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The Positive Social and Self Concept Consequences of Sports Team

Identification

Article  in  Journal of Sport & Social Issues · September 1991

DOI: 10.1177/019372359101500202

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Nyla R. Branscombe Daniel Wann

University of Kansas Murray State University
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JourNJl o[Sport and StxiaJ IsslUS. 1991,15(2). pp. 11.5-127.

The Positive Social and Self Concept Consequences

of Sports Team Identification

Nyla R. Branscombe and Daniel L. Wann

Department of Psychology

University of Kansas

ABSTRACT
As a result of increased geographic mobility, industrialization, and the
like, traditional social and community ties have declined. Conversely.
sports spectatorship has continued to flourish. We argue that strong
identification with a specific sports team provides a buffer from feelings
of depression and alienation, and at the same time. fosters feelings of
belongingness and self worth. In effcct, sports team identification
replaces more traditional family and community-based attachments to
the larger social structure. Three studies find suppon for these notions,
using basketball and baseball fans. The relationship between degree of
team identification and team success was also examined; it was only
significant for individuals who identify with teams geographically
removed from themselves. Discussion focuses on the positive
implications of sports team identification for self-esteem maintenance
and the social ties it creates.

INTRODUCTION
Approximately 70 percent of Americans watch, read, or
discuss sports, at least once a day (Iso-Ahola and Hatfield 1986).
With such a large proportion of the population involved in sports, at
least as spectators, it is not surprising that thought has been given to
the functions that sports might serve for spectators. Zillmann,
Bryant, and Sapolsky (1979), for example, have argued that, similar
to actual sports participation, spectatorship has a potentially positive
impact on personal development by helping individuals learn to cope
with their emotions. We will present data here that identifies further
the positive social consequences of sports viewing, especially for
individuals highly identified with a particular team. Such
identification seems to boost self-esteem, reduces depression, and

Preparation of this manuscript was assisted by a University of Kansas

Biomedical Sciences grant awarded to the flTSt author. We wish to thank Jason
Coleman and Lisa Rose for their assistance during the data collection phase of
this research.
116 Branscombe and Wann, Consequence of Sports Team Identification Journal olSports arul Social I.uues I J7

