DEFINING CULTURE AND SOCIETY

The following are the definitions of Culture.

Culture is a group of people’s way of life.
Culture is the shared beliefs of a group of people.
Culture is a belief transmitted to generation by generation.
Concept of Culture
Culture is a society's shared and socially transmitted ideas, values, and perceptions used to
make sense of experience and generate behavior and are reflected in that behavior.
According to Edward B. Taylor, Culture is “that complex whole which encompasses belief,
practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artefacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a
person learns and shares as a member of society.”
Let us enumerate essential words to remember culture—first, society. Second, socially
transmitted. Third, ideas, values, and perceptions-- which can be classified as beliefs.
Lastly, this quoted statement, “which is used to make sense of experience and which generates
behavior and are reflected in that behavior,” may see this way of life?”
Concept of Society
“The term “social” refers to society, people interacting in groups; the term “sociological refers to
sociology, the study of people interacting in groups. according to Gabler
Aspects of Culture and Society
These are the aspects of Culture and Society-- Dynamic and flexible, adaptive, shared and
contested, patterned social interactions, integrated and at times unstable, and lastly requires
language and other forms of communication.
Dynamic and Flexible (Culture changes as time passes)
Dynamic and flexible aspect of culture and society simply says that culture changes as
time passes and when the culture changes, society will follow.
Adaptive (Culture adapt, but not perfectly)
The adaptive aspect of culture and society is needed for people’s survival. As some
say, change is the only consistency. Therefore, as human beings, we need to adapt to change
so we can survive.
Shared and contested (Subculture and Counterculture)
This aspect is one of culture's reactions to "change" because some societies develop
their own culture. Subculture is the shared way of living of a subgroup in a society. What those
are supposed to mean.
Patterned Social Interactions
It simply says that culture and society develop in the constant interaction of people. Therefore,
members of the group learned patterns of behavior, arts, languages, values, etc.
Integrated and at Times Unstable
As past aspects say, change constantly comes from time to time, so we need to survive.
One way to do this is to integrate ourselves with new ideas.
Requires Language and Other Forms of Communication
“Language is an organized set of symbols by which we can think and communicate
with others. Language is also the chief vehicle by which human beings create a sense of self.”
Cultural Change
“Cultures are constantly changing. Changes in ideas, symbols, or values often ensue in a
symbolic clash called culture wars. Technological changes can happen faster than social
ideas change, leading to a culture lag, which often results in confusion or discomfort.
Social Change
Social change in modernity is so rapid that it often gives rise to major social problems, as
traditional lifestyles, morals, religious beliefs, and everyday routines are disrupted, sometimes
without being replaced.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND ETHNOCENTRISM
Concept Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the error of viewing one's own culture as superior and applying one's cultural
values in judging people from other cultures.
It is also the belief that one's own culture is the primary standard by which other cultures may be
measured or understood.
As we can see in this situation, even though we reject other cultures, it doesn't mean that they
are superior to others. Some religions already have this ethnocentric mindset because most
religions claim that their religion is "the right religion", so some of their members are persecuting
others' beliefs.
An ethnocentric individual believes that his own culture is right, more proper, more natural or
normal.
Ethnocentric viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one’s own culture.
Ethnocentrism often results in other cultures being seen as inferior to one’s own.
Ethnocentrism describes judging other cultures by using one's cultural standards. The
ethnocentric view considers one's own culture as the "center of everything," seeing the world
only from the perspective of one's own culture.
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism suggests that every culture is equal. It is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and
values are dependent on their cultural context and should be treated as such. According to
Franz Boas (1887), "...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas
and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes."
Importance of Cultural Relativism in Understanding Culture
Ethnocentric beliefs may provide a sense of belongingness with the members of your own
culture due to similar beliefs and worldviews. However, it is essential to employ cultural
relativism if one wishes to understand cultures outside of one's own fully. In cultural relativism,
neither one is civilized or primitive, only different but equal. Where ethnocentrism ends, cultural
relativism begins.
For us not to judge others’ way of life even though it differs from us.
To avoid judgment toward others’ beliefs.
