VIPONTAS CENTER

REPÚBLICA DE ANGOLA
MINISTÉRIO DA ADMINISTRAÇÃO PÚBLICA,TRABALHO E
SEGURANÇA SOCIAL
INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE FORMAÇÃO PROFISSIONAL

THEME:

GLOBALISATION

NAME: Amador Ambriz Zonda

LEVEL:Advanced
CLASSROOM:1
TEACHER
_________
 CONTENT

 A brief Introdution
 History of globalization
 Two importants kind of globalization
 Globalisation in other perspective
 Benefits and effects
 Conclusion
 Introdution

Globalization, or globalisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is

the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments
worldwide. The term globalization first appeared in the early 20th century (supplanting
an earlier French term mondialization), developed its current meaning some time in the
second half of the 20th century, and came into popular use in the 1990s to describe the
unprecedented international connectivity of the post-Cold War world.[1] Its origins can
be traced back to 18th and 19th centuries due to advances
in transportation and communications technology. This increase in global interactions
has caused a growth in international trade and the exchange of ideas, beliefs, and
culture. Globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration
that is associated with social and cultural aspects. However, disputes and international
diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization, and of modern
globalization.
Economically, globalization involves goods, services, data, technology, and the
economic resources of capital.[2] The expansion of global markets liberalizes the
economic activities of the exchange of goods and funds. Removal of cross-border trade
barriers has made the formation of global markets more feasible.[3] Advances in
transportation, like the steam locomotive, steamship, jet engine, and container ships,
and developments in telecommunication infrastructure, like
the telegraph, Internet, mobile phones, and smartphones, have been major factors in
globalization and have generated further interdependence of economic and cultural
activities around the globe.[4][5][6]
Though many scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace
its history to long before the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New
World, and some even to the third millennium BCE.[7] Large-scale globalization began
in the 1820s, and in the late 19th century and early 20th century drove a rapid expansion
in the connectivity of the world's economies and cultures.[8] The term global city was
subsequently popularized by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her work The Global City:
New York, London, Tokyo (1991).[9]
In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of
globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and
movement of people, and the dissemination of knowledge.[10] Globalizing processes
affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, sociocultural
resources, and the natural environment. Academic literature commonly divides
globalization into three major areas: economic globalization, cultural globalization,
and political globalization.[11]

Etymology and usage

The word globalization was used in the English language as early as the 1930s, but only
in the context of education, and the term failed to gain traction. Over the next few
decades, the term was occasionally used by other scholars and media, but it was not
clearly defined.[1] One of the first usages of the term in the meaning resembling the
later, common usage was by French economist François Perroux in his essays from the
early 1960s (in his French works he used the term mondialization (literary
worldization), also translated as mundialization).[1] Theodore Levitt is often credited
with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream business audience in the
later in the middle of 1980s.[1]
Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired competing definitions and
interpretations. Its antecedents date back to the great movements of trade and empire
across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15th century onward.[12][13] Due to the
complexity of the concept, various research projects, articles, and discussions often stay
focused on a single aspect of globalization.[14]
In 1848, Karl Marx noticed the increasing level of national inter-dependence brought on
by capitalism, and predicted the universal character of the modern world society. He
states:
“The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan
character to production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of
Reactionists, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national ground on which
it stood. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being
destroyed. . . . In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we
have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations.”[15]
Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as "all those
processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world
society."[2] In The Consequences of Modernity, Anthony Giddens writes:
"Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social
relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by
events occurring many miles away and vice versa."[16] In 1992, Roland Robertson,
professor of sociology at the University of Aberdeen and an early writer in the field,
described globalization as "the compression of the world and the intensification of the
consciousness of the world as a whole."[17]
In Global Transformations, David Held and his co-writers state:
Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and
speeding up of global interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ...
Globalization can be on a continuum with the local, national and regional. At one end of
the continuum lie social and economic relations and networks which are organized on a
local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social and economic relations and
networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global interactions.
Globalization can refer to those spatial-temporal processes of change which underpin a
transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding
human activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive
spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A
satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity
(stretching), intensity, velocity and impact.[18]
Held and his co-writers' definition of globalization in that same book as "transformation
in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions—assessed in terms of
their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact—generating transcontinental or inter-
regional flows" was called "probably the most widely-cited definition" in the 2014 DHL
Global Connectiveness Index.[19]
Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book The Race to the Top: The Real Story of
Globalization, states that globalization:
is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It
pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can
interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world.[20]
Paul James defines globalization with a more direct and historically contextualized
emphasis:
Globalization is the extension of social relations across world-space, defining that
world-space in terms of the historically variable ways that it has been practiced and
socially understood through changing world-time.[21]
Manfred Steger, professor of global studies and research leader in the Global Cities
Institute at RMIT University, identifies four main empirical dimensions of
globalization: economic, political, cultural, and ecological. A fifth dimension—the
ideological—cutting across the other four. The ideological dimension, according to
Steger, is filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs, and narratives about the
phenomenon itself.[22]
James and Steger stated that the concept of globalization "emerged from the intersection
of four interrelated sets of 'communities of practice' (Wenger, 1998): academics,
journalists, publishers/editors, and librarians."[1]: 424  They note the term was used "in
education to describe the global life of the mind"; in international relations to describe
the extension of the European Common Market, and in journalism to describe how the
"American Negro and his problem are taking on a global significance".[1] They have
also argued that four forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and
cut across the solely empirical dimensions.[21][23] According to James, the oldest
dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, the movement of people. A
second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different
institutions, organizations, and polities, including imperial agents. Object-extended
globalization, a third form, is the movement of commodities and other objects of
exchange. He calls the transmission of ideas, images, knowledge, and information
across world-space disembodied globalization, maintaining that it is currently the
dominant form of globalization. James holds that this series of distinctions allows for an
understanding of how, today, the most embodied forms of globalization such as the
movement of refugees and migrants are increasingly restricted, while the most
disembodied forms such as the circulation of financial instruments and codes are the
most deregulated.[24]
The journalist Thomas L. Friedman popularized the term "flat world", arguing
that globalized trade, outsourcing, supply-chaining, and political forces had permanently
changed the world, for better and worse. He asserted that the pace of globalization was
quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to
grow.[25]
Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined "economic globalization" as the opening and
deregulation of commodity, capital, and labor markets that led toward
present neoliberal globalization. He used "political globalization" to refer to the
emergence of a transnational élite and a phasing out of the nation-state. Meanwhile, he
used "cultural globalization" to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture.
Other of his usages included "ideological globalization", "technological globalization",
and "social globalization".[26]
Lechner and Boli (2012) define globalization as more people across large distances
becoming connected in more and different ways.[27]
"Globophobia" is used to refer to the fear of globalization, though it can also mean
the fear of balloons.[28][29][30]

