SEMINAR REPORT

ON

THE CHEMISTRY OF SULPHUR

BY

AKINOLA AKINWUNMI IYANUOLUWA

FPA/ST/20/2-1383

SUBMITTED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY,

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND COMPUTER STUDIES

THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC ADO-EKITI

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE AWARD OF NATIONAL

DIPLOMA (ND) IN SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY OF THE FEDERAL

POLYTECHNIC ADO EKITI

NOVEMBER, 2022

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 ABSTRACT

The chemistry of Sulphur is of immense economic importance. The industrialized world rolls

on tires vulcanized with Sulphur and more Sulphuric acid is manufactured than any other

chemical, annual worldwide production being well in excess of 10 8 tons. The chemistry of

Sulphur is also of widespread and growing environmental concern. Atmospheric Sulphur and

its oxides are acidifying the lakes of North America and erasing the trees, buildings and

statuary of western Europe. On a less headline-catching scale, Sulphur compounds erode and

foul metal, an action of major economic consequence. The largest cultural source of Sulphur

dioxide is the burning of coal. In the 1960s, the release of Sulphur from coal exceeded the

world’s industrial production of Sulphur.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Sulphur is a chemical element that is represented with the chemical symbol "S" and the

atomic number 16 on the periodic table. Because it is 0.0384% of the Earth's crust, Sulphur is

the seventeenth most abundant element following strontium. Sulphur also takes on many

forms, which include elemental Sulphur, organo-Sulphur compounds in oil and coal, H 2S(g)

in natural gas, and mineral sulfides and sulfates (Benson, 2018). This element is extracted by

using the Frasch process (discussed below), a method where superheated water and

compressed air is used to draw liquid Sulphur to the surface. Offshore sites, Texas, and

Louisiana are the primary sites that yield extensive amounts of elemental Sulphur. However,

elemental Sulphur can also be produced by reducing H 2S, commonly found in oil and natural

gas. For the most part though, Sulphur is used to produce SO2(g) and H2SO4.

Sulphur, also known as sulphur, is amongst the most reactive elements that are present in the

periodic table. It is essentially a non-metal which belongs to group 16 (VI A) of the periodic

table (Block, 2012). The atomic number of sulphur is 16 and it is denoted by S. The element

sulphur is a crystalline solid having a bright yellow colour at room temperature. Sulphur is

found abundantly in the universe. The sulphur has been used by people since the earlier days

and it was known as brimstone which basically means burning stone. 

1.1 SULPHUR ELEMENT

Sulphur Atomic Number 16

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1.2 NATURAL OCCURRENCE OF SULPHUR

Sulphur or sulphur is the tenth common element of this universe. The creation of 32S takes

place in the massive stars where the temperature is more than 2.5 X 10 9K. It is also present in

many types of meteorites in the form of sulphide (Bogdándi et al., 2019). The Jupiter moon

lo has distinctive colours due to the presence of a sulphur element in several ways in a

molten, gaseous and solid-state. On Earth, sulphur is the fifth common element by mass.

Elemental sulphur is generally obtained near the volcanic regions as well as hot springs. In

previous times, the primary source of sulphur was Sicily. The submarine volcanoes also lead

to the formation of lakes of molten sulphur that is mostly present on the seafloor.

The action of anaerobic bacteria on sulphate minerals like gypsum also leads to the synthesis

of native sulphur. Earlier, the commercial production took place by the fossil-based sulphur

deposits from gypsum in salt domes (Brandt and van Eldick, 2015). However, this process is

currently not the primary source to obtain sulphur for commercial use. Many valuable metal

ores like galena, blende, and gypsum are the compounds of sulphur. It is present in the ores

in the form of sulphides or sulphates. Natural gas, petroleum and coal also contain sulphur

compounds (Brune, 2019).

