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United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an
intergovernmental organization whose stated United Nations
purposes are to maintain international peace and Arabic: ‫منظمة الأمم المتحدة‬
security, develop friendly relations among nations, Chinese: 联合国
achieve international cooperation, and be a centre
French: Organisation des Nations unies
for harmonizing the actions of nations.[2] It is the
Russian: Организация Объединённых Наций
world's largest and most familiar international
Spanish: Organización de las Naciones Unidas
organization.[3] The UN is headquartered on
international territory in New York City, and has
other main offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna, and
The Hague (home to the International Court of
Justice).

The UN was established after World War II with Flag Emblem

the aim of preventing future world wars,
succeeding the League of Nations, which was
characterized as ineffective.[4] On 25 April 1945, 50
governments met in San Francisco for a conference
and started drafting the UN Charter, which was
adopted on 25 June 1945 and took effect on 24
October 1945, when the UN began operations.
Pursuant to the Charter, the organization's
Members of the United Nations
objectives include maintaining international peace
and security, protecting human rights, delivering Headquarters 760 United Nations
Plaza, Manhattan, New
humanitarian aid, promoting sustainable
York City (international
development, and upholding international law.[5] territory)
At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; with
the addition of South Sudan in 2011, membership Official languages Arabic · Chinese ·
is now 193, representing almost all of the world's English · French ·
sovereign states.[6] Russian · Spanish[1]

Type Intergovernmental
The organization's mission to preserve world peace organization
was complicated in its early decades by the Cold
War between the United States and Soviet Union Membership 193 member states
2 observer states
and their respective allies. Its missions have
consisted primarily of unarmed military observers Leaders
and lightly armed troops with primarily
• Secretary‑General António Guterres
monitoring, reporting and confidence-building
• Deputy Secretary- Amina J. Mohammed
roles.[7] UN membership grew significantly General
following widespread decolonization beginning in • General Assembly Csaba Kőrösi
the 1960s. Since then, 80 former colonies have President
gained independence, including 11 trust territories • Economic and Social Collen Vixen Kelapile
that had been monitored by the Trusteeship Council President
Council.[8] By the 1970s, the UN's budget for
Establishment
economic and social development programmes far
outstripped its spending on peacekeeping. After • UN Charter signed 26 June 1945
the end of the Cold War, the UN shifted and • Charter entered into 24 October 1945
force
expanded its field operations, undertaking a wide
variety of complex tasks.[9]
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The UN has six principal organs: the General Website

Assembly; the Security Council; the Economic and un.org (https://www.un.org/en/) (General)
Social Council (ECOSOC); the Trusteeship Council; un.int (https://www.un.int) (Permanent Missions)
the International Court of Justice; and the UN
Preceded by
Secretariat. The UN System includes a multitude of
specialized agencies, funds and programmes such League of Nations
as the World Bank Group, the World Health
Organization, the World Food Programme,
UNESCO, and UNICEF. Additionally, non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative
status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN's work.

The UN's chief administrative officer is the secretary-general, currently Portuguese politician and
diplomat António Guterres, who began his first five year-term on 1 January 2017 and was re-elected
on 8 June 2021. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its
member states.

The UN, its officers, and its agencies have won many Nobel Peace Prizes, though other evaluations of
its effectiveness have been mixed. Some commentators believe the organization to be an important
force for peace and human development, while others have called it ineffective, biased, or corrupt.

History

Background (pre-1941)

In the century prior to the UN's creation, several international organizations such as the
International Committee of the Red Cross were formed to ensure protection and assistance for
victims of armed conflict and strife.[10]

During World War I, several major leaders, especially US President Woodrow Wilson, advocated for
a world body to guarantee peace. The winners of the war, the Allies, met to hammer out formal peace
terms at the Paris Peace Conference. The League of Nations was approved, and started operations,
but the U.S. never joined. On 10 January 1920, the League of Nations formally came into being when
the Covenant of the League of Nations, ratified by 42 nations in 1919, took effect.[11] The League
Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly's business. It began with four
permanent members—the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Japan.

After some limited successes and failures during the 1920s, the League proved ineffective in the
1930s. It failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1933. Forty nations voted for
Japan to withdraw from Manchuria but Japan voted against it and walked out of the League instead
of withdrawing from Manchuria.[12] It also failed against the Second Italo-Ethiopian War when calls
for economic sanctions against Italy failed. Italy and other nations left the league. All of them realized
that it had failed and they began to re-arm as fast as possible.

When war broke out in 1939, the League closed down.[13]

Declarations by the Allies of World War II (1941–1944)

The first specific step towards the establishment of the United Nations was the Inter-Allied
conference that led to the Declaration of St James's Palace on 12 June 1941.[14][15] By August 1941,
American president Franklin Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill had drafted the
Atlantic Charter to define goals for the post-war world. At the subsequent meeting of the Inter-Allied
Council in London on 24 September 1941, the eight governments in exile of countries under Axis

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occupation, together with the Soviet Union and representatives of

the Free French Forces, unanimously adopted adherence to the
common principles of policy set forth by Britain and United
States.[16][17]

