St.
Joseph's Convent School
N.H.5, N.1.T, Faridabad,
Haryana 121001
TO TEST THE FOAMING CAPACITY OF SOAP
Submitted to:- Submitted by:-
Mrs. Astha Malhotra Dipesh Chauhan
P.G.T. Chemistry Class:XII-A
Certificate
This is to certify that DIPESH CHAUHAN
student of St. Josephs Convent School
has persuaded his work and prepared the
present project report on "To Test the
Foaming Capacity of Soap" under my
guidance.
This project is being submitted for
practical fulfilment of the senior school
certificate 2022- 2023.
Signature of Teacher Signature of Principle Signature of Examiner
(Mrs. Astha Malhotra) (Sister Pramela)
P.G.T Chemistry
CONTENT
Sr.No. Description Page No.
1 Cover Page 1
2 Certificate 2
3 Content 3
4 Acknowledgement 4
5 Theory 5
6 Introduction 7
7 Commercial Production of Soap 8
8 Cold Process 9
9 Hot Process 10
10 Preparation 11
11 Experiment 12
12 Observation 14
13 Bibliography 14
Acknowledgement
This success and final outcome of this project
required a lot of guidance and assistance from many
people and I am extremely privileged to have get this
all along the completion of my project. Al that I have
done is only due to such supervision and assistance
and Would not forget to thank them.
I respect and thank Mrs. Astha Malhotra, for
providing me an opportunity to do the project work
giving us all support and guidance which made me to
complete the project duty. I am extremely thankful to
her for providing such a nice support and guidance,
although she had busy schedule managing the
corporate affairs.
I would not forget to remember our working principal
Sister Pramela, of St. Joseph's Convent School for
their encouragement and more over for their timely
support and guidance till the completion of all project
work.
I am thankful to and fortunate enough to get constant
encouragement, support and guidance from all
teaching staffs of St. Joseph's Convent School which
helps us in successfully completing our project work.
Also, I would like to extended our sincere outcome to
all staffs in laboratory for their timing support.
In soap
Saturated fats
Most people have heard about saturated fats and their link to
obesity and heart disease and other eilments. But for soap, they
are good saturate fats are usually solid at room temperature and
consists of straight-chained molecules.
For bar soap, also they give the soap hardness as helping the soap
last longer in the shower. Most commonly used saturated fat used
for commercial soap making is beef fat, also known as tallow. It is
widely available as a by-product from the meat industry and is
therefore one of the cheapest fats. It created a white and very hard
bar of soap. Many people with sensitive skin have problems with
Soaps made with tallow. So, they usually use body washes or seek
out bar soap made from gentle vegetable sources.
Another common saturated fat is coconut oil. It also gives a very
hard white bar of soap, but unlike tallow, the fatty acids are shorter
length carbon chains that increase water solubility. This greater
solubility in water helps generate more suds and increase the
cleaning ability. Unfortunately, soap conditioning and moisturizing
ingredients need to be added. Another very common saturated fat
is palm oil; it is the go-to replacement for beef tallow is an issue. A
common recipe for homemade vegan soap consists of palm,
coconut, and olive oil.
Unsaturated fats (liquid Oils)
The best ingredients to balance the saturated fats in
a soap recipe are the unsaturated fats. By contrast,
these are usually vegetable oils that are liquid at
room temperature and consist mainly of bent and
branched chain molecules. They have the property of
acting as emollients or moisturizers in soap recipes. In
the right proportions, they can effectively offset the
drying qualities of saturated fats and create a bar
soap that is hard, white, sudsy and conditioning as
well. One of the best condition oils is olive oil. It
consists mainly of oleic acid, but the conditioning
action mostly comes from the unsaponifiable, which
are organic ingredients in the oil that are not acted
upon by the alkali. One of which is squalene, which us
used in many high-end antiaging cremes. Some other
common vegetable oils are coconut, Olive, Palm etc.
Introduction
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soaps are mainly used as
surfactants for washing, bathing, cleaning. Fats and oils are
composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids are
attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution,
which is often called lye, brings about a chemical reaction as
saponification. They have polar end which is hydrophilic (water
loving) and a long non-polar chain which is hydrophobic (water
hating). As a Consequence, they can form emulsion by suspending
oil in water. Fatty end of water-soluble end
Ch3-(Ch2)n-COONa
Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules have both a
hydrophilic end, which dissolve in water, as well as a hydrophobic
end, which is able to dissolve non-polar grease molecules.