History

Archaic globalization conventionally refers to a phase in the history of globalization

including globalizing events and developments from the time of the
earliest civilizations until roughly the 1600s. This term is used to describe the
relationships between communities and states and how they were created by the
geographical spread of ideas and social norms at both local and regional levels.[32]
In this schema, three main prerequisites are posited for globalization to occur. The first
is the idea of Eastern Origins, which shows how Western states have adapted and
implemented learned principles from the East.[32] Without the spread of traditional
ideas from the East, Western globalization would not have emerged the way it did. The
interactions of states were not on a global scale and most often were confined to
Asia, North Africa, the Middle East, and certain parts of Europe.[32] With early
globalization, it was difficult for states to interact with others that were not close.
Eventually, technological advances allowed states to learn of others' existence and thus
another phase of globalization can occur. The third has to do with inter-dependency,
stability, and regularity. If a state is not dependent on another, then there is no way for
either state to be mutually affected by the other. This is one of the driving forces behind
global connections and trade; without either, globalization would not have emerged the
way it did and states would still be dependent on their own production and resources to
work. This is one of the arguments surrounding the idea of early globalization. It is
argued that archaic globalization did not function in a similar manner to modern
globalization because states were not as interdependent on others as they are today.[32]
Also posited is a "multi-polar" nature to archaic globalization, which involved the active
participation of non-Europeans. Because it predated the Great Divergence in the
nineteenth century, where Western Europe pulled ahead of the rest of the world in terms
of industrial production and economic output, archaic globalization was a phenomenon
that was driven not only by Europe but also by other economically developed Old
World centers such as Gujarat, Bengal, coastal China, and Japan.[33]

The German historical economist and sociologist Andre Gunder Frank argues that a

form of globalization began with the rise of trade links between Sumer and the Indus
Valley civilization in the third millennium BCE. This archaic globalization existed
during the Hellenistic Age, when commercialized urban centers enveloped the axis
of Greek culture that reached from India to Spain, including Alexandria and the
other Alexandrine cities. Early on, the geographic position of Greece and the necessity
of importing wheat forced the Greeks to engage in maritime trade. Trade in ancient
Greece was largely unrestricted: the state controlled only the supply of grain
Native New World crops exchanged globally: Maize, tomato, potato, vanilla,
rubber, cacao, tobacco
Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of civilizations from
China, Indian subcontinent, Persia, Europe, and Arabia, opening long-distance political
and economic interactions between them.[34] Though silk was certainly the major trade
item from China, common goods such as salt and sugar were traded as well;
and religions, syncretic philosophies, and various technologies, as well as diseases, also
traveled along the Silk Routes. In addition to economic trade, the Silk Road served as a
means of carrying out cultural trade among the civilisations along its network.[35] The
movement of people, such as refugees, artists, craftsmen, missionaries, robbers, and
envoys, resulted in the exchange of religions, art, languages, and new technologies.[36]
Early modern

"Early modern" or "proto-globalization" covers a period of the history of globalization

roughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800. The concept of "proto-
globalization" was first introduced by historians A. G. Hopkins and Christopher Bayly.
The term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exchange that
characterized the period immediately preceding the advent of high "modern
globalization" in the late 19th century.[37] This phase of globalization was
characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 15th and 17th centuries,
first the Portuguese Empire (1415) followed by the Spanish Empire (1492), and later
the Dutch and British Empires. In the 17th century, world trade developed further
when chartered companies like the British East India Company (founded in 1600) and
the Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602, often described as the
first multinational corporation in which stock was offered) were established.[38]
Early modern globalization is distinguished from modern globalization on the basis
of expansionism, the method of managing global trade, and the level of information
exchange. The period is marked by such trade arrangements as the East India Company,
the shift of hegemony to Western Europe, the rise of larger-scale conflicts between
powerful nations such as the Thirty Years' War, and the rise of newfound commodities
—most particularly slave trade. The Triangular Trade made it possible for Europe to
take advantage of resources within the Western Hemisphere. The transfer of animal
stocks, plant crops, and epidemic diseases associated with Alfred W. Crosby's concept
of the Columbian Exchange also played a central role in this process.
European, Muslims, Indian, Southeast Asian, and Chinese merchants were all involved
in early modern trade and communications, particularly in the Indian Ocean region.
 
