nitrogen is essential for proteins and
nucleic acid synthesis.

Potassium

12
 Macronutrients

This is needed for the synthesis of

Phosphorus nucleic acids and phospholipids for the
cell membrane of plant cells.

Plant
Macronutrients Nitrogen Nitrogen is essential for proteins and
nucleic acid synthesis.

This is important in the regulation of

Potassium stomatal opening and closing through
the potassium ion pump.

13
Macronutrients

The numbers in
fertilizers refer to the
amount of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and
potassium (NPK).

14
 Other Macronutrients

Macronutrient Function
These elements are usually needed in the form of
Hydrogen and
water and oxygen gas. Water and oxygen are both
Oxygen
necessary for photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
This element is needed to form carbohydrates,
Carbon
proteins, nucleic acids, and other relevant compounds.
Sulfur is considered as a macromolecule since it is a
Sulfur common component of some amino acids like cysteine
and methionine.

15
 Other Macronutrients

Macronutrient Function
Calcium regulates nutrient transport and at the same
Calcium
time supports many enzyme functions.
Together with other micronutrients, magnesium is
Magnesium
essential for maintaining the plant's ionic balance.

16
 Micronutrients

Macronutrient Function

This element is relevant in carbohydrate transport in plants.

Boron Boron is also important in assisting metabolic regulation. Plants
lacking boron often experience bud dieback.

Chlorine This element is needed for osmosis and ionic balance in plants.

Copper is an important component of some enzymes. Copper

Copper deficiency can lead to browning of leaf and yellowing of the
leaves.

17
 Micronutrients

Macronutrient Function

Iron This element is needed for chlorophyll synthesis.

This element is needed for the activation of enzymes needed

Manganese
for chlorophyll formation.

18
 Micronutrients

Macronutrient Function

This element is needed for transforming nitrates into usable

Molybdenum
forms. This is needed for nitrogen fixation.

This element participates in chlorophyll formation and at the

Zinc
same time, needed for the activation of many enzymes.

19
Nutrient Deficiency

The manifestation of
nutrient deficiency in
plants

20
Vascular Tissues

Vascular and nonvascular plants

21
Vascular Tissues

Xylem
● The vascular tissues that are
responsible for the transport of
minerals and water from roots to
other parts of the plants.
● It has two separate chambers, namely:
tracheids and vessels for transporting
minerals and water.
22
Vascular Tissues

Phloem
● This the primary vascular tissue
needed for the transport of
nutrients and food from roots
to other growing parts of plants.

23
Movement of Materials in Vascular Tissues

Transpiration

Cohesion

Absorption

24
Movement of Materials in Vascular Tissues

Transpiration Water loss through the stem and

leaves

Cohesion

Absorption

25
Movement of Materials in Vascular Tissues

Transpiration Water loss through the stem and

leaves

Ability of the water to flow

Cohesion through narrow spaces in the
xylem and phloem

Absorption

26
Movement of Materials in Vascular Tissues

Transpiration Water loss through the stem and

leaves

Ability of the water to flow

Cohesion through narrow spaces in the
xylem and phloem

Absorption Collection of water and nutrients

from the soil through the roots

27
Absorption in Roots

Vascular bundles in dicot and monocot roots

28
Transport of Materials in Stem

Vascular bundles in dicot and monocot stems

29
Transport of Materials in Leaves

Part of a leaf that shows the petiole, midrib,

and the veins that contain vascular tissues
30
What do you think will happen to
the plants if vascular bundles are
not present?

31
 Check Your Understanding

Identify the importance of each elemental nutrient in

plants.
1. Carbon
2. Boron
3. Nitrogen
4. Potassium
5. Hydrogen and Oxygen

32
 Check Your Understanding

Complete the Venn diagram by comparing the given

terms below.

Phloem Xylem

33
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Macronutrients refer to the materials needed by

the plants in larger amounts.
○ Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
and sulfur.

34
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Micronutrients refer to the materials needed by

the plants in small amounts.
○ Boron, chlorine, manganese, iron, zinc, copper,
and molybdenum.

35
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Deficiency of the macro and micronutrients in

plants can lead to functional alteration that can
affect entire plant health.