decreases alienation. In effect, an individual's favored spons team of bonding with other fans of that team (Wann and Branscombe
provides ties with the larger social structure and a sense of belong­ 1990a). Such bonding may intensify as a result of sharing the
ingness in a society that consists of fewer community and kin victories and defeats of the team, as well as by the feeling of
relationship ties. In fact, there is evidence that the increasing belongingness gained through interactions with other supporters.
development of spons in general during this century is negatively These feelings of belonging and bonding should result in increased
related [0 the presence of other powerful attachments (Guttmann feelings of self worth. In fact, research testing social identity theory
1978). As a result of industrialization, geographic mobility, has found that increasing the salience of a group relevant to even a
urbanization, and the decreasing impact of religious institutions, recently acquired identity can automatically increase levels of self­
many traditional social ties have declined. Spons viewing provides esteem (Brewer 1979; Oakes and Turner 1980; Turner 1975).
individuals with "something grander than themselves" that they can While previous research has demonstrated that individuals
feel a part of, without requiring any special skills, knowledge, or may enhance their self-esteem through associations with successful
acceptance of particular institutional values. Indeed, sports teams (Cialdini et at. 1976; Cialdini and Den Nicholas 1989), our
represent the embodiment of the American spirit--fair competition, contention is that identification per se, through its effect on feelings
physical prowess, and a lack of class-based limits on panicipation, of belonging, will exert a positive effect on individuals' self
panially explaining their tremendous popularity in this country concept. That is, identification with a team will foster a sense of
(Eitzen and Sage 1986). attachment among highly allegiant individuals, regardless of
Consistent with this perspective, Smith, Patterson, competition outcome or even overall team record. This sense of
Williams, and Hogg (1981) have suggested that sports help to belonging will, in turn, result in increased feelings of self worth.
relieve the strain of everyday life by providing excitement for the Thus, it is hypothesized that there will be a positive relationship
individual. In effect, sports viewing allows the individual to between identification with a Sports team and self-esteem.
momentarily escape the trials and tribulations of the real world Conversely, a negative relationship is expected between
(Lasch 1979; Snyder and Spreitzer 1978). People can escape by identification and feelings of depression--a potential manifestation of
becoming involved in a competition. The resulting arousal or stress, a lack of meaning or solidarity with others. In addition, [0 rule out
commonly referred to as eustress, seems to be a pleasant experience the possibility that degree of ideJ1lification is merely an allempt to
for many individuals (Elias and Dunning 1970; Koppett 1982; present oneself in a socially desirable fashion, this variable will be
Sloan 1979). Spons spectatorship also seems to contribute to measured with the expectation that the two will not be correlated.
viewers perceived quality of life, and is one way in which family
members can maintain a sense of unity. Families who share a high STUDY I
interest in sports are almost twice as likely to express satisfaction Method
with their leisure time, relative to those not involved with sports Undergraduates (76 males; III females) atlhe University of
(Iso-Ahola and Hatfield 1986). Kansas participated in exchange for partial course credit in their
While these factors are all benefits of viewing sporting introductory psychology course. Each subject was asked to
contests, an important distinction needs to be made between complete three questionnaires--a self-esteem scale (Hoyle 1987), the
involvement or interest in sport and identifying with a specific team. Crowne-Marlow social desirability measure (Crowne and Marlow
Schurr, Wittig, Ruble, and Ellen (1986) note that spons consumers 1964), and a sports team identification measure (Wann and
can either identify with the institution represented by a ream, or with Branscombe I990a). The self-esteem scale consisted of 20 Likert­
the sporting event or game itself. While identification with these scale items and the social desirability measure contained 20
two are quite likely correlated, they are not identical. An individual questions with dichotomous (yes/no) responses. The team
may be a dedicated sports fan, but not support one team in identification measure contained seven items which previous
particular. Likewise, persons may support their college team, yet research has shown [0 be both a reliable and valid means of
care little about a panicular sport, or even sports in general. assessing spectators' allegiance !O a spOrts team (Wann and
While an individual can benefit from sports consumption in Branscombe 1990a). The University of Kansas Men's Varsity
general, as noted earlier, additional benefits may be received from Basketball Team was used as the object of identification in this fIrSt
strongly identifying with a particular team. For example, highly study. Frequency of experiencing depression was assessed with a I
identified fans, relative [0 those who are less allegiant, feel a sense (never) to 8 (always) scale.
118 Branscombe and Wann. ConsCLjucnee of Spans Team Identification lou",.' oj SP0f/.\· ana Soci.l Issues 119

significant negative relationship was found between degree of team

identification and fre{juency of depression, r (188) = -.Hi, P < .05.
Table I: Means and Standard Deviations for the Measures The relationship between team identification and social desirdbility
Employed in the Three Studies. was not significant, r (187) = -.02. P > .35. This laller effect is
notewonhy given the normative suppon among college students to
~ Standard favor their own college's team, the object of identification in this
~ ~ Deviation study.

