Language Choice and Use of Malaysian Public University Lecturers in the Education Domain

(Mei, Absullah, Heng, Kasim, 2015)

Language choice is defined as the language, variety or code utilized by a particular speech community
for a particular purpose or function in verbal interaction (Fishman, 1972).

After the independence, Malaya underwent drastic changes with regard to the language policy.
Bahasa Malaysia (BM) was declared as the sole national language and official language for the
purpose of nation building in the year 1957. As for the English language, it was announced that it
would be the second most important language (Asmah Haji Omar, 1993).

Despite the change in the language policy, the English language was not completely neglected in the
education policy. It is still taught as one of the compulsory subjects in schools. However, there also
exists a unique situation in the Malaysian school system whereby vernacular languages i.e. Mandarin
and Tamil, are used as the medium of instruction in the primary national type schools.

English language remains dominant in various domains in Malaysia such as business, education,
politics, tourism, employment, law, media and translation. English is entrenched as a global language
and the Malaysian government sees the need for its citizens to be multilingual. Language policies
govern the use of languages in education from primarily to the tertiary level

Research method :

 This research follows a quantitative methodology that utilized a cross-sectional design. In this
research, the researcher collected data on the pattern of language choice and use of 200
lecturers through non-probability sampling using the purposive sampling method.
 The data were gathered using a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of three
sections: Section A, B and C.
 Section A elicited information on the demographic profile of the respondents such as field of
study, faculty, age, gender, ethnicity, mother tongue, and educational background. Section B
focused on the patterns of language proficiency of the three ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese
and Indian) in four languages (Malay, Chinese, Indian and English). Section C focused on the
language choice and use of the lecturers with different interlocutors and in different
situations.
 The respondents were allowed to select more than one language for each of the sub-
domains because this reflects the language choice and use of a multilingual speaker. In
addition, the respondents had to indicate how frequently (Frequently, Sometimes,
Frequently) they choose and use the identified languages (i.e., Malay, Chinese, Indian and
English) in those situations.

Result :

 The study has shown the language choice and use of a particular professional group of
Malaysians who are lecturers in a Malaysian public university.
 The findings revealed that in the formal education domain, it is observed that the English and
Malay languages have been chosen and used by all of the Malay, Chinese and Indian
respondents.
 English and Malay languages are the medium of instruction in Malaysian higher education.
However, there were some Chinese respondents who stated that they chose and used
Chinese language in the formal education domain.
 The reason is that the Chinese respondents were teaching Chinese courses such as Chinese
language or Chinese literature, which required Chinese language to be the medium of
 instruction. In the informal education domain, all of the respondents chose and used English
language most frequently although they also chose and used their own ethnic languages.

Language Choice in Multilingual Communities: The Case of Larteh, Ghana

This paper explores factors that inform language choices that are made by multilingual speakers in
Larteh. People who speak more than two languages are often confronted with making the right
language choice within a particular domain.

Changes in the various spheres of life in a community are very likely to affect language use. Broad
areas which are susceptible to change include education, technology and social interaction.
Undoubtedly, conditions which prevailed during the period of previous research (Brokensha (1966);
Johnson (1973, 1975)) have changed; hence transformations in the patterns of language use in Larteh
are to be expected

Research done on language choice in multilingual communities has established that among many
considerations that multilingual speakers make in selecting a language for communication are the
domains of language use, topic/activity, and the language background of speech participants
(Kamwangamalu, 2000).

Johnson’s set of rules (1975) for predicting language choice were also applied to the data where
relevant. This study has shown that in addition to factors of language choice documented in the
literature, national language policies play significant roles in determining language spoken in some
speech domains.

In the educational domain, it was found out that the teachers’ choice of both English and Twi in
teaching Primary 1 is largely dictated by the Ministry of Education’s policy on language.

The functional distribution of the three languages: Leteh, Twi, and English as reported by earlier
researches, Brokensha (1966); Johnson (1973, 1975), has changed with regard to the use of English.
In the educational domain for instance, English is combined with Twi as languages of instruction as
directed by the language policy on education at the basic level.

Cultural Pluralism Reflected in Language Choice

There are three possible linguistic outcomes of prolonged contact of ethnic groups; that are language
maintenance, bilingualism or multilingualism, or language shift (Dweik& Qawar,2015:1).

