Fundamentals of Bilingual Lexicography – Activities / MII

Seminar 2: Dictionary anatomy and relevant terminology

1. Consider the dictionary structure; decide whether the elements below belong to Front
Matter (FM), Middle Matter (MM), or Back Matter (BM).
FM MM BM
a Units of measure
b User’s Guide
c List of irregular verbs
d Table of contents
e List of abbreviations
f The Title Page
g Countries and capitals
h Editorial Staff
i Maps
j Preface
k Pictures / Illustrations
l Introduction
m Pronunciation Guide
n List of labels

2. Fill in the following text with the appropriate dictionary component from the list.

outside matter front matter middle matter back matter(x2)

wordlist user’s guide introduction entries illustrations

The components additional to the [1] or the dictionary entries from A

to Z consist of [2] , often including the inside covers and, increasingly,
the outside covers and dust jacket. The [3] contains most importantly a [4]
or key to the dictionary. The key is now considered essential, but often seems to be
ignored by users and reviewers alike. It explains style, structure and content of the dictionary: the
metalanguage, symbols and codes used, the punctuation and the complex typography, and the
layout of the [5] . It often takes the form of reproductions of sample entries
with each component of the macro- and microstructure highlighted and commented on in turn. It
sometimes stands alone and sometimes accompanies a longer [6] to the dictionary
outlining the editorial principles underlying the work. The [7] might consist of
small, half- or full-page panels devoted to grammar and/or usage notes, frequency charts, word-
formation items and patterns, lexical sets or pragmatic conventions; or it might feature inserted
study pages, maps, [8] , and encyclopedic information, sometimes in color
and/or on different paper to make the inserts stand out. In many cases the material in such inserts is
reserved for appendices in the [9] . These might contain both linguistic and
encyclopedic information of all kinds ranging from style guides, prefixes and suffixes, and different
alphabets to weights and measures, chemical elements, and countries of the world. Some
dictionaries have no [10] , others have as many as 100 pages of appendices.
(adapted from Kirkness 2004, 63)

3. Match each of the following structures of a dictionary with their definitions, according to
Hartmann (2001) and Svensén (2009).

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Fundamentals of Bilingual Lexicography – Activities / MII

definition definition
macrostructure microstructure
megastructure access structure
mediostructure

(a) ... represents those component parts of a reference work that allow successful searches by a
user of the information required, e.g. arrangement of the word-list and items within entries
supported by graphic devices such as guidewords, typeface and numbering
(b) ... is the overall list structure that allows both the compiler and the user to locate information
in a dictionary or other reference works.
(c) ... represents the use of words or symbols (cross-references) to link information in different
component parts of dictionaries.
(d) ... refers to the various component parts of a dictionary or reference work taken together.
(e) ... is the internal composition of the basic reference unit, i.e. the entry in the dictionary

4. Choose the correct answer in each case.

[1] Macrostructure/Microstructure refers to the list and organization of the lexical items
entered in the dictionary, the [2] lemmata/entries. The term is preferred here as it is neutral on the
morphological status of the items. In practical terms the lemma list depends on the projected size
and scope of the dictionary. It ranges from reasonably comprehensive, as in large unabridged
works, to highly selective, as in small pocket dictionaries. Depending on size and intention, current
one-volume defining dictionaries tend to emphasize the central core vocabulary of present-day
standard usage and to focus as well on new words and senses and on terms from science and
technology. The organization of the lemmata is now almost always [3] alphabetical/thematic.
Decisions must be made on giving each item main lemma status or distinguishing between main
lemma and sub-lemma. In the latter case, lexicographers must determine on what grounds the
distinction will operate, how they are grouped or organized in nests or niches, and whether all or
some of the sub-lemmata are supplied with a full or partial range of lexicographic information or
whether they are simply listed as run-ons. Decisions must also be made on the ordering of
homographic lemmata and on the typography of the different types of lemma. Here, as elsewhere,
the chief criterion must be [4] accuracy/user-friendliness: the user must be able to find the item
looked for as quickly and easily as possible.
[5] Macrostructure/Microstructure refers to the lexicographic information on the lemma
contained in the dictionary article. Different dictionaries have different policies on the information
they regard as lexically relevant and on the order in which they present it. The [6]
macrostructure/microstructure routinely provides information on the form, meaning and use of
the lemma. [7] Formal/Semantic information may include spelling and pronunciation, usually with
accepted variants in different standard varieties; base and inflected forms; syntactic category
including part-of-speech and sub-category, e.g., transitive or ergative verb, predicative adjective, or
mass noun. [8] Formal/Semantic information includes definitions or explanations of literal and
figurative, denotative and connotative meanings. These may take the form of synonyms or near-
synonyms, for instance, analytical definitions with genus proximum and differentiae specificae,
paraphrases or formulae. They are usually supplemented by [9] syntagmatic/paradigmatic
information on lexical fields involving synonyms, antonyms, or hyponyms; by [10]
syntagmatic/paradigmatic information on lexical collocation, grammatical colligation and
complementation, and on use in idioms, proverbs, and other fixed phrases and chunks; and by [11]
pragmatic/semantic information or diasystematic marking on register, frequency, currency, style,
status, and subject area. They may be complemented by pictorial illustrations, authentic, adapted
and constructed textual examples, usage notes and short synonym essays, indications of word-
formational activity, especially derivatives and compounds, if these are not lemmatised and