● Vascular tissues consisting of xylem and

phloem are needed for the transportation of
nutrients and water in plants.
36
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Capillary action refers to the ability of the water

to flow through narrow spaces in the xylem and
phloem.

37
Let’s Sum It Up!

Nutrients in plants
38
Challenge Yourself

How do you think are water and

nutrients transported to the tallest
part of a tree? Do you think gravity
can affect the process of capillary
action?

39
Bibliography

Coyne, Jerry. 2009. Why Evolution Is True. Oxford University Press. Genetic Science Learning Center.
July 1, 2013.

Johnson, G.B., and Raven, P.H. 2001. Biology: Principles & Explorations. Austin: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.

Klug, W.S., Spencer, C.A., and Cummings, M.R. 2016. Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson.

Mader, S.S. 2014. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Reece, J.B., and Campbell, N.A. 2011. Campbell Biology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings/Pearson

40
Lesson 9.2

Nutritional Requirements
and Modes of Procurement
in Animals

General Biology 2
1/2
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
 Animals must
feed, not only to
Tube Worms Whale Shark obtain energy, but
also to acquire
molecules that
they cannot
produce.

Giraffe Lion 2
To sustain their
nutritional
requirements,
animals have A crab feeding on algae A plankton-feeding manta ray
evolved by
having various
mechanisms to
obtain food.

A fruit-feeding bearded dragon A carnivorous snake 3

What are the nutritional
requirements of animals?

4
Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Compare and contrast nutrition requirements

and acquisition in plants and animals
(STEM_BIO11/12 -IVa-h-1).

5
 Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Describe the nutritional requirements of animals.

● Identify the common mechanisms of how

animals obtain nutrients from their environment.

6
 Nutritional Requirements of Animals

Locomotion Growth Respiration

Circulation Nervous function Development

Animals require various nutrients from their food to maintain many

biological functions. 7
 Carbohydrates

Gazelle feeding on grass Butterfly feeding on nectar Monkeys feeding on fruits

Animals usually obtain carbohydrates from their plant-based diet.

8
 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates serve as the Being consumers, they cannot

primary energy source in the produce their own
cells of animals. carbohydrates, unlike plants.

Cells use glucose as the primary Carbohydrates also serve other

carbohydrate that is oxidized functions such as in structural
during respiration. and signalling molecules.
9
 Carbohydrates

Termites Cellulose is a carbohydrate

found in plant-based diet of
various animals.

Due to the type of glycosidic

linkages in cellulose, some
animals cannot digest it.

Goat Termites and ruminants have

protozoa and bacteria in their
gut that can digest cellulose.

Humans cannot digest

cellulose. However, it is a
component of our dietary fiber.
10
 Proteins

Hyena feeding on flesh Anteater feeding on ants Egg predation by a snake

Animals usually obtain proteins by feeding on other animals or developing

eggs.
11
Proteins

Amino Acids Proteins are essential

biomolecules needed for tissue
Essential Nonessential growth and repair.
Methionine Glutamine
Phenylalanine Glycine They are integral components
of cytoplasm and membranes of
Threonine Proline
cells and organelles.
Tryptophan Serine
Valine Tyrosine They are digested to provide
Arginine Alanine essential amino acids that
Histidine Asparagine animals cannot produce.
Isoleucine Aspartate
They are integral components
Leucine Cysteine
of almost all of the enzymes in
Lysine Glutamate the animal body.
12
 Lipids

Polar bear feeding on the An Adelie penguin A squirrel feeding an a

carcass of a narwhal regurgitating a krill lipid-rich avocado

Animals can obtain lipids from both animal-based and plant-based diet.
13
Lipids

Lipids are essential nutrients

that make up most of the
membranes of cells.

These biomolecules are also

essential in the synthesis of the
myelin of nerve fibers.

They are also important to the

biosynthesis of various
lipid-based hormones.

Being energy-storage
molecules, they can release
more energy when oxidized.
14
 Nucleic Acids

Eagle feeding on a snake Sea urchin feeding on algae Panda feeding on bamboo

Animals can obtain nucleic acids by consuming whole or parts of other

organisms.
15
Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are digested

alongside ingested cells of
other organisms.

They are digested into their

constituent nucleotides for
absorption by the body.