Study I Discussion
Self-esteem a 5.66 1.05 The results from Study I were consistent with the
Social desirabilityb 1.55 0.15 hypothesis that identification with a SPOl1S team elevates self-esteem
and reduces the likelihood of depression. Furthermore, repons of
KU basketball team idenriflcation a 6.20 1.35 team allegiance are not simply due to social desirability concerns.
Frequency of depression a 3.14 1.80 The increased self-esteem and lower depression observed here may
well be due to the sense of allachmeOl to something grander than the
Study 2 self, one function that sports team ideOlification can serve.
KU basketball team identiflcation a 5.59 1.64 Durkheim (1951) argued that as society increases in size and
specialization, individuals become alienated, making them
Positive feelings C 2.67 0.61
vulnerable to depression, hopelessness, and ultimately suicide.
Negative affect C 0.97 0.69 Spectator SpOrts may serve to integrate such otherwise detached
AnxietyC 1.82 0.75 persons (Cozens and Stumpf 1951; Smith 1988).
Alienation c 0.90 0.84 To fUl1her test these hypotheses, a new sample was recruited
to participate in a second study. Feelings of alienation and
Study 3 hopelessness were directly assessed, with the expectation that those
Baseball team identification a 4.42 1.57 who are more srrongly identified with a spons team would be less
likely to report such feelings. Other positive consequences of
Ranking of favorite teamd 8.89 4.57 idenrification, in addition 10 self-esteem, were also examined.
Ranking of favorite team excluding 11.17 6.04 Specifically, it was expected that highly identified fans would repol1
home team fans d greater life satisfaction, happiness, and the like. Finally, it was
Frequency of depression a 3.35 1.90 predicted that allachment to a sports team would serve as a buffer
against other negative emotional states besides depression such as
NOles: a = Scale ranges from 1 LO 8. wiLh higher numbers indicaLing more of sadness, billerness, irritability, and anxiety.
LhaL variable; b = Scale ranges from 1.00 Lo 2.00. with higher number
indicaLing more of LhaL variable; c =
Scale ranges from 0 (0 4 with higher STUDY 2
=
numbers indicaLing more of LhaL variable; d Ranks ranged from 1 to 26 with
lower numbers indicating a more successful Learn. Method
Undergraduates (171 males; 190 females) participated in
exchange for partial course credit in introductory psychology. The
Male and female respondenrs did not differ in their responses team idenrification measure was completed with reference to the
on the measures used in the three studies reponed here (all values of respondents' feelings about the University of Kansas Men's Varsity
F < 1.0). Hence. all of the analyses reported are based on the two Basketball Team. An emotional experiences measure assessed the
groups combined. Means and standard deviations for all the degree to which various feeling states occur in their lives on a scale
measures are shown in Table I. As expected, there was a from 0 (never) to 4 (always). The alienation measure contained four
significant positive correlation between amounr of identification with items which were designed to measure feelings of loneliness and a
the team and self-esteem r (188) = .13, P < .05. In addition, a lack of closeness to others as well as a sense of hopelessness.
J20 Bronscoml>c ond Wonn. Consequence uf Sports Team Identification Jour"",1 ofSports and Social Issues 121