According to economic historians Kevin H. O'Rourke, Leandro Prados de la Escosura,
and Guillaume Daudin, several factors promoted globalization in the period 1815–1870:
[39]
 The conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars brought in an era of relative peace in
Europe.
 Innovations in transportation technology reduced trade costs substantially.

 New industrial military technologies increased the power of European states and
the United States, and allowed these powers to forcibly open up markets across
the world and extend their empires.
 A gradual move towards greater liberalization in European countries.

During the 19th century, globalization approached its form as a direct result of
the Industrial Revolution. Industrialization allowed standardized production of
household items using economies of scale while rapid population growth created
sustained demand for commodities. In the 19th century, steamships reduced the cost of
international transportation significantly and railroads made inland transportation
cheaper. The transportation revolution occurred some time between 1820 and 1850.
[31] More nations embraced international trade.[31] Globalization in this period was
decisively shaped by nineteenth-century imperialism such as in Africa and Asia. The
invention of shipping containers in 1956 helped advance the globalization of commerce.
[40][41]
After World War II, work by politicians led to the agreements of the Bretton Woods
Conference, in which major governments laid down the framework for international
monetary policy, commerce, and finance, and the founding of several international
institutions intended to facilitate economic growth by lowering trade barriers. Initially,
the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) led to a series of agreements to
remove trade restrictions. GATT's successor was the World Trade Organization (WTO),
which provided a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements and a
dispute resolution process. Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world
product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001.[42] The approach of using global agreements to
advance trade stumbled with the failure of the Doha Development Round of trade
negotiation. Many countries then shifted to bilateral or smaller multilateral agreements,
such as the 2011 South Korea–United States Free Trade Agreement.
Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle
classes in developed countries. Open skies policies and low-cost carriers have helped to
bring competition to the market. In the 1990s, the growth of low-cost communication
networks cut the cost of communicating between countries. More work can be
performed using a computer without regard to location. This included accounting,
software development, and engineering design.
Student exchange programs became popular after World War II, and are intended to
increase the participants' understanding and tolerance of other cultures, as well as
improving their language skills and broadening their social horizons. Between 1963 and
2006 the number of students studying in a foreign country increased 9 times.[43]
Since the 1980s, modern globalization has spread rapidly through the expansion of
capitalism and neoliberal ideologies.[44] The implementation of neoliberal policies has
allowed for the privatization of public industry, deregulation of laws or policies that
interfered with the free flow of the market, as well as cut-backs to governmental social
services.[45] These neoliberal policies were introduced to many developing countries in
the form of structural adjustment programs (SAPs) that were implemented by the World
Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).[44] These programs required that the
country receiving monetary aid would open its markets to capitalism, privatize public
industry, allow free trade, cut social services like healthcare and education and allow the
free movement of giant multinational corporations.[46] These programs allowed the
World Bank and the IMF to become global financial market regulators that would
promote neoliberalism and the creation of free markets for multinational corporations
on a global scale.[47]

In the late 19th and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and
cultures grew very quickly. This slowed down from the 1910s onward due to the World
Wars and the Cold War,[48] but picked up again in the 1980s and 1990s.
[49] The revolutions of 1989 and subsequent liberalization in many parts of the world
resulted in a significant expansion of global interconnectedness. The migration and
movement of people can also be highlighted as a prominent feature of the globalization
process. In the period between 1965 and 1990, the proportion of the labor force
migrating approximately doubled. Most migration occurred between the developing
countries and least developed countries (LDCs).[50] As economic integration
intensified workers moved to areas with higher wages and most of the developing world
oriented toward the international market economy. The collapse of the Soviet Union not
only ended the Cold War's division of the world – it also left the United States its sole
policeman and an unfettered advocate of free market.[according to whom?] It also
resulted in the growing prominence of attention focused on the movement of diseases,
the proliferation of popular culture and consumer values, the growing prominence of
international institutions like the UN, and concerted international action on such issues
as the environment and human rights.[51] Other developments as dramatic were the
Internet's becoming influential in connecting people across the world; As of June 2012,
more than 2.4 billion people—over a third of the world's human population—have used
the services of the Internet.[52][53] Growth of globalization has never been smooth.
One influential event was the late 2000s recession, which was associated with lower
growth (in areas such as cross-border phone calls and Skype usage) or even temporarily
negative growth (in areas such as trade) of global interconnectedness.[54][55]
The China–United States trade war, starting in 2018, negatively affected trade between
the two largest national economies. The economic impact of the COVID-19
pandemic included a massive decline in tourism and international business travel as
many countries temporarily closed borders. The 2021–2022 global supply chain
crisis resulted from temporary shutdowns of manufacturing and transportation facilities,
and labor shortages. Supply problems incentivized some switches to domestic
production.[56] The economic impact of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine included
a blockade of Ukrainian ports and international sanctions on Russia, resulting in some
de-coupling of the Russian economy with global trade, especially with the European
Union and other Western countries.
Economic globalization

Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence of national

economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross-border movement of
goods, services, technology, and capital.[58] Whereas the globalization of business is
centered around the diminution of international trade regulations as well as tariffs, taxes,
and other impediments that suppresses global trade, economic globalization is the
process of increasing economic integration between countries, leading to the emergence
of a global marketplace or a single world market.[59] Depending on the paradigm,
economic globalization can be viewed as either a positive or a negative phenomenon.
Economic globalization comprises: globalization of production; which refers to the
obtainment of goods and services from a particular source from locations around the
globe to benefit from difference in cost and quality. Likewise, it also comprises
globalization of markets; which is defined as the union of different and separate markets
into a massive global marketplace. Economic globalization also
includes[60] competition, technology, and corporations and industries.[58]
Current globalization trends can be largely accounted for by developed economies
integrating with less developed economies by means of foreign direct investment, the
reduction of trade barriers as well as other economic reforms, and, in many cases,
immigration.[61]
International standards have made trade in goods and services more efficient. An
example of such standard is the intermodal container. Containerization dramatically
reduced the costs of transportation, supported the post-war boom in international trade,
and was a major element in globalization.[40] International standards are set by
the International Organization for Standardization, which is composed of
representatives from various national standards organizations.
A multinational corporation, or worldwide enterprise,[62] is an organization that owns
or controls the production of goods or services in one or more countries other than their
home country.[63] It can also be referred to as an international corporation, a
transnational corporation, or a stateless corporation.[64]
A free-trade area is the region encompassing a trade bloc whose member countries have
signed a free-trade agreement (FTA). Such agreements involve cooperation between at
least two countries to reduce trade barriers – import quotas and tariffs – and to increase
trade of goods and services with each other.[65] If people are also free to move between
the countries, in addition to a free-trade agreement, it would also be considered an open
border. Arguably the most significant free-trade area in the world is the European
Union, a politico-economic union of 27 member states that are primarily located
in Europe. The EU has developed European Single Market through a standardized
system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the free
movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the internal market,[66]
Trade facilitation looks at how procedures and controls governing the movement of
goods across national borders can be improved to reduce associated cost burdens and
maximize efficiency while safeguarding legitimate regulatory objectives.
Global trade in services is also significant. For example, in India, business process
outsourcing has been described as the "primary engine of the country's development
over the next few decades, contributing broadly to GDP growth, employment growth,
and poverty alleviation".[67][68]
William I. Robinson's theoretical approach to globalization is a critique of Wallerstein's
World Systems Theory. He believes that the global capital experienced today is due to a
new and distinct form of globalization which began in the 1980s. Robinson argues not
only are economic activities expanded across national boundaries but also there is a
transnational fragmentation of these activities.[69] One important aspect of Robinson's
globalization theory is that production of goods are increasingly global. This means that
one pair of shoes can be produced by six countries, each contributing to a part of the
production process.

Cultural globalization

Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around
the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations.[70] This process is
marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been diffused by the
Internet, popular culture media, and international travel. This has added to processes of
commodity exchange and colonization which have a longer history of carrying cultural
meaning around the globe. The circulation of cultures enables individuals to partake in
extended social relations that cross national and regional borders. The creation and
expansion of such social relations is not merely observed on a material level. Cultural
globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people
associate their individual and collective cultural identities. It brings increasing
interconnectedness among different populations and cultures.[71]
Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing
cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves,
and how they endeavour to communicate across cultures. Intercultural
communication is a related field of study.
Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural items—such as ideas, styles, religions,
technologies, languages etc. Cultural globalization has increased cross-cultural contacts,
but may be accompanied by a decrease in the uniqueness of once-isolated communities.
For example, sushi is available in Germany as well as Japan, but Euro-Disney outdraws
the city of Paris, potentially reducing demand for "authentic" French pastry.[72][73]
[74] Globalization's contribution to the alienation of individuals from their traditions
may be modest compared to the impact of modernity itself, as alleged
by existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. Globalization has
expanded recreational opportunities by spreading pop culture, particularly via the
Internet and satellite television. The cultural diffusion can create a homogenizing force,
where globalisation is seen as synonymous with homogenizing force via connectedness
of markets, cultures, politics and the desire for modernizations through imperial
countries sphere of influence.[75]
Religions were among the earliest cultural elements to globalize, being spread by force,
migration, evangelists, imperialists, and traders. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and
more recently sects such as Mormonism are among those religions which have taken
root and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.[76]

Globalization has strongly influenced sports.[77] For example, the modern Olympic