President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill met at the

White House in December 1941 for the Arcadia Conference.
Roosevelt, considered a founder of the UN,[18][19] coined the term
United Nations to describe the Allied countries. Churchill
accepted it, noting its use by Lord Byron.[20][21] The text of the
Declaration by United Nations was drafted on 29 December 1941,
by Roosevelt, Churchill, and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins. It
incorporated Soviet suggestions but included no role for France.
One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a
provision for religious freedom, which Stalin approved after 1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt
Roosevelt insisted.[22][23] of the UN original three branches:
The Four Policemen, an executive
Roosevelt's idea of the "Four Powers", referring to the four major branch, and an international
Allied countries, the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet assembly of forty UN member states
Union, and Republic of China, emerged in the Declaration by
United Nations.[24] On New Year's Day 1942, President
Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, Maxim Litvinov, of the USSR, and T. V. Soong, of China, signed
the "Declaration by United Nations",[25] and the next day the representatives of twenty-two other
nations added their signatures. During the war, "the United Nations" became the official term for the
Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis powers.[26]

The October 1943 Moscow Conference resulted in the Moscow Declarations, including the Four
Power Declaration on General Security which aimed for the creation "at the earliest possible date of a
general international organization". This was the first public announcement that a new international
organization was being contemplated to replace the League of Nations. The Tehran Conference
followed shortly afterwards at which Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin met and discussed the idea of a
post-war international organization.

The new international organization was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the
Allied Big Four at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference from 21 September to 7 October 1944. They
agreed on proposals for the aims, structure and functioning of the new international
organization.[27][28][29] It took the conference at Yalta in February 1945, and further negotiations
with Moscow, before all the issues were resolved.[30]

Founding (1945)

By 1 March 1945, 21 additional

states had signed the Declaration
by United Nations.[31] After
months of planning, the UN
Conference on International
Organization opened in San
Francisco, 25 April 1945, attended
by 50 governments and a number
of non-governmental
organizations. [32][33][34] The Big
The UN in 1945: founding members in light blue, protectorates and
Four sponsoring countries invited
territories of the founding members in dark blue
other nations to take part and the
heads of the delegations of the

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four chaired the plenary meetings.[35] Winston Churchill urged Roosevelt to restore France to its
status of a major Power after the liberation of Paris in August 1944. The drafting of the Charter of the
United Nations was completed over the following two months; it was signed on 26 June 1945 by the
representatives of the 50 countries. Jan Smuts was a principal author of the draft.[36][37] The UN
officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, upon ratification of the Charter by the five
permanent members of the Security Council—the US, the UK, France, the Soviet Union and the
Republic of China—and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.[38]

The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented,[a] and the Security Council
took place in London beginning in January 1946.[38] Debates began at once, covering topical issues
such as the presence of Russian troops in Iranian Azerbaijan, British forces in Greece and within days
the first veto was cast.[41] British diplomat Gladwyn Jebb served as acting secretary-general.

The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN,
construction began on 14 September 1948 and the facility was completed on 9 October 1952. Its site—
like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international
territory.[42] The Norwegian foreign minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN secretary-
general.[38]

Cold War (1947–1991)

Though the UN's primary mandate was peacekeeping, the division

between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization, generally
allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War.[43]
Two notable exceptions were a Security Council resolution on 7 July
1950 authorizing a US-led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion
of South Korea, passed in the absence of the USSR,[38][44] and the
signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement on 27 July 1953.[45]

On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly approved a resolution to

partition Palestine, approving the creation of the state of Israel.[46] Two
years later, Ralph Bunche, a UN official, negotiated an armistice to the
resulting conflict.[47] On 7 November 1956, the first UN peacekeeping
force was established to end the Suez Crisis;[48] however, the UN was Dag Hammarskjöld was a
unable to intervene against the USSR's simultaneous invasion of particularly active secretary-
Hungary following that country's revolution.[49] general from 1953 until his
death in 1961.
On 14 July 1960, the UN established United Nations Operation in the
Congo (UNOC), the largest military force of its early decades, to bring
order to the breakaway State of Katanga, restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo by 11 May 1964.[50] While traveling to meet rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict,
Dag Hammarskjöld, often named as one of the UN's most effective secretaries-general,[51] died in a
plane crash; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.[52] In 1964,
Hammarskjöld's successor, U Thant, deployed the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, which would
become one of the UN's longest-running peacekeeping missions.[53]

With the spread of decolonization in the 1960s, the organization's membership saw an influx of
newly independent nations. In 1960 alone, 17 new states joined the UN, 16 of them from Africa.[48]
On 25 October 1971, with opposition from the United States, but with the support of many Third
World nations, the mainland, communist People's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on
the Security Council in place of the Republic of China; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning
US influence in the organization.[54] Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition
under the leadership of Algeria, which briefly became a dominant power at the UN.[55] On 10

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November 1975, a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution, over the
strenuous US and Israeli opposition, declaring Zionism to be racism; the resolution was repealed on
16 December 1991, shortly after the end of the Cold War.[56][57]

With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle
East, Vietnam, and Kashmir, the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary
goals of economic development and cultural exchange.[58] By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and
economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget.

Post-Cold War (1991–present)

After the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping
duties, taking on more missions in five years than it had in the previous
four decades.[59] Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted
Security Council resolutions more than doubled, and the peacekeeping
budget increased more than tenfold.[60][61][62] The UN negotiated an
end to the Salvadoran Civil War, launched a successful peacekeeping
mission in Namibia, and oversaw democratic elections in post-apartheid
South Africa and post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia.[63] In 1991, the UN
authorized a US-led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of
Kuwait.[64] Brian Urquhart, under-secretary-general from 1971 to 1985,
later described the hopes raised by these successes as a "false
Kofi Annan, secretary-
renaissance" for the organization, given the more troubled missions that
general from 1997 to 2006
followed.[65]

Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War, American and

European critics of the UN condemned the organization for
perceived mismanagement and corruption.[66] In 1984, US
President Ronald Reagan, withdrew his nation's funding from
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) over allegations of mismanagement, followed by the
UK and Singapore.[67][68] Boutros Boutros-Ghali, secretary-
general from 1992 to 1996, initiated a reform of the Secretariat,
reducing the size of the organization somewhat.[69][70] His Flags of member nations at the
successor, Kofi Annan (1997–2006), initiated further United Nations Headquarters, seen
management reforms in the face of threats from the US to in 2007
withhold its UN dues.[70]

Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against
another, in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous, serious crises within nations
such as Somalia, Haiti, Mozambique, and the former Yugoslavia.[71] The UN mission in Somalia was
widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu.
The UN mission to Bosnia faced "worldwide ridicule" for its indecisive and confused mission in the
face of ethnic cleansing.[72] In 1994, the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the
Rwandan genocide amid indecision in the Security Council.[73]

From the late 1990s to the early 2000s, international interventions authorized by the UN took a
wider variety of forms. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 authorised the NATO-led
Kosovo Force beginning in 1999. The UN mission (1999-2006) in the Sierra Leone Civil War was
supplemented by a British military intervention. The invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen
by NATO.[74] In 2003, the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council
resolution for authorization, prompting a new round of questioning of the organization's
effectiveness.[75]

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Under the eighth secretary-general, Ban Ki-moon, the UN intervened with peacekeepers in crises
such as the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and
sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War.[76] In 2013, an internal
review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the
organization had suffered "systemic failure".[77] In 2010, the organization suffered the worst loss of
life in its history, when 101 personnel died in the Haiti earthquake.[78] Acting under United Nations
Security Council Resolution 1973 in 2011, NATO countries intervened in the First Libyan Civil War.

The Millennium Summit was held in 2000 to discuss the UN's role in the 21st century.[79] The three-
day meeting was the largest gathering of world leaders in history, and culminated in the adoption by
all member states of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), a commitment to achieve
international development in areas such as poverty reduction, gender equality, and public health.
Progress towards these goals, which were to be met by 2015, was ultimately uneven. The 2005 World
Summit reaffirmed the UN's focus on promoting development, peacekeeping, human rights, and
global security.[80] The Sustainable Development Goals were launched in 2015 to succeed the
Millennium Development Goals.[81]

In addition to addressing global challenges, the UN has sought to improve its accountability and
democratic legitimacy by engaging more with civil society and fostering a global constituency.[82] In
an effort to enhance transparency, in 2016 the organization held its first public debate between
candidates for secretary-general.[83] On 1 January 2017, Portuguese diplomat António Guterres, who
previously served as UN High Commissioner for Refugees, became the ninth secretary-general.
Guterres has highlighted several key goals for his administration, including an emphasis on
diplomacy for preventing conflicts, more effective peacekeeping efforts, and streamlining the
organization to be more responsive and versatile to global needs.[84]

Structure
The United Nations is part of the broader UN system, which includes an extensive network of
institutions and entities. Central to the organisation are five principal organs established by the UN
Charter: the General Assembly (UNGA), the Security Council (UNSC), the Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC), the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the UN Secretariat.[85] A sixth
principal organ, the Trusteeship Council, suspended operations on 1 November 1994, upon the
independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory.[86]

Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City, while
the ICJ is seated in The Hague.[87] Most other major agencies are based in the UN offices at
Geneva,[88] Vienna,[89] and Nairobi;[90] additional UN institutions are located throughout the world.
The six official languages of the UN, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic,
Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[91] On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges
and Immunities of the United Nations, the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the
countries where they operate, safeguarding the UN's impartiality with regard to host and member
countries.[92]

Below the six organs sit, in the words of the author Linda Fasulo, "an amazing collection of entities
and organizations, some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost
complete independence from it".[93] These include specialized agencies, research and training
institutions, programs and funds, and other UN entities.[94]

All organisations in the UN system obey the Noblemaire principle, which calls for salaries that will
attract and retain citizens of countries where compensation is highest, and which ensures equal pay
for work of equal value regardless of the employee's nationality.[95][96] In practice, the International

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Civil Service Commission, which governs the conditions of UN personnel, takes reference to the
highest-paying national civil service.[97] Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is
administered by the UN organizations.[95][98]

Principal organs of the United Nations[99]

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UN General Assembly UN Secretariat International Court o

— Deliberative assembly of all UN — Administrative organ of the — Universal court for in
member states — UN — law —

May resolve non-compulsory Supports the other UN bodies Decides disputes bet
recommendations to states or administratively (for example, in states that recognize
suggestions to the Security the organization of jurisdiction;
Council (UNSC); conferences, the writing of Issues legal opinions
Decides on the admission of reports and studies and the
Renders judgment by
new members, following preparation of the budget);
majority. Its fifteen jud
proposal by the UNSC; Its chairperson—the UN elected by the UN Ge
Adopts the budget; Secretary-General—is elected Assembly for nine-ye
by the General Assembly for a
Elects the non-permanent
five-year mandate and is the
members of the UNSC; all
UN's foremost representative.
members of ECOSOC; the UN
Secretary-General (following
their proposal by the UNSC);
and the fifteen judges of the
International Court of Justice
(ICJ). Each country has one
vote.

UN Economic and Social

UN Security Council UN Trusteeship C
Council
— For international security — For administerin
— For global economic and social
issues — territories (currently in
affairs —

Responsible for the Responsible for co-operation Was originally design

maintenance of international between states as regards manage colonial pos
peace and security; economic and social matters; that were former Lea
May adopt compulsory Co-ordinates co-operation Nations mandates;
resolutions; between the UN's numerous Has been inactive sin
Has fifteen members: five specialized agencies; when Palau, the last
permanent members with veto Has 54 members, elected by territory, attained
power and ten elected the General Assembly to serve independence.
members. staggered three-year
mandates.