Possible responses ranged from 0 (no feelings of alienation) to 4 that persons higher in team identification choose to support
(extreme feelings of alienation). successful teams and for this reason feel more pOSitively about
themselves--they gain by basking in the reflected glory of the team-­
Results not from team identification per se (Cialdini et al. 1976). While
A factor analysis using varimax rotation was first performed previous research has indicated that highly identified fans are less
on the emotional experiences questionnaire. Three factors with likely than other spectators to distance themselves from the team
eigenvalues greater than 1.21 emerged, accounting for 56 percent of following defeat (Wann and Branscombe, I990c), it is still possible
the variance in the items. The first factor tapped positive emotions. that overall people choose to identify with winning teams in order to
Happiness, contentment, pleased, satisfied with life, cheerfulness, benefit from the resulting increased feelings of self worth. Thus,
and joyous, all had loadings greater than .59. Thus, an index of the aim of Study 3 was to examine the relationship between amount
positive feelings, with a standardized Cronbach's alpha of .88, was of identification with a team and the success of that team.
created. Two negative emotion factors were observed. Sad,
regretful, hopeless, resentful, worthless, ashamed, and bitter loaded STUDY 3
highly (greater than .58) on the second factor. This negative affect
index resulted in a reliability coefficient of .82. The third factor Merhod
tapped the construct of anxiety. Nervous, irritable, and tense all had A new sample of undergraduates (155 males; 177 females)
loadings of .53 or higher on this factor. The reliability coefficient received course credit in their introductory psychology course in
for [he anxiety items was .84. The four items that were designed to exchange for their participation. Individuals were asked to indicate
assess alienation (e.g., feelings of loneliness, degree of aloneness their favorite Major League Baseball Team and to complete the team
while in the company of others, feeling hopeless about the future, identification measure with that team as the object. Subjects also
and a lack of feeling close to others) had a reliability coefficient of indicated how long they had been a fan of the team that they selected
.78 and were therefore combined to form a single index. Means for as their favorite. A measure assessing frequency of experiencing
each of these scales can be seen in Table I. depression was completed, using a I to 8 scale where higher
To test the hypothesis that identification with a sports team numbers indicated greater frequency.
serves as a buffer against negative feelings, alienation, and anxiety, Team records for the previous five-year period (1984-1988)
but increases the likelihood of life satisfaction and happiness, were then obtained from newspaper reports of wins and losses. A
correlations were computed. As hypothesized, there was a ratio of winning games out of the toral played was calculated to
significant positive correlation between amount of team identification determine the overall ranking of the 26 teams designated by the
and the amount of positive feelings reponed, r (361) = .21, P subjects as their favorite. For example, the New York Mets won
<.00 l. In addition, a significant negative correlation between team 60.4% of their games, the strongest record during this perioo. They
identification and the negative affect index was obtained, r (361) = were therefore given the ranking of I. In contrast, the Atlanta
-.10, p < .05. Degree of perceived alienation from others was also Braves had the poorest record, with wins in 42.4% of their games,
lower in those who were highly identified, r (361) = -.09, p < .05. and they received a ranking of 26.
The relationship between team identification and anxiety was not
significant, however, r (361) = -.02, p > .30. Results
As shown in Table 1, team identification Scores for
Discussion professional baseball were overall somewhat lower than that
With the exception of the anxiety index, the results observed for the two previous studies involving college basketball
confirmed the hypotheses. Identification with a sports team was team identification. If the respondents become involved with a team
positively related to a positive outlook on life, while negatively simply due to its record, with genuine success of the team
related to feelings of alienation and other negative affective potentially being responsible for [he increases in affective Slate and
experiences. Taken together, Studies I and 2 indicate several self-esteem, then degree of team identification and ranking of the
benefits gained from spons team identification. Our contention is team should be correlated. A significant negative relationship would
that through feelings of belongingness and attachment, individuals' indicate those who identify most srrongly with a team are involved
self concept becomes more positive. However, it is also possible with a team with a better ranking (lower rank number). This effect
122 flramcombc and Wann. Consequence of Sports Te"'" Identification Journa/ ojSpor/>' and Socia/Issues 123