The absorbed nucleic acid

components are used to
synthesize DNA, RNA, and ATP.

However, for most animals,

nucleic acids are not essential
because they can be produced.
16
 Vitamins and Minerals

Crickets feeding on carrots Caterpillar feeding on a leaf A rabbit feeding on veggies

Animals usually obtain vitamins when they consume whole or parts of

plants.
17
Vitamins and Minerals

Minerals refer to important

elements that animals need to
obtain from their diet.

Important minerals include

phosphorus, sulfur, potassium,
magnesium, and zinc.

Vitamins are trace organic

compounds present in the diet
of animals.

Essential vitamins in the diet of

animals can either be
A snail feeding on a breadfruit water-soluble or fat-soluble.
18
 Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins Benefits Sources

effective in the treatment of

sweet potatoes, carrots,
eye disorders and skin
Vitamin A spinach, squash, animal
infections; needed for the
milk, cheese, cream, eggs
growth of bones and tooth
a crucial component of an
enzyme; needed for red poultry, meat, fish, various
Vitamin B6
blood cell production; thus it fruits and vegetables
relieves anemia
crucial enzyme component
seafood, eggs, milk, fish,
Vitamin B12 for cellular reproduction;
poultry, and meat
improves nerve function
19
 Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins Benefits Sources

only in fruits and vegetables
crucial enzyme component for
(e.g., citrus cabbage,
Vitamin C protein metabolism; improves
strawberries, tomatoes,
immunity; acts as an antioxidant
lettuce)
liver, fatty fish, egg yolk; our
aids in the absorption of calcium skin can also synthesize
Vitamin D
in the digestive tract vitamin D when exposed to
sunlight
polyunsaturated plant oils,
Vitamin E with antioxidative functions
leafy green vegetables
reduces menstrual pain and
Vitamin K leafy green vegetables
internal bleeding; blood clotting
20
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Feeding Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

This method is accomplished

by trapping food particles
from the drawn water.

These particles are then

moved into the cell of the
organism via bulk transport.

Intracellular digestion is
performed via the enzymes
of lysosomes.
Sponges draw water into their bodies and filter
microorganisms and other nutrients from it. 21
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Feeding Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

Some higher animals, such

as whales, feed by filtering
krills from marine water.

They perform filter feeding

by using their brush-like
teeth called baleen.

Whales are among the higher animals that also

obtain food through the filter-feeding mechanism. 22
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Feeding Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

Some higher animals, such

as whales, feed by filtering
krills from marine water.

They perform filter feeding

by using their brush-like
teeth called baleen.

They engulf water with dense

krills and force this water out
of their mouth.
Whales are among the higher animals that also
obtain food through the filter-feeding mechanism. 23
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Feeding Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

Giant Clam Anchovies Whale Shark

Filter feeding also occurs among bivalves, bony fishes,
and cartilaginous fishes. 24
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Feeding Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

The prey obtained through

its tentacles is moved into
the gastrovascular chamber.

The gastrodermis tissue

secretes enzymes that can
digest prey’s soft tissues.

The undigested food

particles are expelled
through the mouth region.
A hydra is a cnidarian that seizes its prey by
using its tentacles. 25
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Feeding Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

Cuttlefish Nautilus

Other animals that use tentacles to obtain food are

cephalopods, such as cuttlefish, squid, nautilus, and octopus. 26
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

Earthworms feed via suction

of soil material as they crawl
through the ground.

The strong muscular pharynx

pushes the food, which is
moistened in the crop.

The gizzard performs the

mechanical digestion of food
materials in soil.
Earthworms have a strong muscular pharynx
that acts as a suction tube in the soil. 27
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

Leeches have piercing

mouthparts that can allow
them to tear host skin.

Their strong muscular oral

sucker allows them to attach
to the host organism.

They then suck nutrient-rich

blood and prevent
coagulation through hirudin.
Leeches are also annelids that feed through
the suction of blood from its host organism. 28
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

Other animals with structures that allow them to suck food from their
sources are insects, such as butterflies, flies, and mosquitoes. 29
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

The beaks of birds are

structurally adapted to the
type of their food.

It can be fit to feed on seeds,

fruits, small insects, nectar,
fish, reptiles, or mammals.

This structure is usually used

to study the birds’ ecological
and evolutionary history.