Games has athletes from more than 200 nations participating in a variety of
competitions.[78] The FIFA World Cup is the most widely viewed and followed
sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games; a ninth of the entire
population of the planet watched the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final.[79][80][81][82]
The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices including traditional
music can be lost or turned into a fusion of traditions. Globalization can trigger a state
of emergency for the preservation of musical heritage. Archivists may attempt to
collect, record, or transcribe repertoires before melodies are assimilated or modified,
while local musicians may struggle for authenticity and to preserve local musical
traditions. Globalization can lead performers to discard traditional instruments. Fusion
genres can become interesting fields of analysis.[83]
Music has an important role in economic and cultural development during globalization.
Music genres such as jazz and reggae began locally and later became international
phenomena. Globalization gave support to the world music phenomenon by allowing
music from developing countries to reach broader audiences.[84] Though the term
"World Music" was originally intended for ethnic-specific music, globalization is now
expanding its scope such that the term often includes hybrid subgenres such as "world
fusion", "global fusion", "ethnic fusion",[85] and worldbeat.[86][87]

Bourdieu claimed that the perception of consumption can be seen as self-identification

and the formation of identity. Musically, this translates into each individual having their
own musical identity based on likes and tastes. These likes and tastes are greatly
influenced by culture, as this is the most basic cause for a person's wants and behavior.
The concept of one's own culture is now in a period of change due to globalization.
Also, globalization has increased the interdependency of political, personal, cultural,
and economic factors.[89]
A 2005 UNESCO report[90] showed that cultural exchange is becoming more frequent
from Eastern Asia, but that Western countries are still the main exporters of cultural
goods. In 2002, China was the third largest exporter of cultural goods, after the UK and
US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the European Union's shares of
cultural exports declined while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass North America.
Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and area are several times that of
North America. Americanization is related to a period of high political American clout
and of significant growth of America's shops, markets and objects being brought into
other countries.
Some critics of globalization argue that it harms the diversity of cultures. As a
dominating country's culture is introduced into a receiving country through
globalization, it can become a threat to the diversity of local culture. Some argue that
globalization may ultimately lead to Westernization or Americanization of culture,
where the dominating cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful
Western countries spread and cause harm to local cultures.[91]
Globalization is a diverse phenomenon that relates to a multilateral political world and
to the increase of cultural objects and markets between countries. The Indian experience
particularly reveals the plurality of the impact of cultural globalization.[92]
Transculturalism is defined as "seeing oneself in the other".[93] Transcultural[94] is in
turn described as "extending through all human cultures"[94] or "involving,
encompassing, or combining elements of more than one culture".[95]

Political globalization
Political globalization refers to the growth of the worldwide political system, both in
size and complexity. That system includes national governments,
their governmental and intergovernmental organizations as well as government-
independent elements of global civil society such as international non-governmental
organizations and social movement organizations. One of the key aspects of the political
globalization is the declining importance of the nation-state and the rise of other actors
on the political scene. William R. Thompson has defined it as "the expansion of a global
political system, and its institutions, in which inter-regional transactions (including, but
certainly not limited to trade) are managed".[96] Political globalization is one of the
three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, with the
two other being economic globalization and cultural globalization.[11]
Intergovernmentalism is a term in political science with two meanings. The first refers
to a theory of regional integration originally proposed by Stanley Hoffmann; the second
treats states and the national government as the primary factors for integration.
[97]Multi-level governance is an approach in political science and public administration
theory that originated from studies on European integration. Multi-level governance
gives expression to the idea that there are many interacting authority structures at work
in the emergent global political economy. It illuminates the intimate entanglement
between the domestic and international levels of authority.
Some people are citizens of multiple nation-states. Multiple citizenship, also called dual
citizenship or multiple nationality or dual nationality, is a person's citizenship status, in
which a person is concurrently regarded as a citizen of more than one state under the
laws of those states

Increasingly, non-governmental organizations influence public policy across national

boundaries, including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.[99] Philanthropic
organizations with global missions are also coming to the forefront of humanitarian
efforts; charities such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Accion International,
the Acumen Fund (now Acumen) and the Echoing Green have combined the business
model with philanthropy, giving rise to business organizations such as the Global
Philanthropy Group and new associations of philanthropists such as the Global
Philanthropy Forum. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation projects include a current
multibillion-dollar commitment to funding immunizations in some of the world's more
impoverished but rapidly growing countries.[100] The Hudson Institute estimates total
private philanthropic flows to developing countries at US$59 billion in 2010.[101]
As a response to globalization, some countries have embraced isolationist policies. For
example, the North Korean government makes it very difficult for foreigners to enter
the country and strictly monitors their activities when they do. Aid workers are subject
to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places and regions the government does not
wish them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave the country.[102][103]
Globalization and gender
 