1.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SULPHUR

Sulphur is responsible for forming numerous polyatomic molecules. The octa-sulphur is one

of the most popular types of molecules associated with sulphur. It is odourless with bright

yellow colour and it exists in a soft solid state (Chen and Morris, 2012). The melting point of

the molecule is around 115.21° C and its boiling point is about 444.6° C. When the molecule

is present between the boiling and melting temperatures, it polymerizes and this leads to

lower density but higher viscosity.  The depolymerization happens at higher temperatures,

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which leads to decreased viscosity. The density of sulphur is approximately 2g/cm³, and it

might be higher or lower based on allotrope (Chiu and Meerhan, 2017). 

1.4 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SULPHUR

The burning of sulphur produces a blue flame and an irritating odour due to the formation of

sulphur dioxide. Sulphur is insoluble in water but partially soluble in non-polar organic

solvents, including benzene. The first ionisation energy of this element is 999.6KJ/mol, and

the second is 2252 KJ/mol. The most common oxidation states of this element are +4 and +6.

Sulphur is highly reactive and almost reacts with all elements even with the iridium

(unreactive metal) except noble gases (Connick and Zhang, 2016).

Sulphur compounds have many unusual features as they can exhibit catenation similar to

carbon. These properties of sulphur allow it to form chain structures as well as a ring system

like the carbon. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is one of the most familiar compounds of sulphur.

It is a colourless and poisonous gas that has the odour of rotten eggs. It is naturally present in

the form of vapours in mineral water and volcanoes. During the removal of sulphur from

petroleum, a large amount of hydrogen sulphide is obtained.

Oxygen and sulphur also combine to form various compounds. The most known oxide of

sulphur is sulphur dioxide which is a poisonous and colourless gas. It is also used as a

reducing agent and bleach in several industries. Scientists also used it to obtain sulphur

trioxide. This oxide is also beneficial in fruit ripening and food preservation (Connick et al.,

2015).

1.5 ISOTOPES

Sulphur has 23 known isotopes, four of which are stable: 32S (94.99%±0.26%), 33S (0.75%

±0.02%), 34S (4.25%±0.24%), and 36S (0.01%±0.01%).[15][16] Other than 35S, with a half-life of

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87 days and formed in cosmic ray spallation of 40Ar, the radioactive isotopes of Sulphur have

half-lives less than 3 hours (Crapanzano et al., 2005).

When sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may

cause small differences in the δ34S values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between

minerals can be used to estimate the temperature of equilibration. The δ13C and δ34S of

coexisting carbonate minerals and sulfides can be used to determine the pH and

oxygen fugacity of the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation (Dahl, 1999).

In most forest ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering of ore

minerals and evaporites contribute some Sulphur. Sulphur with a distinctive isotopic

composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched Sulphur has been

added as a tracer in hydrologic studies. Differences in the natural abundances can be used in

systems where there is sufficient variation in the 34S of ecosystem components. Rocky

Mountain lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric sources of sulfate have been found

to have characteristic 34S values from lakes believed to be dominated by watershed sources of

sulfate (Degrand and Lund, 2019).

1.6 NATURAL OCCURRENCE

S is created inside massive stars, at a depth where the temperature exceeds 2.5×10 9 K, by
32

the fusion of one nucleus of silicon plus one nucleus of helium (Devillanova, 2006). As this

nuclear reaction is part of the alpha process that produces elements in abundance, Sulphur is

the 10th most common element in the universe.

Sulphur, usually as sulfide, is present in many types of meteorites. Ordinary chondrites

contain on average 2.1% Sulphur, and carbonaceous chondrites may contain as much as

6.6%. It is normally present as troilite (FeS), but there are exceptions, with carbonaceous

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chondrites containing free Sulphur, sulfates and other Sulphur compounds. [18] The distinctive

colors of Jupiter's volcanic moon Io are attributed to various forms of molten, solid, and

gaseous Sulphur (Drozdova et al., 2018).

It is the fifth most common element by mass in the Earth. Elemental Sulphur can be found

near hot springs and volcanic regions in many parts of the world, especially along the Pacific

Ring of Fire; such volcanic deposits are currently mined in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan.

These deposits are polycrystalline, with the largest documented single crystal measuring

22×16×11 cm (Eckert and Steudel, 2003).  Historically, Sicily was a major source of Sulphur

in the Industrial Revolution (Gun et al., 2004). Lakes of molten Sulphur up to ~200 m in

diameter have been found on the sea floor, associated with submarine volcanoes, at depths

where the boiling point of water is higher than the melting point of Sulphur (Hahn, 1985).