For us, not immediately claim what right and wrong action is.
We can't judge others using our basis or culture.
We must treat people equally.
CULTURAL FORMS AND THREATS
Cultural Forms
According to the ideas of Franz Boas, a culture is a product of the unique history it had
gone through. Thus, to understand a specific culture, one must also understand what the culture
was in the past. By studying a culture's history, one can understand how its material and non-
material culture have evolved. As Franz Boas said, to learn our own culture, we must analyse
material and non-material culture so that we can visualize the way of living of our ancestors.
Also, it brings cultural identity to us new generations (CourseHero, n.d.).
Material Culture
Material culture is defined as having an integral place within the construction of the early
societies, helping later generations understand the cognitive and symbolic aspects of those
societies. Material cultures are tangible objects significant to society. All things that are
touchable, such as technology, cities, good surplus, monumental buildings, money, instrument
in music, and writing, are significant to the society we call material culture. In some aspect,
material culture is also called tangible heritage (CourseHero, n.d.).
Heritage
Heritage refers to anything that is being passed down from one generation to another. Part of
our culture is acquiring the belonging of parents or relatives who passed away. This inheritance
can be the change of your social status or gain properties if you are in the marginalized way of
life. They always the proper nurturing and education are their inheritance that no one can steal.
Property or values/belief is a kind of heritage consisting of culture or way of life passed down to
us new generation (CourseHero, n.d.).
According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
"is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are
inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future
generations". Cultural heritage represents a particular group's way of living that is passed down
from one generation to another. Everything that was received from a culture's ancestors that are
still present in the culture's current form can be considered part of its cultural heritage. Cultural
heritage can be broken down into tangible and intangible heritage (CourseHero, n.d.).
Tangible Heritage
The material culture of a group is mostly what constitutes the tangible heritage of a
specific culture.
Tangible heritage, as the word suggests, are material forms of cultural heritage. This includes
artifacts, historical places, monuments, buildings, or any vital object for the culture.
Tangible Heritage is composed of both movable and immovable cultural heritage. When
we say movable, it can be transferred to another place. Examples of these were paintings,
sculpture, musical instruments, clothing, and any tools for livelihood. The movable cultural
heritage is easy to transport from one place to another. While when we say immovable heritage,
it includes monument, buildings or even the whole town or city. An example of this is Vigan City.
The best example of immovable cultural heritage represents the past way of life of Filipinos.
Natural Heritage
A unique form of heritage that could also be considered as part of tangible heritage is
natural heritage. In this picture is the Iguazu Falls that runs from Argentina and Brazil. It is one
example of the world's extraordinary natural heritage. And the question is, did the Philippines
have a natural heritage?
Tubbataha Reefs National Park in Puerto Princesa
- Underground River
- Chocolate Hills in Bohol
- Mayon Volcano
And many places here in the Philippines that we can consider as natural heritage.
Intangible Heritage
Intangible heritage represents the non-material aspect of cultural heritage. This includes
oral tradition, performing arts, rituals, festivities, knowledge about nature, or producing
traditional crafts.
UNESCO gives meaning to "intangible cultural heritage", means the practices, representations,
expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural
spaces associated in addition to that – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals
recognize as part of their cultural heritage. This intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from
generation to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to
their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense
of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity
(Intangible Cultural Heritage, n.d.).
 UNESCO states that intangible cultural heritage is traditional, contemporary and living
at the same time (enduring despite its antiquity), inclusive (may be shared with other
generations and other cultures to ensure continuity), representative, and community-based
(recognized by the whole community as a heritage.
One of the famous skills that need to preserve and pass to the next generation was
the skill of “batok” it is a form of body tattoo by tapping the thorn of pomelo and charcoal with
water as ink. Apo Whang-Od is the last “mambabatok”. These skills are probably become
extinct if no one is willing to learn and enhance this skill.
Threats
These are the threats to our cultural heritage:
- Pollution
- Deterioration from a natural calamity
- Damage from foreign and local visitors
- Illegal trafficking of cultural property
- War
- Thefts
These threats may be natural or artificial; we should be careful and give awareness to
preserve our cultural heritage. All these threats are avoidable, but we need to take action with
the same goal, for our cultural identity is at our hand.