Globalization has been a gendered process where giant multinational corporations have
outsourced jobs to low-wage, low skilled, quota free economies like the ready
made garment industry in Bangladesh where poor women make up the majority of labor
force.[104] Despite a large proportion of women workers in the garment industry,
women are still heavily underemployed compared to men.[104] Most women that are
employed in the garment industry come from the countryside of Bangladesh triggering
migration of women in search of garment work.[104] It is still unclear as to whether or
not access to paid work for women where it didn't exist before has empowered them.
[104] The answers varied depending on whether it is the employers perspective or the
workers and how they view their choices.[104] Women workers did not see the garment
industry as economically sustainable for them in the long run due to long hours standing
and poor working conditions.[104] Although women workers did show significant
autonomy over their personal lives including their ability to negotiate with family, more
choice in marriage, and being valued as a wage earner in the family. This did not
translate into workers being able to collectively organize themselves in order to
negotiate a better deal for themselves at work.[104]
Another example of outsourcing in manufacturing includes the maquiladora industry in
Ciudad Juarez, Mexico where poor women make up the majority of the labor force.
[105] Women in the maquiladora industry have produced high levels of turnover not
staying long enough to be trained compared to men.[105] A gendered two tiered system
within the maquiladora industry has been created that focuses on training and worker
loyalty.[105] Women are seen as being untrainable, placed in un-skilled, low wage jobs,
while men are seen as more trainable with less turnover rates, and placed in more high
skilled technical jobs.[105] The idea of training has become a tool used against women
to blame them for their high turnover rates which also benefit the industry keeping
women as temporary workers.[105]
Other dimensions
Scholars also occasionally discuss other, less common dimensions of globalization,
such as environmental globalization (the internationally coordinated practices and
regulations, often in the form of international treaties, regarding environmental
protection)[106] or military globalization (growth in global extent and scope of security
relationships).[107] Those dimensions, however, receive much less attention the three
described above, as academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three
major areas: economic globalization, cultural globalization and political globalization.
[11]

An essential aspect of globalization is movement of people, and state-boundary limits

on that movement have changed across history.[108] The movement of tourists and
business people opened up over the last century. As transportation technology
improved, travel time and costs decreased dramatically between the 18th and early 20th
century. For example, travel across the Atlantic ocean used to take up to 5 weeks in the
18th century, but around the time of the 20th century it took a mere 8 days.[109] Today,
modern aviation has made long-distance transportation quick and affordable.
Tourism is travel for pleasure. The developments in technology and transportation
infrastructure, such as jumbo jets, low-cost airlines, and more accessible airports have
made many types of tourism more affordable. At any given moment half a million
people are in the air.[110] International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1
billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012.[111] A visa is a conditional
authorization granted by a country to a foreigner, allowing them to enter and
temporarily remain within, or to leave that country. Some countries – such as those in
the Schengen Area – have agreements with other countries allowing each other's
citizens to travel between them without visas (for example, Switzerland is part of a
Schengen Agreement allowing easy travel for people from countries within the
European Union). The World Tourism Organization announced that the number of
tourists who require a visa before traveling was at its lowest level ever in 2015.[112]
[113]
Immigration is the international movement of people into a destination country of which
they are not natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle or reside
there, especially as permanent residents or naturalized citizens, or to take-up
employment as a migrant worker or temporarily as a foreign worker.[114][115]
[116] According to the International Labour Organization, as of 2014 there were an
estimated 232 million international migrants in the world (defined as persons outside
their country of origin for 12 months or more) and approximately half of them were
estimated to be economically active (i.e. being employed or seeking employment).
[117] International movement of labor is often seen as important to economic
development. For example, freedom of movement for workers in the European
Union means that people can move freely between member states to live, work, study or
retire in another country.

Globalization is associated with a dramatic rise in international education. The

development of global cross-cultural competence in the workforce through ad-hoc
training has deserved increasing attention in recent times.[119][120] More and more
students are seeking higher education in foreign countries and many international
students now consider overseas study a stepping-stone to permanent residency within a
country.[121] The contributions that foreign students make to host nation economies,
both culturally and financially has encouraged major players to implement further
initiatives to facilitate the arrival and integration of overseas students, including
substantial amendments to immigration and visa policies and procedures.[43]
A transnational marriage is a marriage between two people from different countries. A
variety of special issues arise in marriages between people from different countries,
including those related to citizenship and culture, which add complexity and challenges
to these kinds of relationships. In an age of increasing globalization, where a growing
number of people have ties to networks of people and places across the globe, rather
than to a current geographic location, people are increasingly marrying across national
boundaries. Transnational marriage is a by-product of the movement and migration of
people.

Globalization means the speedup of movements and exchanges (of human beings,
goods, and services, capital, technologies or cultural practices) all over the planet. One
of the effects of globalization is that it promotes and increases interactions between
different regions and populations around the globe.

An Official Definition of Globalization by the World Health Organization (WHO)

According to WHO, globalization can be defined as ” the increased interconnectedness
and interdependence of peoples and countries. It is generally understood to include two
inter-related elements: the opening of international borders to increasingly fast flows of
goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies at
national and international levels that facilitate or promote such flows.”

What Is Globalization in the Economy?

According to the Committee for Development Policy (a subsidiary body of the United

Nations), from an economic point of view, globalization can be defined as:
“(…) the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing
scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, the flow of international capital
and the wide and rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and
mutual integration of market frontiers (…) and the rapid growing significance of
information in all types of productive activities and marketization are the two major
driving forces for economic globalization.”

What Is Globalization in Geography?

In geography, globalization is defined as the set of processes (economic, social, cultural,

technological, institutional) that contribute to the relationship between societies and
individuals around the world. It is a progressive process by which exchanges and flows
between different parts of the world are intensified.
Globalization and the G20: What is the G20?
The G20 is a global bloc composed by the governments and central bank governors
from 19 countries and the European Union (EU). Established in 1999, the G20 gathers
the most important industrialized and developing economies to discuss international
economic and financial stability. Together, the nations of the G20 account for around
80% of global economic output, nearly 75 percent of all global trade, and about two-
thirds of the world’s population.