General Assembly

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The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the

UN. Composed of all UN member states, the assembly meets in
regular yearly sessions at the General Assembly Hall, but
emergency sessions can also be called.[100] The assembly is led by
a president, elected from among the member states on a rotating
regional basis, and 21 vice-presidents.[101] The first session
convened 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in
London and included representatives of 51 nations.[38]
Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the
When the General Assembly decides on important questions such Soviet Union, addressing the UN
as those on peace and security, admission of new members and General Assembly in December
budgetary matters, a two-thirds majority of those present and 1988
voting is required.[102][103] All other questions are decided by a
majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from the
approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make
recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security
that are under consideration by the Security Council.[100]

Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by its six main committees:[104]

First Committee (Disarmament and International Security)

Second Committee (Economic and Financial)
Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural)
Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization)
Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary)
Sixth Committee (Legal)

As well as by the following two committees:

General Committee – a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly's president, vice-

president, and committee heads
Credentials Committee – responsible for determining the credentials of each member nation's UN
representatives

Security Council

The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and

security among countries. While other organs of the UN can only
make "recommendations" to member states, the Security Council
has the power to make binding decisions that member states have
agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25.[105]
The decisions of the council are known as United Nations
Security Council resolutions.[106]

The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states, Colin Powell, the US Secretary of
consisting of five permanent members—China, France, Russia, State, demonstrates a vial with
the United Kingdom, and the United States—and ten non- alleged Iraq chemical weapon
permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General probes to the UN Security Council
Assembly: Albania (term ends 2023), Brazil (2023), Gabon on Iraq war hearings, 5 February
2003
(2023), Ghana (2023), India (2022), Ireland (2022), Kenya
(2022), Mexico (2022), Norway (2022), and the United Arab
Emirates (2023).[107] The five permanent members hold veto
power over UN resolutions, allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution, though

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not debate. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms, with five member states per year
voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis.[108] The presidency of the Security Council
rotates alphabetically each month.[109]

UN Secretariat

The UN Secretariat carries out the day-to-day duties required to operate

and maintain the UN system.[110] It is composed of tens of thousands of
international civil servants worldwide and headed by the secretary-
general, who is assisted by the deputy secretary-general.[111] The
Secretariat's duties include providing information and facilities needed
by UN bodies for their meetings; it also carries out tasks as directed by
the Security Council, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social
Council, and other UN bodies.[112]

The secretary-general acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the

UN. The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization's
"chief administrative officer".[113] Article 99 of the charter states that the
secretary-general can bring to the Security Council's attention "any António Guterres, the
matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of current secretary-general
international peace and security", a phrase that secretaries-general since
Trygve Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action
on the world stage.[114] The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN
organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding
consensus to global issues.[115]

The secretary-general is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the
Security Council, where the permanent members have veto power. There are no specific criteria for
the post, but over the years it has become accepted that the position shall be held for one or two
terms of five years.[116] The current secretary-general is António Guterres of Portugal, who replaced
Ban Ki-moon in 2017.

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Secretaries-general of the United Nations[117]

Country of
No. Name Took office Left office Notes
origin
 United 24 October 2 February Served as acting secretary-
- Gladwyn Jebb
Kingdom 1945 1946 general until Lie's election

 Norway 2 February 10 November

1 Trygve Lie Resigned
1946 1952
Dag 18 September
2  Sweden 10 April 1953 Died in office
Hammarskjöld 1961

 Burma 30 November 31 December First non-European to hold

3 U Thant
1961 1971 office

 Austria 1 January 31 December

4 Kurt Waldheim
1972 1981

Javier Pérez de  Peru 1 January 31 December

5
Cuéllar 1982 1991
Boutros Boutros-  Egypt 1 January 31 December
6 Served for the shortest time
Ghali 1992 1996

 Ghana 1 January 31 December

7 Kofi Annan
1997 2006
 South 1 January 31 December
8 Ban Ki-moon
Korea 2007 2016

 Portugal 1 January
9 António Guterres Incumbent
2017

International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), sometimes known as the

World Court,[118] is the primary judicial organ of the UN. It is the
successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice and
occupies that body's former headquarters in the Peace Palace in
The Hague, Netherlands, making it the only principal organ not
based in New York City. The ICJ's main function is adjudicating
disputes among states; it has heard cases concerning war crimes,
violations of state sovereignty, ethnic cleansing, and other The ICJ ruled that Kosovo's
issues.[119] The court can also be called upon by other UN organs unilateral declaration of
to provide advisory opinions on matters of international law.[120] independence from Serbia in 2008
All UN member states are parties to the ICJ Statute, which forms did not violate international law.
an integral part of the UN Charter, and nonmembers may also
become parties. The ICJ's rulings are binding upon parties and,
along with its advisory opinions, serve as sources of international law.[118] The court is composed of
15 judges appointed to nine-year terms by the General Assembly; every sitting judge must be from a
different nation.[120][121]

Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting
international economic, social, and humanitarian co-operation and development.[122] It was
established to serve as the UN's primary forum for global issues and is the largest and most complex
UN body.[122] ECOSOC's functions include gathering data, conducting studies, advising member
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nations, and making recommendations.[123][124] Its work is carried out primarily by subsidiary
bodies focused on a wide variety of topics; these include the United Nations Permanent Forum on
Indigenous Issues, which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples; the United
Nations Forum on Forests, which coordinates and promotes sustainable forest management; the
United Nations Statistical Commission, which co-ordinates information-gathering efforts between
agencies; and the Commission on Sustainable Development, which co-ordinates efforts between UN
agencies and NGOs working towards sustainable development. ECOSOC may also grant consultative
status to nongovernmental organizations;[123] as of April 2021, close to 5,600 organizations have this
status.[125][126]