2. MICELLE: Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecule
dispersed in liquid colloid. In an aqueous solution, molecules having
polar or charged group and non-polar regions (amphiphilic
molecules) form aggregate called Micelle. In a Micelle, polar or
ionic heads for a, outer shell in contact with water, while non-polar
tails are sequestered in the interior. Hence, the core sf micelle,
being formed of long nonpolar tails, resembles an oil or gasoline
drop. The number of amphiphilic molecules forming the aggregate
is called aggregation number; it is a way to describe the size of the
Micelle.
3. History of Cleaning Soap
Commercial production of soap
The manufacturing of soaps and detergents is a complex process that
involves different activities may range from small manufacturing plants that
employ a small number of people to those with hundreds and thousands of
workers. Products ay range from all-purpose products to that are used for a
specific application or requirement.
Selection of raw materials for soap manufacturing
The first phase in manufacturing of soaps and detergents is the selection of
raw materials. Raw materials are selected on the basis of various factors,
including - costs, human and environmental safety compatibility with other
ingredients, and the performance characteristics and appearance of the final
product. While the actual production process may vary from company to
company and manufacturer to manufacturer, there are some steps, which
are common to all types of cleaning products
. Saponification Process for Soap Manufacturing
Saponification processes are chemical soap manufacturing processes that
produce soap from fatty acid derivations. Saponification process for soap
manufacturing involves hydrolysis of esters under basic conditions to form an
alcohol and the salt of a carboxylic acid (carboxylates). Saponifiable
substances are the soaps and detergent ingredients that can be converted
into soap.
In Saponifiable soap manufacturing processes, vegetable oils and animal fats
are used for making soaps. Triesters or Triglycerides are the greasy materials
derived from these diverse fatty acids. Soap manufacturing is done in a
onestep or a two-step process. In the one-step soap manufacturing process,
the triglyceride is treated with a strong base, for example, lye, that
accelerates cleavage of the ester bond and releases the fatty acid salt and
glycerol, Sometimes soaps may be precipitated by salting it out with
saturated sodium chloride. For soap manufacturing. Triglycerides are highly
purified but saponification process includes other.
Cold Processes
Soap was made by the batch kettle boiling method until shortly
after World War-ll, when continuous processes were developed.
Continuous processes are preferred today because of their
flexibility, speed and economics. Both continuous and batch
processes produce soap in liquid form, called neat soap, and a
valuable by-product glycerine
(1). The 8lycerine is recovered by chemical treatment, followed by
evaporation and refining. Refined glycerine is an important
industrial material used in foods, cosmetics, drugs and many other
products. The next processing step after saponification or
neutralization is drying. Vacuum spray drying is used to convert the
neat soap into dry soap pellets
(2). The moisture content of the pellets will vary depending on the
desired properties of the soap bar. In the final processing step, the
dry soap pellets pass through a bar soap finishing line. The first unit
in the line is a mixer, called an amalgamator, in which the soap
pellets are blended together with fragrance, colorants and all other
ingredients
(3). The mixture is then homogenized and refined through rolling
milis and refining plodders to achieve thorough blending and a
uniform texture
(4). Finally, the mixture is continuously extruded from the plodder,
cut into bar-size units and stamped into its final shape in a soap
press
(5). Some of today bar soaps are called "combo bar" because they
get their cleansing of soap and synthetic surfactants. Others, called
"syndet bars," feature surfactants as the main cleansing
ingredients. The processing methods for manufacturing the
synthetic base materials for these bars are very different from
those used in traditional soap making. However, with some minor
modifications, the finishing line equipment is same.
Hot Process Soap Making
Hot process soap making is another method of making soap
that is quite popular due, in large part, to the fact that the
resulting soap can be used right away.
While this type of soap becomes harder much faster than soap
produced using the cold process method, I still feel the bars
benefit from a couple of weeks curing. This gives the soap time
to harden up further, lengthening the usage time of the bars
and I find the soap is milder on my sensitive skin.