Native Sulphur is synthesised by anaerobic bacteria acting on sulfate minerals such

as gypsum in salt domes (Holleman-Wiberg, 2017). Significant deposits in salt domes occur

along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and in evaporites in eastern Europe and western Asia.

Native Sulphur may be produced by geological processes alone. Fossil-based Sulphur

deposits from salt domes were once the basis for commercial production in the United States,

Russia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine (Hopfinger et al., 2018). Currently, commercial

production is still carried out in the Osiek mine in Poland. Such sources are now of

secondary commercial importance, and most are no longer worked.

1.7 USES OF SULPHUR

There are several uses of sulphur. Some of the popular ones are as follows:

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  Sulphur is an essential element for producing other essential chemicals. The most

important chemical produced by sulphur is sulphuric acid which has many industrial

applications.

 The reaction of sulphur with methane gives carbon disulfide, which is essential for

manufacturing rayon and cellophane.

 Vulcanization of rubber is another important use of the sulphur element.

 Sulphur is one of the crucial components of fertilisers. It is mostly present in fertilisers

in the form of a mineral calcium sulphate.

 Many pharmaceutical products contain organoSulphur compounds. It is also a

component in many agrochemicals and dyestuff.

 People are using elemental sulphur as pesticides and fungicides from previous times.

Dusting sulphur (sulphur in powdered form) is a common pesticide in organic

farming.

1.8 COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR

It combines with the most of periodic table elements to form many compounds in oxidation

states −2, +4, and +6. It is the second element after carbon to exhibit catenation properties

due to ring or chain formation (Horner and Connick, 2016).

Hydride, sulfides, oxides, oxoacids, and salts are the most common examples of Sulphur

compounds.

1.8.1 Hydrogen sulfide

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Hydrogen sulfide or Sulphurated hydrogen is the most familiar hydride of Sulphur formed by

a direct combination of the element with hydrogen.

A large amount of hydrogen sulfide is obtained in the removal of Sulphur from petroleum. It

is widely used as a reducing agent in chemical laboratories.

Water formed by group-16 element oxygen is a liquid due to the existence of hydrogen

bonding but hydrogen sulfide is a gas due to the absence of such bonding. It has a

characteristic smell of rotten eggs (Janssen, 2019).

1.8.2 Metal sulfides

All the metals (except gold and platinum) react with S to form metal sulfides. These are the

ionic compounds containing negatively charged sulfide ions (S−2). The sulfide

of iron, nickel, copper, cobalt, and zinc are the important ores of the respective metals.

1.8.3 Oxides of Sulphur

SO2 and SO3 are the main oxides of Sulphur prepared by heating the element with air or

oxygen. The oxides are soluble in water to give Sulphurous and Sulphuric acid.

Sulphuric acid is an important chemical and major pollutant that causes air pollution, soil

pollution, or acid rain in the earth’s environment (Kamyshny, 2009).

1.8.4 Other compounds

It reacts with fluorine to form Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) which is used as an insulator in the

electric device. It is an important constituent of plants and animal bodies.

Many proteins and amino acids like cysteine, cystine, and methionine contain S-atom. It

involves many important metabolic reactions of the living organism (Kleinjan et al., 2003).

1.9 CONCLUSION

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The chemistry of Sulphur is of immense economic importance. The industrialized world rolls

on tires vulcanized with Sulphur and more Sulphuric acid is manufactured than any other

chemical, annual worldwide production being well in excess of 108 tons. The chemistry of

Sulphur is also of widespread and growing environmental concern. Atmospheric Sulphur and

its oxides are acidifying the lakes of North America and erasing the trees, buildings and

statuary of western Europe. On a less headline-catching scale, Sulphur compounds erode and

foul metal, an action of major economic consequence. The largest cultural source of Sulphur

dioxide is the burning of coal. In the 1960s, the release of Sulphur from coal exceeded the

world's industrial production of Sulphur.

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