Specialized agencies

The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the United Nations can establish various
specialized agencies to fulfil its duties.[127] Specialized agencies are autonomous organizations
working with the United Nations and each other through the co-ordinating machinery of the
Economic and Social Council. Each was integrated into the UN system through an agreement with
the UN under UN Charter article 57.[128] There are fifteen specialized agencies, which perform
functions as diverse as facilitating international travel, preventing and addressing pandemics, and
promoting economic development.[129][b]

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Specialized agencies of the United Nations

Established
No. Acronym Agency Headquarters Head
in

Food and Agriculture Qu

1 FAO Rome, Italy 1945
Organization Dongyu

International Civil Montreal, Juan

2 ICAO 1947
Aviation Organization Quebec, Canada Carlos Salazar
International Fund for Alvaro
3 IFAD Agricultural Rome, Italy 1977
Development Lario

International Labour Geneva, Gilbert

4 ILO 1946 (1919)
Organization Switzerland Houngbo

International Maritime London, Kitack Lim

5 IMO 1948
Organization United Kingdom

Washington, Kristalina
International Monetary
6 IMF D.C., United 1945 (1944)
Fund Georgieva
States

International Geneva, Houlin

7 ITU Telecommunication 1947 (1865)
Union Switzerland Zhao

United Nations
Educational, Scientific Audrey
8 UNESCO Paris, France 1946
and Cultural Azoulay
Organization

United Nations Industrial Vienna, Gerd

9 UNIDO Development 1967
Austria Müller
Organization

World Tourism Zurab

10 UNWTO Madrid, Spain 1974
Organization Pololikashvili

Bern, Masahiko
11 UPU Universal Postal Union 1947 (1874)
Switzerland Metoki

Washington, David
12 WBG World Bank Group D.C., United Malpass 1945 (1944)
States (president)

World Health Geneva, Tedros

13 WHO 1948
Organization Switzerland Adhanom

World Intellectual Geneva, Daren

14 WIPO 1974
Property Organization Switzerland Tang

Petteri
Taalas
(secretary-
World Meteorological Geneva,
15 WMO general) 1950 (1873)
Organization Switzerland Gerhard
Adrian
(president)

Funds, programmes, and other bodies

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The United Nations system includes a myriad of autonomous, separately-administered funds,

programmes, research and training institutes, and other subsidiary bodies.[130] Each of these entities
have their own area of work, governance structure, and budget; several, such as the World Trade
Organization (WTO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), operate independently of
the UN but maintain formal partnership agreements. The UN performs much of its humanitarian
work through these institutions, such as preventing famine and malnutrition (World Food
Programme), protecting vulnerable and displaced people (UNHCR), and combating the HIV/AIDS
pandemic (UNAIDS).[131]

Programmes and funds of the United Nations

Acronyms Agency Headquarters Head Established

United Nations Development New York City, Achim

UNDP 1965
Programme United States Steiner
United Nations Children's New York City, Catherine M.
UNICEF 1946
Fund United States Russell

United Nations Capital New York City, Marc Bichler

UNCDF 1966
Development Fund United States

Rome, Italy David

WFP World Food Programme 1963
Beasley

United Nations Environment Inger

UNEP Nairobi, Kenya 1972
Programme Andersen

United Nations Population New York City, Natalia

UNFPA 1969
Fund United States Kanem
UN- United Nations Human Maimunah
Nairobi, Kenya 1978
HABITAT Settlements Programme Mohd Sharif
Richard
UNV United Nations Volunteers Bonn, Germany 1978
Dictus

Membership
All the world's undisputed independent states, apart from Vatican
City, are members of the United Nations.[6][c] South Sudan,
which joined 14 July 2011, is the most recent addition, bringing a
total of 193 UN member states.[132] The UN Charter outlines the
rules for membership:

   193 UN Member States

1. Membership in the United Nations is open to all    2 UN Observer States
other peace-loving states that accept the obligations (Palestine, Vatican)
contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment    2 eligible Non-Member States
of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out (Niue, Cook Islands)
these obligations.    17 non-self-governing territories
   Antarctica (international territory)
2. The admission of any such state to membership in
the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the
General Assembly upon the recommendation of the
Security Council. Chapter II, Article 4.[133]

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In addition, there are two non-member observer states of the

United Nations General Assembly: the Holy See (which holds
sovereignty over Vatican City) and the State of Palestine.[134] The
Cook Islands and Niue, both states in free association with New
Zealand, are full members of several UN specialized agencies and
have had their "full treaty-making capacity" recognized by the
Secretariat.[135]

Indonesia was the first and the only nation to withdraw its
membership from the United Nations, in protest to the election of
Malaysia as a non-permanent member of the Security Council in
1965 during conflict between the two countries.[136] After forming
CONEFO as a short-lived rival to the UN, Indonesia resumed its
full membership in 1966.

Group of 77
Under Sukarno, Indonesia was the
The Group of 77 (G77) at the UN is a loose coalition of developing first and only country to leave the
nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic United Nations.
interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the
UN. Seventy-seven nations founded the organization, but by
November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries.[137] The group was
founded 15 June 1964 by the "Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries" issued at the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The group held its first major meeting in
Algiers in 1967, where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent
institutional structures.[138] With the adoption of the New International Economic Order by
developing countries in the 1970s, the work of the G77 spread throughout the UN system. Similar
groupings of developing states also operate in other UN agencies, such as the Group of 24 (G-24),
which operates in the IMF on monetary affairs.

