INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS TYPES OF ETHICS:

SHORT HISTORY OF ETHICS IN HEALTHCARE 1.Descriptive: It is the description of the values and
beliefs of various cultural, religious or social groups about
• Since the era of Hippocrates (460 – 370 BC), the health and illness.
proper, ethical treatment of patients by healthcare
providers has been emphasized. The Hippocratic 2.Normative: a study of human activities in a broad sense
oath and other more modern versions have all stated in an attempt to identify human actions that are right or
how to appropriately treat patients. wrong and good and bad qualities. In nursing normative
• More recently, four pillars of bioethical decision ethics addresses: scope of practice of different categories
making in healthcare have been developed: of nurses and, level of competence expected.
autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence and justice. 3.Analytical: analyzes the meaning of moral terms. It
Each of these must be taken into consideration when seeks the reasons why these action or attitudes are either
treating patients. wrong or right.
• Most hospitals have ethics review boards that use
these pillars to determine the proper and CATEGORIES OF ETHICS
appropriate treatments for patients in difficult and
ethically challenging situations. These boards provide
guidance to healthcare providers, the patients and
their families facing these unique circumstances.

WHAT IS ETHICS?

❖ derived from the Greek word ethos which can mean

custom, habit, character or disposition

❖ also referred to as the philosophy of morality

BIOETHICS
❖ system of moral values or principles of conduct for
❖ethics as applied to “life situations”
individuals or groups
❖philosophical study of ethical issues brought about by
❖ concerned with what is good for individuals and society
advances in scientific and medical technologies
❖ covers the following dilemmas:
❖study of moral and ethical choices faced in medical
• how to live a good life research and in the treatment of patients especially
• our rights and responsibilities when the application of advanced technology is involved
• the language of right and wrong
❖aims to consider on to how maintain respect for and
• moral decisions - what is good and bad?
protection of the individual in light of our expanding
❖refers to a method of inquiry about the rightness or knowledge of the life sciences and their applications
wrongness as human actions
SCOPE OF BIOETHICS
❖the practices or beliefs of a group

❖the standards of moral behavior described in the group’s

formal code of ethics

❖ Study of the norm of human acts as guided by human

reason
 IMPORTANCE OF BIOETHICS PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

• Tales of abuse of person, person’s rights and ❖principles that govern the behaviour of a person or group
personal autonomy in research, health care delivery in a business environment
and training programs abound. They arouse shame
and indignation. ❖provide rules on how a person should act towards other
• Healthcare is not morally neutral. Today’s people and institutions in such an environment
healthcare provider must face competing and ❖encompass the personal and corporate standards of
compelling claims upon which he must act. behavior expected by professionals
• The problems are here and now and moral decisions
have to be made. ❖examine issues, problems, and the social responsibility of
• Every healthcare provider is a moral agent who must the profession itself and individual practitioners in the light
judge the goodness or evil of his goal and actions. of philosophical and, in some contexts, religious principles
• He cannot depend on scientific knowledge that can among which are duty and obligation.
judge only the effectiveness of the means to achieve
❖Ethical principles underpin all professional codes of
the desired goal.
conduct.
• Goodness must be determined by considerations of
man, his needs, and his ultimate ends, his economic, ❖Ethical principles may differ depending on the profession.
cultural, social and spiritual ramifications. ❖However, there are some universal ethical principles that
HEALTH ETHICS apply across all professions, including:
• honesty
❖ branch of ethics that deals with ethical issues in health, health • trustworthiness
care, medicine and science • loyalty
• respect for others
❖ involves discussions about treatment choices and care • adherence to the law
options that individuals, families, and health care providers must • doing good and avoiding harm to others
face • accountability

❖ requires a critical reflection upon the relationships between ETHICS VS MORALS

health care professionals and those they serve, as well as the
programmes, systems, and structures developed to improve the
health of a population

❖ involves deliberating about the allocation of resources, and

reflecting on the complex moral choices arising from ongoing
health care restructuring and advancing technology

❖ entails a critical, political, and ethical analysis of the definition

and the determinants of health

ISSUES IN HEALTH ETHICS

❖making decisions about end-of-life care

❖determining whether to allocate funds to the treatment of

disease or the promotion of health

❖critically examining the discrepancies in health status between

populations and our ethical obligations to ensure equitable
access to health services

❖ensuring ethical conduct in health research