30
 Mechanisms of Nutrient Procurement in Animals

Filter Feeding Use of Tentacles Suction Use of Beaks Jaws and Teeth

Jaws and teeth are usually

used by fishes, reptiles, and
mammals to seize their prey.

For mammals, the

morphology of the teeth
reflects the diet type.

Similar to birds, the teeth of

most animals may also
Herbivorous, carnivorous, and omnivorous reflect evolutionary history.
mammals have homologous dental structures. 31
What do you think is the role of
diet type in the evolution of the
structures used by animals to
acquire food?

32
 Check Your Understanding

Provide the functions of the given nutritional biomolecules.

Biomolecule Roles/Functions

Carbohydrates

Nucleic Acids

Lipids

Vitamins
and Minerals
 Check Your Understanding

Complete the
Venn diagram Intracellular Extracellular
digestion digestion
by comparing
the provided 1. 3.
5.
items.

2. 4.

34
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Animals have basic biomolecule requirements to

sustain biological functions.
○ Carbohydrates are important biomolecules
needed by the animals as a primary source of
energy.

35
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Animals have basic biomolecule requirements to

sustain biological functions.
○ Proteins are another essential nutrient
needed by animals that serve diverse functions
such as being components of enzymes and
structural molecules.

36
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Animals have basic biomolecule requirements to

sustain biological functions.
○ Lipids are essential biomolecules needed by
animals to form cellular and organelle
membranes. They can also act as energy
storage molecules.

37
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Animals have basic biomolecule requirements to

sustain biological functions.
○ Nucleic acids are as much as important as
other biomolecules. Their monomers are used
in the synthesis of DNA, RNA, and ATP.

38
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Animals have basic biomolecule requirements to

sustain biological functions.
○ Mineral refers to basic elements that animals
need for metabolic processes.
○ Vitamins are organic compounds that are
usually present in trace amounts in an animal's
diet.
39
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Animals have developed several mechanisms on

how to acquire food such as:
○ filter-feeding and bulk transport in sponges;
○ trapping of food or prey by using tentacles in
hydra;
○ sucking of soil and nutrients in earthworms,
leeches, and mosquitoes;
○ picking through beaks in birds; and
○ use of jaws and teeth in most vertebrates. 40
Let’s Sum It Up!

Animal nutritional requirements

41
Challenge Yourself

How do you think the type of diet

affects the evolutionary history of
an organism?

42
Photo Credits

● Slide 7: Chicken-embryo-1week old-stereomicroscope, cropped, by Ben Skála is licensed under

CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 11: Bullsnake Eating Mallard Egg by USFWS Mountain-Prairie is licensed under CC BY 2.0
via Flickr.

● Slide 13: A polar bear (Ursus maritimus) scavenging a narwhal whale (Monodon monoceros)
carcass - journal.pone.0060797.g001-A, cropped, by Fallows C, Gallagher AJ, Hammerschlag N
(2013) is licensed under CC BY 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 13: Adélie Penguin regurgitates krill for its chick (5917753158), cropped, by Liam Quinn
from Canada is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 15: Black-chested snake-eagle (Circaetus pectoralis), cropped, by Charles J Sharp is

licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

43
Photo Credits

● Slide 17: Crickets feeding on carrot, cropped, by Sean Wallace is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 24: Large Giant Clam (Tridacna maxima) (6059116842), cropped, by Bernard DUPONT from
FRANCE is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 24: Whale Shark AdF, cropped, Arturo de Frias Marques is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 26: Deepest record of Nautilus – 703 meters, cropped, by Dunstan AJ, Ward PD, Marshall
NJ is licensed under CC BY 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons.

● Slide 29: Male mosquito by Leszek Leszczynski is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Flickr.

44
Bibliography

Coyne, Jerry., 2009. Why Evolution Is True. Oxford University Press. Genetic Science Learning Center.
July 1, 2013.

Johnson, G.B., and Raven, P.H., 2001. Biology: Principles & Explorations. Austin: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.

Klug, W.S., Spencer, C.A., and Cummings, M.R., 2016. Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson.

Mader, S.S., 2014. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Reece, J.B., and Campbell, N.A., 2011. Campbell Biology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings/Pearson.

45