Objectives

Peacekeeping and security

The UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict
has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage
combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military,
peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states. These soldiers are sometimes
nicknamed "Blue Helmets" for their distinctive gear.[139][140] Peacekeeping forces as a whole received
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.[141]

The UN has carried out 71 peacekeeping operations since 1947; as of April 2021, over 88,000
peacekeeping personnel from 121 nations were deployed on 12 missions, mostly in Africa.[142] The
largest is the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), which has close to 19,200
uniformed personnel;[143] the smallest, the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and
Pakistan (UNMOGIP), consists of 113 civilians and experts charged with monitoring the ceasefire in
Jammu and Kashmir. UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
(UNTSO) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948, the longest-running active
peacekeeping mission.[144]

A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three
peacekeeping efforts. It compared efforts at nation-building by the UN to those of the United States,
and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as compared with four out of eight U.S. cases
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at peace.[145] Also in 2005, the Human Security Report

documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides, and
human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and
presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international
activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main
cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period.[146]
Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace
but also intervened include the Korean War (1950–53) and the
authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War (1990–
A Nepalese soldier on a
91).[147] Further studies published between 2008 and 2021
peacekeeping deployment providing
determined UN peacekeeping operations to be more effective at
security at a rice distribution site in
ensuring long-lasting peace and minimizing civilian
Haiti during 2010
casualties.[148]

The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures. In many

cases, member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce
Security Council resolutions. Disagreements in the Security
Council about military action and intervention are seen as having
failed to prevent the Bangladesh genocide in 1971,[149] the
Cambodian genocide in the 1970s,[150] and the Rwandan genocide
in 1994.[151] Similarly, UN inaction is blamed for failing to either
prevent the Srebrenica massacre in 1995 or complete the
peacekeeping operations in 1992–93 during the Somali Civil
The UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus
War.[152] UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape,
was established in 1974 following
soliciting prostitutes, and sexual abuse during various
the Turkish invasion of Cyprus.
peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo,[153] Haiti,[154] Liberia,[155] Sudan and what is now South
Sudan,[156] Burundi, and Côte d'Ivoire.[157] Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely
source of the 2010s Haiti cholera outbreak, which killed more than 8,000 Haitians following the
2010 Haiti earthquake.[158]

In addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament. Regulation of

armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of
limiting the use of human and economic resources for their creation.[105] The advent of nuclear
weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter, resulting in the first resolution of the first
General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for "the elimination from national
armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction".[159]
The UN has been involved with arms-limitation treaties, such as the Outer Space Treaty (1967), the
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1968), the Seabed Arms Control Treaty (1971),
the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), the Chemical Weapons Convention (1992), and the
Ottawa Treaty (1997), which prohibits landmines.[160] Three UN bodies oversee arms proliferation
issues: the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons, and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory
Commission.[161] Additionally, many peacekeeping missions focus on disarmament: several
operations in West Africa disarmed roughly 250,000 former combatants and secured tens of
thousands of weapons and millions of munitions.[162]

Human rights

One of the UN's primary purposes is "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for
fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion", and member
states pledge to undertake "joint and separate action" to protect these rights.[127][163]

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In 1948, the General Assembly adopted a Universal Declaration

of Human Rights, drafted by a committee headed by American
diplomat and activist Eleanor Roosevelt, and including the
French lawyer René Cassin. The document proclaims basic civil,
political, and economic rights common to all human beings,
though its effectiveness towards achieving these ends has been
disputed since its drafting.[164] The Declaration serves as a
"common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations"
rather than a legally binding document, but it has become the
basis of two binding treaties, the 1966 International Covenant on
Eleanor Roosevelt with the
Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on
Universal Declaration of Human
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.[165] In practice, the UN is
Rights, 1949
unable to take significant action against human rights abuses
without a Security Council resolution, though it does substantial
work in investigating and reporting abuses.[166]

In 1979, the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women, followed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989.[167]
With the end of the Cold War, the push for human rights action took on new impetus.[168] The
United Nations Commission on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to oversee human rights issues
for the UN, following the recommendation of that year's World Conference on Human Rights.
Jacques Fomerand, a scholar of the UN, describes this organization's mandate as "broad and vague",
with only "meagre" resources to carry it out.[169] In 2006, it was replaced by a Human Rights Council
consisting of 47 nations.[170] Also in 2006, the General Assembly passed a Declaration on the Rights
of Indigenous Peoples,[171] and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights of LGBT
people.[172]

Other UN bodies responsible for women's rights issues include United Nations Commission on the
Status of Women, a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946; the United Nations Development Fund
for Women, created in 1976; and the United Nations International Research and Training Institute
for the Advancement of Women, founded in 1979.[173] The UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous
Issues, one of three bodies with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples, held its
first session in 2002.[174]

Economic development and humanitarian assistance

Another primary purpose of the UN is "to Millennium Development Goals[175]

achieve international cooperation in solving
international problems of an economic,
social, cultural, or humanitarian 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
character".[163] Numerous bodies have been 2. Achieve universal primary education
created to work towards this goal, primarily 3. Promote gender equality and empower women
under the authority of the General Assembly 4. Reduce child mortality
and ECOSOC.[176] In 2000, the 192 UN 5. Improve maternal health
member states agreed to achieve eight
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Millennium Development Goals by 2015.[177]
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
The Sustainable Development Goals were
launched in 2015 to succeed the Millennium 8. Develop a global partnership for development
Development Goals.[81] The SDGs have an
associated financing framework called the
Addis Ababa Action Agenda.

