1 INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The broad application of Human Factors knowledge contributes to decreasing accidents and
incidents in civil aviation as well as to mitigating the impact of those accidents and incidents, for
example, inadequate communications between crew members and other parties could lead in
turn to a loss of situational awareness, a breakdown in teamwork in the aircraft, and ultimately/
pada akhirnya/ to a wrong decision or series of decisions which result in a serious incident or a
fatal accident. Accident investigations show that approximately 70% of air carrier incidents and
accidents have been caused by the failure of flight crews to make use of readily available
"resources”. Human Factors knowledge can be applied to cover the many interactions among
people, technology, organization, culture, and the environment. Increasing awareness of the
importance of Human Factors in civil aviation and the application of each principle presents the
international civil aviation community with a significant opportunity to make it both safer and
more efficient.
ICAO has been proactively pursuing / mengejar / mengikuti/ this objective and introduced
Human Factors in the cabin crew training and licensing requirements of Annex 1 (1989)” and in
the operations of aircraft requirements of Annex 6 (1995). “the training programs shall ensure
that each person is :…knowledgeable about human performance as related to passenger cabin
safety duties and including flight crew-cabin crew coordination”. In addition, largely through the
work of the ICAO Flight Safety and Human Factors Program, the awareness of Human Factors
opportunities and challenges present in civil aviation has increased steadily and markedly/
menyolok / nyata/ across the international civil aviation community since 1990.
To assist in understanding the complex interactions of Human Factors and the multi-disciplinary
nature of its study, the SHELL framework is briefly described. Since human errors are cited /
menyebutkan/ frequently as being causal or contributory in aviation occurrences, an error
classification system is presented. Since error is an integral part/ bagian yang utuh/ of all
human endeavors/usaha keras/, eliminating it completely is an unattainable/ tidak dapat
dicapai/ objective. This highlights the need to manage and control errors as well as to mitigate
their negative consequences through a systematic error management system.
CRM Defined
To improve aviation safety and security, flight and cabin crew need to communicate, cooperate
and work as a team. This is the role of crew resource management (CRM). ICAO has defined
CRM as “the effective utilization of all available resources to achieve safety and efficiency”.
Furthermore, ICAO has adopted the concept of CRM as an error management training tool. PT.
Garuda Indonesia has also adopted The Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA’s) of CRM
definition:
The utilization of all available human, informational, and equipment resources
toward the goal of safe and efficient flight. CRM is an active process by
crewmembers to identify significant threats, to communicate them, and to
develop, communicate, and carry out a plan of actions to avoid or mitigate
each threat. CRM also deals directly with the avoidance of human error and
the management and mitigation of those errors that occur.
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Resources can refer to/merujuk kepada/ individual competencies, fellow crew members, aircraft
systems, procedures, manuals, regulations, time, fight crew, flight attendant, passengers and
other professionals. Resource management is the coordinated use of the available resources in
attaining/ mencapai/ strategic and operational objectives.
CRM is concerned not so much with the technical knowledge and skills required to perform
passenger cabin safety duties but rather with the cognitive and interpersonal skills needed to
manage the passenger cabin safety duties during aircraft operations. In this context, cognitive
skills are defined as the mental processes used for gaining and maintaining situational
awareness, for solving problems and for taking decisions.
Interpersonal skills are regarded as communications and a range of behavioral activities
associated with teamwork. In aviation, as in other walks of life, these skill areas often overlap
with each other, and they also overlap with the required technical skills. Furthermore, as flight
attendant, invariably there is a need to interface with various ground support agencies in order
to complete their duties successfully.
CRM requires a reasonable understanding of such concepts as human information processing,
attention and vigilance/kewaspadaan/, decision making, communication, arousal and stress,
and personality differences. It is important to appreciate that all humans have both physical and
cognitive limitations, and to understand something about the nature of those limitations with
respect to themselves and also to other crew members.
Bear/ in mind that CRM is a concept, affecting the way you think and the way you act. It is
intended to/dimaksudkan untuk heighten attitudes and behavior, not to change personalities.
Human Factors
Human Factors is about people. It is about people in their working and living environments. It is
about their relationship with machines and equipment, with procedures and with the
environment about them. And it is also about their relationship with other people. While all
definitions are man-made and rarely carry the force of law, they are useful in guiding
enlightened discussion and crystallizing professional activity.
They should not be too restrictive/bersifat membatasi/, however, and should allow for
development and new knowledge. The most appropriate definition of the applied technology of
Human Factors is that it is concerned to optimize the relationship between people and their
activities by the systematic application of the human sciences, integrated within the framework
of systems engineering (Edwards, 1985). Its twin objectives can be seen as effectiveness of the
system, which includes safety and efficiency, and well-being of the individual.