G20 leaders get together in an annual summit to discuss and coordinate pressing global
issues of mutual interest. Though economics and trade are usually the centerpieces of
each summit’s agenda, issues like climate change, migration policies, terrorism, the
future of work, or global wealth are recurring focuses too. Since the G20 leaders
represent the “political backbone of the global financial architecture that secures open
markets, orderly capital flows, and a safety net for countries in difficulty”, it is often
thanks to bilateral meetings during summits that major international agreements are
achieved and that globalization is able to move forward.
The joint action of G20 leaders has unquestionably been useful to save the global
financial system in the 2008/2009 crisis, thanks to trade barriers removal and the
implementation of huge financial reforms. Nonetheless, the G20 was been struggling to
be successful at coordinating monetary and fiscal policies and unable to root out tax
evasion and corruption, among other downsides of globalization. As a result of this and
other failures from the G20 in coordinating globalization, popular, nationalist
movements across the world have been defending countries should pursue their interests
alone or form fruitful coalitions.
How Do We Make Globalization More Just?
The ability of countries to rise above narrow self-interest has brought unprecedented
economic wealth and plenty of applicable scientific progress. However, for different
reasons, not everyone has been benefiting the same from globalization and
technological change: wealth is unfairly distributed and economic growth came at huge
environmental costs. How can countries rise above narrow self-interest and act together
or designing fairer societies and a healthier planet? How do we make globalization more
just?
According to Christine Lagarde, former President of the International Monetary Fund,
“debates about trade and access to foreign goods are as old as society itself ” and
history tells us that closing borders or protectionism policies are not the way to go, as
many countries doing it have failed.
Lagarde defends we should pursue globalization policies that extend the benefits of
openness and integration while alleviating their side effects. How to make globalization
more just is a very complex question that involves redesigning economic systems. But
how? That’s the question.
Globalization is deeply connected with economic systems and markets, which, on their
turn, impact and are impacted by social issues, cultural factors that are hard to
overcome, regional specificities, timings of action and collaborative networks. All of
this requires, on one hand, global consensus and cooperation, and on the other, country-
specific solutions, apart from a good definition of the adjective “just”.
When Did Globalization Begin? The History of Globalization

For some people, this global phenomenon is inherent to human nature. Because of this,
some say globalization begun about 60,000 years ago, at the beginning of human
history. Throughout time, human societies’ exchanging trade has been growing. Since
the old times, different civilizations have developed commercial trade routes and
experienced cultural exchanges. And as well, the migratory phenomenon has also been
contributing to these populational exchanges. Especially nowadays, since traveling
became quicker, more comfortable, and more affordable.
This phenomenon has continued throughout history, notably through military conquests
and exploration expeditions. But it wasn’t until technological advances in transportation
and communication that globalization speeded up. It was particularly after the second
half of the 20th century that world trades accelerated in such a dimension and speed that
the term “globalization” started to be commonly used.

Examples of Globalization (Concept Map)

Because of trade developments and financial exchanges, we often think of globalization

as an economic and financial phenomenon. Nonetheless, it includes a much wider field
than just flowing of goods, services or capital. Often referred to as the globalization
concept map, some examples of globalization are:

 Economic globalization: is the development of trade systems within

transnational actors such as corporations or NGOs;
 Financial globalization: can be linked with the rise of a global financial system
with international financial exchanges and monetary exchanges. Stock markets,
for instance, are a great example of the financially connected global world since
when one stock market has a decline, it affects other markets negatively as well
as the economy as a whole.
 Cultural globalization: refers to the interpenetration of cultures which, as a
consequence, means nations adopt principles, beliefs, and costumes of other
nations, losing their unique culture to a unique, globalized supra-culture;
 Political globalization: the development and growing influence of international
organizations such as the UN or WHO means governmental action takes place
at an international level. There are other bodies operating a global level such as
NGOs like Doctors without borders or  Oxfam;
 Sociological globalization: information moves almost in real-time, together
with the interconnection and interdependence of events and their consequences.
People move all the time too, mixing and integrating different societies;
 Technological globalization: the phenomenon by which millions of people are
interconnected thanks to the power of the digital world via platforms such as
Facebook, Instagram, Skype or Youtube.
  Geographic globalization: is the new organization and hierarchy of different
regions of the world that is constantly changing. Moreover, with transportation
and flying made so easy and affordable, apart from a few countries with
demanding visas, it is possible to travel the world without barely any
restrictions;
 Ecological globalization: accounts for the idea of considering planet Earth as a
single global entity – a common good all societies should protect since the
weather affects everyone and we are all protected by the same atmosphere. To
this regard, it is often said that the poorest countries that have been polluting
the least will suffer the most from climate change.

The Benefits of Globalization

Globalization has benefits that cover many different areas. It reciprocally developed
economies all over the world and increased cultural exchanges. It also allowed financial
exchanges between companies, changing the paradigm of work. Many people are
nowadays citizens of the world. The origin of goods became secondary and geographic
distance is no longer a barrier for many services to happen. Let’s dig deeper.