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The UN Development Programme (UNDP), an organization for grant-based technical assistance

founded in 1945, is one of the leading bodies in the field of international development. The
organization also publishes the UN Human Development Index, a comparative measure ranking
countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors.[178][179] The Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), also founded in 1945, promotes agricultural development and food
security.[180] UNICEF (the United Nations Children's Fund) was created in 1946 to aid European
children after the Second World War and expanded its mission to provide aid around the world and
to uphold the convention on the Rights of the Child.[181][182]

The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF) are
independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN
framework, according to a 1947 agreement.[183] They were initially
formed separately from the UN through the Bretton Woods
Agreement in 1944.[184] The World Bank provides loans for
international development, while the IMF promotes international
economic co-operation and gives emergency loans to indebted
countries.[185]
Three former directors of the The World Health Organization
Global Smallpox Eradication (WHO), which focuses on
Programme reading the news international health issues and
that smallpox has been globally
disease eradication, is another of
eradicated in 1980 the UN's largest agencies. In 1980,
the agency announced that the
eradication of smallpox had been
completed. In subsequent decades, WHO largely eradicated polio,
river blindness, and leprosy.[186] The Joint United Nations In Jordan, UNHCR remains
Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), begun in 1996, co-ordinates responsible for the Syrian
the organization's response to the AIDS epidemic.[187] The UN refugees and the Zaatari refugee
Population Fund, which also dedicates part of its resources to camp.
combating HIV, is the world's largest source of funding for
reproductive health and family planning services.[188]

Along with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, the UN often takes a leading
role in co-ordinating emergency relief.[189] The World Food Programme (WFP), created in 1961,
provides food aid in response to famine, natural disasters, and armed conflict. The organization
reports that it feeds an average of 90 million people in 80 nations each year.[189][190] The Office of
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), established in 1950, works to protect
the rights of refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless people.[191] UNHCR and WFP programmes are
funded by voluntary contributions from governments, corporations, and individuals, though the
UNHCR's administrative costs are paid for by the UN's primary budget.[192]

Environment and climate

Beginning with the formation of the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) in 1972, the UN has
made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda. A lack of success in the first two decades
of UN work in this area led to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which sought to give
new impetus to these efforts.[193] In 1988, the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization

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(WMO), another UN organization, established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,

which assesses and reports on research on global warming.[194] The UN-sponsored Kyoto Protocol,
signed in 1997, set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states.[195]

Other global issues

Since the UN's creation, over 80 colonies have attained independence. The General Assembly
adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960
with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. The UN works towards
decolonization through groups including the UN Committee on Decolonization, created in 1962.[196]
The committee lists seventeen remaining "non-self-governing territories", the largest and most
populous of which is Western Sahara.[197]

The UN also declares and co-ordinates international observances that bring awareness to issues of
international interest or concern; examples include World Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day, and the
International Year of Deserts and Desertification.[198]

Funding
The UN budget for 2022 was $3.1  billion, not Top 25 contributors to the United Nations
including additional resources donated by members, budget for the period 2019–2021[199]
such as peacekeeping forces.[200][201] Contribution
Member state
(% of UN budget)
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary  United States 22.000
contributions from member states. The General
 China 12.005
Assembly approves the regular budget and
determines the assessment for each member. This is  Japan 8.564
broadly based on the relative capacity of each  Germany 6.090
country to pay, as measured by its gross national  United Kingdom 4.567
income (GNI), with adjustments for external debt
 France 4.427
and low per capita income.[202]
 Italy 3.307
The Assembly has established the principle that the  Brazil 2.948
UN should not be unduly dependent on any one 2.734
 Canada
member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a
 Russia 2.405
"ceiling" rate, setting the maximum amount that any
member can be assessed for the regular budget. In  South Korea 2.267
December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of  Australia 2.210
assessments in response to pressure from the 2.146
 Spain
United States. As part of that revision, the regular
 Turkey 1.371
budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%.[203]
For the least developed countries (LDCs), a ceiling  Netherlands 1.356
rate of 0.01% is applied.[202] In addition to the  Mexico 1.292
ceiling rates, the minimum amount assessed to any  Saudi Arabia 1.172
member nation (or "floor" rate) is set at 0.001% of
 Switzerland 1.151
the UN budget ($31,000 for the two-year budget
2021–2022).[204][205]  Argentina 0.915
 Sweden 0.906
A large share of the UN's expenditure addresses its  India 0.834
core mission of peace and security, and this budget
 Belgium 0.821
is assessed separately from the main organizational
budget.[206] The peacekeeping budget for the 2021–  Poland 0.802
2022 fiscal year is $6.38 billion, supporting 75,224  Algeria 0.788
personnel deployed in 10 missions worldwide.[207]
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UN peace operations are funded by assessments,  Norway 0.754

using a formula derived from the regular funding Other member states 12.168
scale that includes a weighted surcharge for the five
permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This
surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries.
The largest contributors to the UN peacekeeping budget for 2020–2021 are: the United States
(27.89%), China (15.21%), Japan (8.56%), Germany (6.09%), the United Kingdom (5.78%), France
(5.61%), Italy (3.30%), Russia (3.04%), Canada (2.73%), and South Korea (2.26%).[208]

Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget, such as UNICEF and the World Food
Programme, are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments, corporations, and
private individuals.[209][210]