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Fundamentals of Bilingual Lexicography – Activities / MII

described separately, and by cross-references/navigational indicators to other entries or to extra-

textual middle and back matter. (adapted from Kirkness 2004, 63-64)

5. Lemmatise the following items, but first remember the lemmatisation rules:

Lemmatization is a process wherein the inflectional and variant forms of a word are reduced
to their lemma: their base form, or dictionary look-up form. (Siemens 1996).
Lexicography has a tradition of lemmatising nouns in the singular, verbs in the infinitive and
gradable adjectives in the neutral uninflected form, although a few dictionaries use other
lemmatisation criteria. (Bergenholtz and Tarp 1995, 15)

adhere ………………. taken ………………..

books ……………….. to stop ………………..
children ……………….. sooner ………………..
towards ……………….. superior ………………..
lemmata ……………….. linguistics ………………..
them ……………….. heavier ………………..
dominated ……………….. that ………………..
pushing ……………….. criteria ………………..
onto ……………….. skillful ………………..
traditional ……………….. completely ………………..

6. Specify by ticking whether the types of information listed in the table below belong to the
formal comment (FC) or semantic comment (SC) section of the entry in a monolingual
dictionary.
FC SC
a pronunciation
b definition
c frequency marker
d glosses
e usage labels
f variant form(s)
g inflected form(s)
h etymology
i grammatical information
j examples (verbal illustrations)

7. Choose the correct word in each case to fill in the following texts.

a) Each entry can be divided into two main components, which are determined by the type of
comment the different items give with regard to the treatment unit. Items reflecting on e.g. the
orthography, pronunciation and morphology of the lemma comment on the [1] form / meaning of
the lemma. They can be grouped together as part of the comment on [2] form / meaning of the
article. Items giving a paraphrase of the meaning of the lemma or indicating the typical co-text or
context are grouped together in what is known as the comment on [3] form / meaning of the entry.
A typical dictionary entry consists of a comment on form and a comment on meaning as its two
major components. The lemma sign is the only compulsory element in a dictionary entry and,
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Fundamentals of Bilingual Lexicography – Activities / MII

besides functioning as the guiding element of an entry, it also conveys information regarding the
orthography of the lemma. Consequently, the lemma sign entry can be regarded as part of the
comment on [4] form / meaning of the entry. This implies that a dictionary entry will always
contain a comment on [5] form / meaning but not necessarily always a comment on [6] form /
meaning. (adapted from Gouws 2003, 35)

b) The purpose of [7] glosses / examples is to show how the entry-word functions in
combination with other lexical units. […]
Almost everything can be illustrated by the [8] glosses / examples: for instance, the
different contextual nuances, the range of authors in whose works the entry-word occurs, the first
occurrence of the word, the range of application, the attributive combinations, the typical objects of
verbs, etc.
A very heterogeneous category in the entry is the [9] definition / gloss, i.e. any descriptive
or explanatory note within the entry. There is certain amount of overlapping between this category
and the others in the entry; the most important probably being that with [10] examples /
quotations. […] The lexicographer should be aware of this overlapping and should anticipate the
user’s inclination to understand seemingly unambiguous formulations in most unexpected ways.
[…]
All indications which concern the whole field of connotation and the field of restricted
languages, styles, etc. are usually made by means of [11] labels / glosses. In this way, the
lexicographer indicates that the entry-word is emotive, vulgar, colloquial, etc. In the same way he
indicates that the word belongs to a local dialect, to an older stage of the language, to a restricted
language, to a set of terminology of a special branch of knowledge, etc. These [12] labels / glosses
usually have the form of short abbreviations (e.g. liter., coll., vulg., arch., dial., botan., zool., etc.)
used in the whole dictionary in a uniform way. (adapted from Zgusta 263-271)