The hot and cold methods of making soap are very similar,
each using the same base recipes and combining the
ingredients in more or less the same way.
As the names imply, one method requires an external heat
source to bring the soap to the gel phase before it is placed in a
soap mould. The other method uses its own self-generated
heat to reach the gel phase after it has been placed into the
soap mould.
There are a couple of things to consider before deciding to use
this method of soap making.
1. More time is needed when using this method since you will
have to watch over it while it is cooking. Be prepared to have a
good couple of hours available. You will be able to do other
things while the soap cooks but you will not be able to leave
and you will need to check the soap frequently.
2. The look of the soap tends to be a little bit on the rustic side
and does not have as smooth of a finish as the cold process
method
3. Some soap design ideas are just not possible with this
method.!
Preparation
The making of soap-
There are three main ingredients in plain soap, they are
oil/fat, lye/alkali and water. Other ingredients may be
added to give the soap a pleasant odour or colour, or to
improve its skin-softening qualities. Some soap is better
made using soft water, and for these it is a necessary to
either use rainwater or to add borax to tap water. Lyes are
extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on the skin
and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If drunk,
they can be fatal. Care is needed while handling lyes and
'green' (uncured) soap. There are two types of soap: - Soft &
Hard soap. Soft soap can be made using either a cold
process or a hot process, but hard soap can only be made
using hot process or a hot process. To make any soap it is
necessary to dilute the lye, mix it with the fat or oil, and stir
the mixture until saponification takes place. The cold
process may require several days or even months,
depending upon the strength and purity of the ingredients,
whereas hot process takes place within few minutes to few
hours. Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully outdoors,
don not put them in the drain.
EXPERIMENT
Equipment:-
• 250ml beaker
• Sodium Hydroxide (20% solution)
• 100ml beaker
• Ethanol
• Wire Gauge
• Saturated solution of Sodium Chloride
• Laboratory burner Calcium Chloride (5% solution)
• Glass stirring rod Magnesium Chloride (5% solution)
• Test tube and Ferric Chloride (5% solution)
• Test tube and Ferric Chloride (5% solution)
• Filter flask and Buchner funnel
• Kerosene and filter paper
• Phenolphthalein indicator solution
• Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
• Watch glass to extinguish possible Ethanol flames
Procedure:-
i. Measure 20g of cooking oil into 250ml beaker. Add
20ml of ethanol and 25ml of 20% sodium hydroxide
solution. Stir the mixture in the beaker. Place the
beaker on the wire gauge on a ring stand and heat
gently. Heat this solution gently, keep the flame away
from the top of the beaker to prevent the alcohol from
catching on the fire.
ii. Heat until the odour disappears
iii. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool down
iv. Move it safely to bench top
V. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your soap
preparation and stir the mixture thoroughly.
vi. It is used to remove the soap from water, glycerol.
And any excess sodium hydroxide present.
vii. Filter off the soap with vacuum filtration apparatus
and wash once with ice water.
vii. Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.
Observation
Washing properties: Take a small amount of soap and try to
wash our hands with it. It should lather rather easily if soft
water or use deionized water. Record your observations.
Emulsification: Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube
containing 10ml water and shake to mix. Emulsion or
suspension of ti.y oil droplets in water will be formed. Let
this stand for a few minutes prepare another test tube with
the same ingredients and also add a small portion (1/2g or
so) of your soap. Shake to mix. Compare the relative
stability of two emulsions.
Hard water reaction. Take 1g of your soap and warm it with
150ml of water in a 100ml beaker. 8 when you have
obtained a reasonably clear solution, pour about 15ml into
each of three test tubes. Test one of the three tubes with
10ml drops of 5% CaCl, solution, one with 10 drops of 5%
MgCl, solution and one with 10 drops of 5% FeCl3 solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your observations.
Basicity: Soap with free alkali can be very damaging to skin,
silk, or wool.
Bibliography
1 .https://www.wikipedia.org/
2. http://www.detergentsandsoaps.com/
3. https://www.slideshare.net/
4. https://brainly.in/
5. Pradeep Publications New Course Chemistry for
Class 11
6. APC Books