Human Performance and Limitation
CRM requires a reasonable understanding of such concepts as human information processing,
attention and vigilance/kewaspadaan/, decision making, communication, arousal and stress,
and personality differences. It is important to appreciate that all humans have both physical and
cognitive limitations, and to understand something about the nature of /pada dasarnya/secara
alami/ those limitations with respect to themselves and also to other crew members.
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This chapter will not attempt to provide detailed information on human performance and
limitations - there are many texts which already do this very well. Rather, it lists those human
performance limitations which are most pertinent to/berhubungan dengan CRM.
CRM Element
The broad objective of crew resource management (CRM) training is to enhance/ the
decision-making process by improving the performance of flight attendants, specifically in the
areas of interpersonal communication, teamwork, and leadership.
In effect, CRM blends the judgment and decision-making skills and personality traits/karakter
and attitudes of the individual flight attendant with those of other flight attendant and flight
attendant with flight crew in a group dynamic. The interpersonal aspect of CRM is ultimately/
akhirnya integrated with a flight attendant's technical proficiencies and aeronautical knowledge.
A disruption / gangguan / or breakdown of any component of CRM will interrupt crew member
performance and negatively affect the safety of that flight. The old adage / pepatah lama/
peribahasa lama /, "A team is only as effective as its weakest member," is unacceptable for a
crew member.
The following are key steps in achieving quality interpersonal communication in a CRM
environment.
1. Inquiry : A request for information, a systematic investigation of information
2. Advocacy : assertiveness to state facts or express feelings
3. Conflict resolution : To determine the causes of conflict and appropriately establish the
correct course of action
4. Decision Making : Acquiring and processing information are essential to good judgment
and decision-making
5. Critique : To properly evaluate personal performance and the overall situation
through feedback.
CRM Skills
• Cognitive Skills
o Situational Awareness
Situational awareness involves conscious recognition of all the factors and conditions -
operational, technical and human - which affect the safe operation of an aircraft. In order to
establish situational awareness, human beings take in information through the five senses -
touch, hearing, smell, sight and taste - both subconsciously or intuitively.
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This information is then transformed by the brain into a mental model of the situation, a process
known as perception.
The perceptive process depends not merely on current information for its evaluation of the
situation but also takes account of past experience and sensations. Perception is therefore a
product not only of immediate sensations but also of cultural and social influences acquired
through a lifetime of experiences. Accordingly, because of the different factors which have
shaped their lives, individuals interpret situations differently.
Furthermore, they can also be unduly influenced by false information derived from the senses,
such as illusions. Because of these factors, a high degree of situational awareness can be said
to be achieved only when an individual’s perception of events approaches the reality of the
situation.
In these circumstances, confirming the accuracy of mental models with other crew members by
sharing information and perceptions about the situation, and by stating intentions, becomes of
paramount importance for the safe and effective management of the flight.
Furthermore, sharing knowledge and information not only helps to avoid the more obvious
incidents and accidents arising from loss of situational awareness, such as controlled flight into
terrain, but also lays a firm foundation for high quality decisions regarding the overall
management of the flight.
o Problem Solving and Decision Making
A central aim of CRM is to ensure that high quality decisions are taken across the whole
spectrum of flight operations. In this context, thorough pre-flight planning will not only provide a
yardstick against which in-flight decisions can be made but will also allow all members of the
crew to manage their own specific areas of responsibility successfully.
Understanding the plan also allows individual crew members to contribute in the most effective
way to decisions made in flight. It is important, therefore, as the flight progresses, that the
Captain updates the crew at regular intervals on any changes to the original plan, so that
individual crew members can maintain good situational awareness.
This is particularly important during abnormal operations or in an emergency situation, where
conditions affecting the progress of the flight and the safety of the aircraft are likely to change
rapidly. In these circumstances, regular updates on the status of the flight allow each individual
crew member to be sufficiently aware of the situation and needs of the moment to contribute in
the most effective way to the decision-making process.
Allowing subordinate crewmembers to participate in the decision-making process does not
mean that all decisions have to be made by committee. The degree of participation or otherwise
from subordinate crew members depends to some extent on the type of behavior which
underpins the decision.
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Skill-based behaviors rely to a large extent on prior learning and any associated decisions are
made mainly subconsciously. In this situation, other crew members provide a passive
monitoring role, although this may call for assertive intervention if the level of skill being
displayed by the decision-maker falls below a safe standard. Rule-based behaviors rely on
previously-considered courses of action such as Aircrew Safety Manual (ASM), Basic Operation
Manual (BOM) etc., and the associated decisions are made partly in the subconscious, where
previous experience and training come into play, and also in the conscious mind, where
previous learning is compared with the realities of the current situation.