Preserving the Cultural Heritage
All peoples make their contribution to the culture of the world. That's why it's essential to
respect and safeguard all cultural heritage through national laws and international treaties. The
illicit trafficking of artifacts and cultural objects, the pillaging of archaeological sites, and the
destruction of historical buildings and monuments cause irreparable damage to the cultural
heritage. UNESCO, founded in 1954, has adopted international conventions on the protection of
cultural heritage to foster intercultural understanding while stressing the importance of
international cooperation (Franchi, 2017).
The protection of the cultural property is an old problem. One of the most frequently
recurring issues in protecting cultural heritage is the problematic relationship between the
interests of the individual and the community, the balance between private and public rights
(Franchi, 2017).
Always put into our mind that some of this heritage is irreplaceable; if it is lost in some
other way, we also lost our own identity. The future generation didn't inherit the richness of our
culture. By learning the cultural heritage of different peoples, we become closer to
understanding and respecting our own culture and the culture of others. It is, thus, important
that everybody partakes in the preservation of all cultural heritages.
The Heritage Cycle, developed by Simon Thurley, might aid in the preservation of one's
cultural heritage. By following the cycle, one can pass the heritage of past generations to future
generations to come. The cycle starts from enjoying a cultural heritage, understanding it,
eventually valuing it, and caring for it.
Socialization
 It simply means the process of learning how to become part of a culture.
 It is the same as interacting, mingling, and being with other people or groups.
 It helps individuals learn the culture's language, their role in life, and what is expected
from them.
Agents of socialization
 Family – most of the habits, manners, beliefs, and how we think are developed.
 School – a youth interact with different individuals in school, which provides many
experiences for an individual.
 Peer – with peer groups, a person may share the same interest.
 Social media – this agent of socialization influences a person's way of life intensively,
thus sharing a large part in his/her personal development.
Enculturation
Herskovits (1955) defined enculturation as the aspects of the learning experience that
mark off man from other creatures and achieve competence in his culture (Somani, 2008).
This is, in essence, a process of conscious or unconscious conditioning, exercised within limits
sanctioned by a given body of custom. This process is all adjustment to social living achieved
and all those satisfactions, a part of social experience that derives from individual expression
rather than association with others in the group. Enculturation is an integral part of socialization
because it enables culture to be shared among members of society. As you may have already
learned, culture is essential because it facilitates identity formation. The enculturation process
started during an individual's childhood by conditioning to fundamental habits, such as eating,
sleeping, speaking, and personal hygiene—"whose inculcation has been shown to have special
significance in shaping the personality and forming the habit patterns of the adult in later life"
But the enculturation process did not stop there, because as individuals became adults, they
continued the process of learning. By the time individuals were adults, the learning process has
led them to social stability and cultural continuity within their culture.
Enculturation is how people learn the requirements of their surrounding culture and acquire
values and behaviors appropriate or necessary in that culture.
Sample Illustration
Example of socialization in school
Developmental socialization. This type of socialization involves a learning process wherein the
focus is on developing our social skills.
Difference between nature versus nurture
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature human personality and identity is inborn and inherited.
The nurture principle emphasizes that our personalities are shaped from birth onwards by
social forces that we interact with.
Throughout history, the question of whether our behavior, thoughts, and feelings result
from nature, our genetic inheritance, or from nurture, the influence of the environment, has
shaped our understanding of why we act in specific ways and how we can influence human
behavior. The controversy was initially described as nature versus nurture. For example, let's
say you are an aggressive (or shy, or outgoing) person. Researchers wanted to determine
whether you become aggressive because you were "born that way," with genes from your
parents determining the outcome, or whether you learned to be aggressive because of what you
saw or experienced in your environment.
Do we, as individuals, behave a certain way because we were “born that way,” or do we
behave that way because our environment “taught” us to behave that way?
As a student, what is your stand?