c) The main function of the indication of [13] part-of-speech / inflection is not to specify the
place of the lemma in a theoretical classification scheme. Instead, it provides information about the
grammatical properties of the lemma, calling on the user’s knowledge of regularities in the
grammar of the language concerned. The borderline is rather fuzzy between the [14] grammatical /
semantic information provided by part-of-speech indications and the information provided by other
means, for instance by indications of inflection or construction.
In metalexicographic literature, the term [15] example / definition has a wide range of
meanings. It usually comprises all types of indications consisting of word combinations (phrases,
clauses, sentences) that contain a form of the lemma sign, irrespective of whether they are provided
with an indication of meaning or not. […]
In order to achieve a(n) [16] example / definition that is as accurate as possible, it must be
decided which components of meaning need to be included so as to give a satisfactory
representation of the semantic content of the word. (adapted from Svensén 2009, 136, 217, 280,
333)

8. Compare the following entries for pea from different size dictionaries and describe the
differences in terms of quantity and types of information.

a. pea (pi:) n. 1. an annual climbing papilionaceous plant, Pisum sativum, with small white flowers
and long green pods containing edible green seeds: cultivated in temperate regions. 2.a. the seed of
this plant, eaten as a vegetable. h. (as modifier) pea soup. 3. any of several other leguminous plants,
such as the sweet pea, chickpea, and cowpea. 4. the pea Austral. informal the favourite to succeed.
[C17; from PEASE (incorrectly assumed to be a plural)] - 'pea + like adj.
(from Collins English Dictionary, 1986)

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Fundamentals of Bilingual Lexicography – Activities / MII

b. pea (pi:) n. 1. an annual climbing plant with small white flowers and long green pods containing
edible green seeds: cultivated in temperate regions. 2. the seed of this plant, eaten as a vegetable. 3.
any of several other leguminous plants, such as the sweet pea. [C17: < PEASE (incorrectly assumed
to be a pl.)]. (from Collins Concise English Dictionary)

c. pea (pe) n. pl. peas, archaic pease [< ME pese, a pea, taken as pI. ult. < Gr. pison] 1. a climbing
plant with green seedpods. 2. its small, round seed, eaten as a vegetable. -as like as two peas (in a
pod) exactly alike.
(from Collins Pocket English Dictionary, 1981)
(adapted from Jackson 1988, 172)

9. Fill in the following texts with the appropriate word from the list.

definition usage (x2) etymology (x3) example (x2)

a) The description of [1] specifies whether a word, or any of its senses, is restricted to
particular contexts. The restriction could be geographical (a national variety or a dialect), it could be
temporal (an obsolete or archaic meaning), it could be the formality of the situation or the word’s
status in the language (e.g. slang or taboo). The restriction could be linked with the expression of
the speaker’s or writer’s attitude, to indicate disapproval or an insult, or to be appreciative. Or a
word may be restricted in its [2] because to use it would be offensive to a
particular group of people.
The [3] section of a dictionary entry aims to trace the history of a word to its
ultimate source. Where a word has come into existence as the result of a word formation process,
unless it is unclear what the elements of the new word are and how they have been combined.
(adapted from Jackson 2002: 19, 117)

b) The [4] is normally followed by one or more [5] s showing

typical patterns and typical contexts in which the word is used. They are genuine pieces of text, and
are chosen against the background of a full display of the usage of the word. […] It has become a
conditio sine qua non for any dictionary to draw its [6] s from and to base the
analysis on large computerised corpora. (adapted from Kiefer and van Sterkenburg 2003, 357-358)

c) Information about the [7] of words tells us their history: where they come from,
how they were formed, how they evolved and how they finally acquired the form and meaning they
have in present-day language. […] In some monolingual dictionaries, the entries are provided with
indications of [8] . These are often located at the end of the entry; however, they
may also appear at the head, before the semantic description. These indications are normally
characterized by a high degree of textual condensation. (adapted from Svensén 2009, 348)