The Engine of Globalization – An Economic Example

The most visible impacts of globalization are definitely the ones affecting the economic
world. Globalization has led to a sharp increase in trade and economic exchanges, but
also to a multiplication of financial exchanges.

In the 1970s world economies opened up and the development of free trade policies
accelerated the globalization phenomenon. Between 1950 and 2010, world exports
increased 33-fold. This significantly contributed to increasing the interactions between
different regions of the world.

This acceleration of economic exchanges has led to strong global economic growth. It
fostered as well a rapid global industrial development that allowed the rapid
development of many of the technologies and commodities we have available
nowadays.

Knowledge became easily shared and international cooperation among the brightest
minds speeded things up. According to some analysts, globalization has also contributed
to improving global economic conditions, creating much economic wealth (thas was,
nevertheless, unequally distributed – more information ahead).

Globalization Benefits – A Financial Example

At the same time, finance also became globalized. From the 1980s, driven by neo-
liberal policies, the world of finance gradually opened. Many states, particularly the US
under Ronald Reagan and the UK under Margaret Thatcher introduced the famous “3D
Policy”: Disintermediation, Decommissioning, Deregulation.
The idea was to simplify finance regulations, eliminate mediators and break down the
barriers between the world’s financial centers. And the goal was to make it easier to
exchange capital between the world’s financial players. This financial globalization has
contributed to the rise of a global financial market in which contracts and capital
exchanges have multiplied.

Globalization – A Cultural Example

Together with economic and financial globalization, there has obviously also been
cultural globalization. Indeed, the multiplication of economic and financial exchanges
has been followed by an increase in human exchanges such as migration, expatriation or
traveling. These human exchanges have contributed to the development of cultural
exchanges. This means that different customs and habits shared among local
communities have been shared among communities that (used to) have different
procedures and even different beliefs.
Good examples of cultural globalization are, for instance, the trading of commodities
such as coffee or avocados. Coffee is said to be originally from Ethiopia and consumed
in the Arabid region. Nonetheless, due to commercial trades after the 11th century, it is
nowadays known as a globally consumed commodity. Avocados, for instance, grown
mostly under the tropical temperatures of Mexico, the Dominican Republic or Peru.
They started by being produced in small quantities to supply the local populations but
today guacamole or avocado toasts are common in meals all over the world.
At the same time, books, movies, and music are now instantaneously available all
around the world thanks to the development of the digital world and the power of the
internet. These are perhaps the greatest contributors to the speed at which cultural
exchanges and globalization are happening. There are also other examples of
globalization regarding traditions like Black Friday in the US, the Brazilian Carnival
or the Indian Holi Festival. They all were originally created following their countries’
local traditions and beliefs but as the world got to know them, they are now common
traditions in other countries too.
Why Is Globalization Bad? The Negative Effects of Globalization
Globalization is a complex phenomenon. As such, it has a considerable influence on
several areas of contemporary societies. Let’s take a look at some of the main negative
effects globalization has had so far.
The Negative Effects of Globalization on Cultural Loss
Apart from all the benefits globalization has had on allowing cultural exchanges it also
homogenized the world’s cultures. That’s why specific cultural characteristics from
some countries are disappearing. From languages to traditions or even specific
industries. That’s why according to UNESCO, the mix between the benefits of
globalization and the protection of local culture’s uniqueness requires a careful
approach.
The Economic Negative Effects of Globalization
Despite its benefits, the economic growth driven by globalization has not been done
without awakening criticism. The consequences of globalization are far from
homogeneous: income inequalities, disproportional wealth and trades that benefit parties
differently. In the end, one of the criticisms is that some actors (countries, companies,
individuals) benefit more from the phenomena of globalization, while others are
sometimes perceived as the “losers” of globalization. As a matter of fact, a recent
report from Oxfam says that 82% of the world’s generated wealth goes to 1% of the
population.

CONCLUSION
According to the foregoing analysis, globalization is not merely an intensification of
global interconnectedness brought about by market forces and technological change.
Rather, it is a worldview shaped by capital and hegemonic power that aspires to
establish a global system in line with the interests of capital. Capitalism, as a market-
oriented system of production, has an inherent globalizing tendency. However,
capitalism is not always characterized by the level of adherence to the liberal principles
that globalization represents. In E. M. Wood's penetrating analysis, globalization
represents a new phase of capitalism that is more universal, more unchallenged, more
pure, and more unadulterated, than ever before.

The financial crises affecting different countries have shaken the confidence of the
advocates of globalization. The World Bank, for example, in stark contrast to the
minimalist state dictum it advocated in the 1980s, in the early twenty-first century
recognizes the importance of the role of the state in protecting and correcting markets.
There also has been a growing realization that unfettered financial flows, especially
from advanced countries to emerging markets, can create profound instability. Some
proponents of globalization have even admitted that Keynes's skepticism about financial
mobility may still be relevant today. The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the
United States also (temporarily, at least) raised questions about the wisdom of
supporting globalization. Yet despite notable setbacks and shaken confidence, the
advocacy for globalization remains strong.

Referências Bibliografia

1. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization
2.
3. https://science.jrank.org/pages/9547/General-Globalization-
Conclusion.html
4. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/effects-economic-
globalization
5.