In these circumstances the participation of another crew member may be required to provide
verification of the situation and validation of the course of action being proposed by the decision
maker. Finally, knowledge-based behavior is utilized in a situation which has not previously
been encountered. In these circumstances, the crew member is called upon to make a decision
based upon a rational appraisal of the facts, so there may be considerable scope for the
involvement of other crew members and - if time and circumstances permit.
The degree of participation in the decision-making process also depends to a considerable
extent on the organizational culture, as well as current social norms. These factors include the
aircraft commander’s perception of his or her role and authority, and the way in which this
perception is shared by other crew members and the various supporting agencies.
In today’s climate, commanders who manage the flight in an open and affiliative style, and who
state their intentions from time to time in the course of the flight, are more likely to secure the
co-operation and participation of other crew members than those who are overbearing and
autocratic. Command style, however, is normally based on a perception of what the company or
organization expects from each individual crew member, and effective CRM will therefore
flourish only where an organizational culture exists which empowers and encourages
subordinate crew members to assist the Captain by participating appropriately in the decision-
making process whenever the need for them to do so arises.
• Interpersonal Skills
o Communication
Specific skills associated with good communication practices include such items as polite
assertiveness and participation, active listening and feedback. Polite assertiveness is a skill
frequently ignored in communications training but vital to a healthy cabin. In order to improve
the communication channel, cultural influences must be taken into account as well as factors
such as rank, age, and crew position, all of which can create communication barriers in the
aircraft.
For example, a crew member may ordinarily be open to communication, but at times could be
temporarily unable to receive information or comprehend situations.
This partial or total incapacitation should be identified and addressed by the other crew
member. Other crew members must be aware of the importance of the information they hold
and have a strong feeling of self-value. A crew member's failing to communicate important data
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constitutes a failure to discharge individual responsibility. The pilot-in-command must constantly
emphasize this responsibility to other crew members.
o Behavioral Styles
The purpose of behavioral analysis is to provide you with an awareness of your individual
behavioral style. With this awareness, we will have a better understanding of why we react in
A specific way to people or to situation. Our reactions also affect the people around us, and in
turn they react to us. This human interaction can be either healthy or dangerous in the flight
environment. Knowledge of your behavioral style will ultimately benefit aviation safety.
o Teamwork
Successful teamwork is achieved when the output of the team is greater than that which could
be developed by the sum of the efforts of the individual crew members acting in isolation - a
process known as synergism.
Synergism is produced by a process of interaction between crew members, whereby each
individual is empowered and encouraged to contribute in the most effective way to the overall
task of the team. Interaction is unlikely to occur, however, unless all individual members of the
team fully understand their role within the group and how this role may vary depending on the
circumstances under which decisions are being made and action taken.
Consequently, good communications within the group, a high degree of situational awareness
and a comprehensive understanding of the decision-making process by all members of the
group are all prerequisites for the creation of synergy and the effective performance of the team
as a whole.
For operational reasons, many crew members form part of a new team on every flight, so it is
important that the overall organization culture encourages and fosters a climate in which good
teamwork can flourish. It is also evident that a healthy organizational culture, which actively
promotes CRM, will also foster good teamwork, since CRM and teamwork are inextricably
intertwined in the realm of effective in-flight management.
• Treat and Error Management (TEM)
The use of TEM as the basis for CRM development allows flight attendants to assess and
manage threats where arise in the cabin.
Flight Attendants should be given maximum opportunity during training to explore errors and
examine effective and ineffective error management techniques. This is a key characteristic of
TEM-based CRM training.
To achieve this, it is important to provide a direct link between the safety performance of the
operator and the development and continuing design of CRM training.
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Relevance of the training program is enhanced when actual incidents from the operator are
integrated in the form of case studies in CRM training. By doing so, flight attendants are
proactively alerted to operator-specific threats that are experienced by others in line operations.
Most important, CRM training becomes a venue for sharing countermeasures that have worked.
There are two basic reasons underpinning the use of TEM as a tool for CRM course design.
First, threats and errors are present in all phases of flight operations. From the moment a flight
is dispatched to the moment it terminates, threats and errors are the constraints that flight
attendants have to contend with. Second, it follows that safe flight operations require the
recognition of threats and the appropriate use of error management countermeasures in
avoiding, trapping, and mitigating the effects of human error. Building a course design through
the use of TEM creates a natural fit with CRM countermeasure skills.
On subsequent chapter reference text is provided how TEM can be used as guidance in
outlining CRM course contents as well as learning outcomes.
END 1.
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