People initially argued for one side or the other, but it has become clear that the outcome is a
mixture of both in more recent times. Nature–nurture. The traditional view of the nature-nurture
relationship (A) sees the two influences as overlapping but with one dominating overall. The
new view (B) sees the two influences as inextricably intertwined in all areas, with neither
dominating. (Drawing by Gary Dale Davis.)
Sample Illustration
Nature versus nurture today relates to homosexuality. Nature proponents believe that
homosexuality is genetic or outside of a person's control. Nurture proponents believe that
homosexuality is a choice or a behavior influenced by environmental factors (Nature vs. Nurture
Examples, n.d.).
Socialization
Socialization is the lifelong process by which, through social interaction, we learn our
culture, develop our sense of self, and become functioning members of society.
As to how we define socialization, it is an interactive process by which individuals learn the
basic skills, values, beliefs, and behavior patterns of a society. From birth until adulthood, we
interact with others. This concept justifies the saying, "No man is an island" we are social beings
that need others to survive. And through someone, we mold our own identity, our culture.
Norms
Norms are cultural standards or guidelines that enable individuals to distinguish between
appropriate and inappropriate behavior in a given society.
For every society, norms are essential factors in keeping peace and order. They set the
standards of what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior within the group. For instance, it is
a cultural norm in Asian countries to pay respects to the elderly. To guide and encourage
conformity to social and cultural norms, members of society use sanctions, rewards, and
punishment to control social behavior.
Types of Norms
Mores - these are norms that are widely observed in society and pose heavy moral significance.
Folkways - these are norms that are observed in casual or routine encounters and are
considered less significant.
Taboos - are the forbidden act set by society. Taboos exist in various contexts, some of them
being known in most societies and others being more context-specific. For example, there are
cultural taboos, dietary taboos, and religious taboos, only to name a few (Keturi & Lehmonen,
2011).
Values
Values are culturally defined standards that people see as good, acceptable, and
desirable those serve as broad guidelines of living. Values are developed through socialization.
Through social interactions, individuals learn to embrace certain qualities and behaviors
necessary to become acceptable social beings.
What is a Group?
A group comprises two or more persons interacting with each other and guided by a set of
norms. It is also defined as a specified number of individuals where each recognizes members
as distinct from non-members (Angelo, n.d.).
Basic Classifications of Social Groups
Primary Groups
Primary groups are marked by a concern for one another, shared activities and culture,
and long periods spent together. They are influential in developing an individual's identity. The
goal of primary groups is the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other
purpose. Examples of a primary group but not limited to be your family and childhood and close
friends.
Secondary Groups
Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of
one another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don't aim to maintain and develop
the relationships themselves. These groups are based on usual or habitual interests or affairs. It
includes groups in which one exchanges explicit commodities, such as labor for wages, services
for payments, and such.
In-group
Belonging to the same Group as others who share the same common bond and
interests who are more likely to understand each other refers to an in-group. Sample Groups:
Sports team, Unions, and Sororities.
Out-group
 Those who do not belong to the in-group are part of the out-group, which exists in the
perceptions of the in-group members and takes on social reality due to behavior by in-group
members who use the out-group as an opposing point of view reference.
William Graham Sumner
William Graham Sumner introduced the concept of in-groups and out-groups to describe the
relations among different groups of a primitive society. He distinguished those concerning one
another—the "we" group— and those outside this relationship —the "others" group.
Reference Groups
A reference group is a collection of people we use as a standard of comparison regardless of
whether we are part of that Group. We rely on reference groups to understand social norms,
shaping our values, ideas, behavior, and appearance. This means that we also use them to
evaluate the relative worth, desirability, or appropriateness of these things (CourseHero, n.d.).
Positive reference groups are those groups of which one aspires to be part.
Negative reference groups are groups with which people do not want to identify with.
Herbert Hyman became an author of books and a well-known researcher focusing on
education, socialization, and attitude change.
Network
A network is a collection of people tied together by a specific pattern of connections. The
number of people involved can characterize them, as in the dyad (by twos) and triad (by threes),
but also in terms of their structures (who is connected to whom) and functions (what flows
across ties). Networks indeed can do more things and different things than individuals acting on
their own could. Networks have this effect, regardless of the content of the connections or
persons involved (CourseHero, n.d.).