Dweik&Qawar(2015:1) state in their research about language choice and language attitude that the
Canadian Arabs of Quebec, who live in the multilingual community, can choose Arabic, English, or
French according to the situation they find themselves in.

Language choice is a careful selection of words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of another language
within the speaker's repertoire. Coulmas (2005) stated that for bilinguals, the occurrence of language
choice seems natural, automatic, and unplanned.

However, this also happens to monodialectal speakers who also face a wide range of linguistic
choices. In line with that, according to Dweik&Qawar (2015:4), the occurrence of language choice for
bilinguals and multilingual seems natural, automatic, and unplanned. Speakers choose an
appropriate register, genre, style, medium, or tone of voice about the interlocutor (who), topic
(what), context (where), and medium (how) in every talk.
Wardaugh (2006:5) who states that the individual knows what language (variation) she/he chooses
and that knowledge is both very precise and at the same time almost entirely unconscious.

The language choice made by a speaker can be motivated by some factors such as social status,
gender, educational attainment, ethnicity, age, occupation, rural and urban origin, speakers
themselves, topic, place, media, and formality of the situation (David 2006, and Myers-Scotton and
Bolonyai 2001).

Lee Mei, Tam et al (2016:21) stated that in a multilingual society, individuals constantly have to make
a choice of which language to use for which situation and this depends on the interlocutors who are
also constrained by their linguistic repertoires.

David (2006) in Dweik (2015:4) argues that language choice is triggered by factors such as social
status, gender, educational attainment, ethnicity, age, occupation, rural and urban origin, speakers,
topic, place, media, and formality of the situation. His findings are similar to Coulmas's findings that
people make the linguistic choice for various purposes. It depends on their various needs concerning
the communication of ideas, the association with and separation from others, the establishment or
defense of dominant

Ansah, A.M (2014:37) stated that language choice is informed by the kind of participants in a
communication situation, the topic, social distance, and also location.

According to Dumanig, F.P (2010:31), Language choice is a careful selection of a word, phrase, clause,
or sentence of another language within the speaker‟ linguistic repertoire.

Fishman (1972) in Lee Mei, Tam, et al (2016:21) Language choice is defined as the language, variety,
or code utilized by a particular speech community for a particular purpose or function in verbal
interaction.

Dewi, U. P., &Setiadi, C. J. (2018:370) stated: "Language choice is a reflection of speakers' attitude
toward a language". It meant a positive language attitude will promote encouragement to the
language use and the other way around

Haslett in Giles and Robinson (1990) in Dumanig, F.P(2010:31) stated that one factor that influences
language choice is the speaker‟ social status which is associated income, education, occupation,
wealth, religion, age, role, and race

Wardhaugh (1992) in Dumanig, F.P (2010:31)stated that the notion that language choice is
influenced by a speaker‟s social status also supports the claim that the choice of words, ways of
speaking, and rules in conversation are determined by certain social requirements. In addition,
language choice also proves that interlocutors vary in their code choices or language preferences in
various domains.

Spolsky (2004) argued that in many groups, different linguistic choices are influenced by different
role relationships which are evident in all types of talk. When dealing with people of higher social
status, formal language is commonly used but when dealing with people of lower status, informal
language is used.

Studies conducted by Tan (1993), Wardhaugh (1992), Fasold (1996), Nor AzniAbdullah (2004),
Bonvillain (1993), and Mugambi (2003) have proven that social status can be an influential factor in a
speaker‟s language choice. Based on their findings, speakers use language to accommodate others
who have a different status.
Language choice varies in different domains of communication which can be triggered by the idea of
"we code", "the code" and "code-in-between" (Dumanig, F.P, 2010:37).

Ferrer and Sankoff's research (2004) results that the language preference of a speaker is influenced
by dominant languages. Hence most bilinguals and multilingual may choose a dominant language as
a medium of communication because it provides them a greater advantage, economic benefit, social
networks expansion, and better opportunities.

Dumanig, F.P (2010:37) stated that bilingual or multilingual speakers vary their linguistic choices
depending on their attitudes towards the language they use.

Dominant language influences the language choice of a speaker. More prestigious language is usually
favored as the medium of communication in various domains because of its wider social functions. In
addition, dominant languages can be used in formal and informal domains of communication (Pillai,
2006).

Fuller (2012) cited in Wardaugh (2015:84) states that many of the children speak two languages at
home.