was not significant r (332) = -.06, P > .10. However, of the 332 Discussion
subjects participating, 181 stated that the Kansas City Royals (the For the most part, team record was not related to degree of
geographically closest team to the University of Kansas) was their fan identification with that team. Short term fans were no more
preferred team (rank = 7). To assess whether success of the team is likely to be involved with successful teams than were long term
related to amount of identification for "displaced" fans only--those fans. Those particularly low in identification versus the moderate or
rooting for a team not geographically close, a second correlation was high identifiers were not inclined to be fans of especially successful
computed excluding subjects supporting the Kansas City team. A teams. Only fans of teams at a distant geographic location exhibited
significant negative relationship was observed, r (lSI) = -.16, P <. any tendency toward increasing team identification when that team
OS, indicating that strong identification with a team at a distance is was more successful. For those fans not geographically close to
related to that team's record. their preferred team, the sense of belongingness and attachment may
Additional analyses examined whether or not short term be reduced or no longer present. For fans who support the home
versus long term fans differentially supported successful teams. team, fellow supporters are easily found so the attachment and
Subjects were divided into two groups, using the median length of esteem consequences may be sufficient for continued high
time they had supported the team. These two groups of short ternl involvement, regardless of actual success of the franchise. Thus,
supponers (n = 155, M = 4.52 years) and long teffi1 supporters (n = those persons who are fans of teams at a great distance may not be
177, M = 12.88) did differ significantly in duration of following able to increase their esteem through feelings of cOlmadery alone;
their reponed favorite team, F (I, 330) = 121.07, P < .001. Degree they may need to enhance their self-esteem through basking
of team identification and ranking of that team was then examined processes. Depression was experienced less frequently by those
separately for the new versus old fans. Team record and amount of most identified with a professional baseball team, replicating the fITst
identification were not related for either the short term supporters two studies where college basketball was the object of atlachment.
r (ISS) = -.05, P > .25, or the long term supporters, r (177) = -.06, General Discussion
p> .15. The results of the three studies highlight several benefus of
A final analysis was performed to investigate whether allegiance to a sportS team. The benefits are in addition to those
winning percentage would be differentially important to persons suggested by previous research and gained from simply being a
low, moderate, and high in team identification. Thus, a tripartite sports fan (e.g., eustress, enjoyment of leisure time, etc.). High
split was pert'ormed on the subjects' identification scores resulting in identification with a sports team may result in elevated levels of self­
three groups--Iow identifiers (n = 101, M = 2.67), moderate esteem, as well as increased frequency of feeling positive emotions.
identifiers (n = 109, M= 4.34), and high identifiers (n = 122, M = Identification also appears to a act as a buffer against feelings of
6.46). These groups did significantly differ in amount of team depression, alienation, and other negative emotions. While we
identification, F(2, 329) = 65.29, P < .001. An analysis of variance argue that feelings of attachment to a larger social Structure is the
was then conducted on the team ranking score, with identification most plausible explanation for these relationships, the results of
group serving as the independent variable. The results indicated no Study 3 indicate that for fans of geographically distant teams,
differences on the ranking measure for the low (M = 8.91), winning may be as important a factor as belongingness, and may
moderate (M = 9.10), and high (M = 8.71) groups, F(2, 329) = even replace it as the source of self-esteem enhancement.
0.22, P > .80. While team success may be differentially important for
To assess whether identification with a professional baseball supporting local versus away teams, it could also potentially
team would be associated with decreased frequency of depression, influence the very initial stages of identification. Our short-term
these two measures were correlated. Again, a significant negative identifiers were not more likely to be identified with successful
relationship was observed, r(332) = -.10, P < .04. The teams than were those who had been fans for an even longer period
hypothesized buffer from negative affect that the psychological of time. Yet, our short-term fans had been involved with their
atlachment to a group can provide seems to operate across at least chosen teams for over fours years on the average. Team success
two spons and types of leagues. may be nevertheless important for initially generating interest in a
specific team. Successful team do generally receive the most media
coverage. Obviously multiple factors are likely to influence the
development of team identification. In addition to team success,
124 Rranscombe and Wann. Consequence of Sports Team ldemilicalion
JOUT""I of Sports and Socinllssll.£s 125

other contributing factors may include geographic location, presence groups is inherently present in patriotic individuals. Degree of threat
of a star player, and other family members or friends supporting the to a social identity, combined with an inability or unwillingness to
team. A longitudinal study would be required to identify the most reduce the imponance of that identity, we believe is what gives rise
imponant predictors of team allegiance. to the negative potential involved in sports team identification.
It should be also noted that while the results reported here When threat is at reasonably low levels (for example, when a
are in the predicted direction consistently on all of the measures and championship is not at stake), then only the positive effects of
are sratistic.:ally significant, the magnitude of the correlations reponed attachment to something larger than the self will be observed. Both
is modes!. Clearly, many factors other than team identification sides of the identification coin, however, can have powerful social
influence self-esteem and emotional experience. People's actual consequences.
ability level, family and work history, and so on are imponant for
the development of self-esteem. Yet group allachments can also
play an important role (Crocker and Major 1989). What remains NYLA R. BRANSCOMBE is an Assistant Professor of Psychology with
unclear, due to the limitations of correlational research, is the causal interests in intergroup hosrility. stereotyping. and the cognitive processes
involved in forming judgments about aggressive events. DANIEL L.
direction of the team identification and self-esteem/affective WANN is now an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Murray Slate
relationships. We have argued that identification leads to increased Universiry: his research has focused on intergroup aggression. particularly in
self·esteem and decreased alienation by providing an attachment to the sports stadium. Correspondence should be addressed 10 Professor
the larger social structure. However, an alternative hypothesis Branscombe. Department of Psychology. University of Kansas. Lawrence. KS
would posit that persons already high in self-esteem are those who 66045 or 10 NYLA@UKANVM (via bitnet).
choose to identify most strongly with sPOrtS teams. Because spons
spectators come from such varied backgrounds and life styles that
are not necessarily conducive to high ,elf-esteem, this alternative
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