Evaluations, awards, and criticism

Evaluations

In evaluating the UN as a whole, Jacques Fomerand writes that

the "accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years
are impressive in their own terms. Progress in human
development during the 20th century has been dramatic, and the
UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a
more hospitable and livable place for millions".[211] Evaluating
The 2001 Nobel Peace Prize to the the first 50 years of the UN's history, the author Stanley Meisler
UN—diploma in the lobby of the UN writes that "the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its
Headquarters in New York City founders, but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless", citing its
role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping
efforts.[212]

British historian Paul Kennedy states that while the organization has suffered some major setbacks,
"when all its aspects are considered, the UN has brought great benefits to our generation and ... will
bring benefits to our children's and grandchildren's generations as well."[213]

Then French President François Hollande stated in 2012 that "France trusts the United Nations. She
knows that no state, no matter how powerful, can solve urgent problems, fight for development and
bring an end to all crises ... France wants the UN to be the centre of global governance".[214] In his
1953 address to the United States Committee for United Nations Day, U.S. President Dwight D.
Eisenhower expressed the view that, for all its flaws, "the United Nations represents man's best
organized hope to substitute the conference table for the battlefield".[215]

UN peacekeeping missions are assessed to be generally successful. An analysis of 47 peace operations

by Virginia Page Fortna of Columbia University found that UN-led conflict resolution usually
resulted in long-term peace.[216] Political scientists Hanne Fjelde, Lisa Hultman and Desiree Nilsson
of Uppsala University studied twenty years of data on peacekeeping missions, including in Lebanon,
the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Central African Republic, concluding that they were
more effective at reducing civilian casualties than counterterrorism operations by nation states.[217]
Georgetown University professor Lise Howard postulates that UN peacekeeping operations are more
effective due to their emphasis on "verbal persuasion, financial inducements and coercion short of
offensive military force, including surveillance and arrest", which are likelier to change the behavior
of warring parties.[148]

Awards

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A number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in
recognition of their work. Two secretaries-general, Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan, were each
awarded the prize (in 1961 and 2001, respectively), as were Ralph Bunche (1950), a UN negotiator,
René Cassin (1968), a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the US
Secretary of State Cordell Hull (1945), the latter for his role in the organization's founding. Lester B.
Pearson, the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs, was awarded the prize in 1957 for his
role in organizing the UN's first peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez Crisis. UNICEF won the prize
in 1965, the International Labour Organization in 1969, the UN Peacekeeping Forces in 1988, the
International Atomic Energy Agency (which reports to the UN) in 2005, and the UN-supported
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2013. The UN High Commissioner for
Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981, becoming one of only two recipients to win the prize twice.
The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001, sharing it with Annan.[218] In 2007, IPCC received
the prize "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate
change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change."[219]

Criticism

Role

In a sometimes-misquoted statement, U.S. President George W.

Bush stated in February 2003—referring to UN uncertainty
towards Iraqi provocations under the Saddam Hussein regime—
that "free nations will not allow the UN to fade into history as an
ineffective, irrelevant debating society."[220][221][222]

In 2020, former U.S. President Barack Obama, in his memoir A

Promised Land noted, "In the middle of the Cold War, the
chances of reaching any consensus had been slim, which is why
Marking of the UN's 70th
the U.N. had stood idle as Soviet tanks rolled into Hungary or
anniversary – Budapest, 2015
U.S. planes dropped napalm on the Vietnamese countryside.
Even after the Cold War, divisions within the Security Council
continued to hamstring the U.N.'s ability to tackle problems. Its member states lacked either the
means or the collective will to reconstruct failing states like Somalia, or prevent ethnic slaughter in
places like Sri Lanka."[223][224]

Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the UN but little consensus on how to do
so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its
role reduced to humanitarian work.

Representation and structure

Core features of the UN apparatus, such as the veto privileges of some nations in the Security
Council, are often described as fundamentally undemocratic, contrary to the UN mission, and a main
cause of inaction on genocides and crimes against humanity.[225][226]

Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is "the North–South split"
between richer Northern nations and developing Southern nations. Southern nations tend to favour a
more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly, allowing them a greater voice in world
affairs, while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez-faire UN that focuses on transnational
threats such as terrorism.[227]

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There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, for
different ways of electing the UN's secretary-general, and for a UN Parliamentary Assembly.

Exclusion of countries

After World War II, the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the
U.S. as the government of France, and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that
created the new organization. Future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously
calling it a machin ("contraption"), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help
maintain world peace, preferring direct defence treaties between countries.[228]

Since 1971, the Republic of China (ROC), or Taiwan, has been excluded from the UN and consistently
denied membership in its reapplications; Taiwanese citizens are also barred from entering UN
facilities with ROC passports. The UN officially adheres to the "One China" policy endorsed by most
member states, which recognizes the People's Republic of China (PRC), a permanent member of the
UN Security Council, as the only legitimate Chinese government.[229] Critics allege that this position
reflects a failure of the organization's development goals and guidelines,[230] and it garnered
renewed scrutiny during the COVID-19 pandemic, when Taiwan was denied membership in the
World Health Organization despite its relatively effective response to the virus.[231] Support for
Taiwan's inclusion is subject to pressure from the PRC, which regards the territories administered by
the ROC as their own territory.[232][233]

Independence

Throughout the Cold War, both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favouring the other.
In 1950, the USSR boycotted the organization in protest to China's seat at the UN Security Council
being given to the anticommunist government of the Republic of China. Three years later, the Soviets
effectively forced the resignation of UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie by refusing to acknowledge his
administration due to his support of the Korean War.[234]

Ironically, the US had simultaneously scrutinized the UN for employing communists and Soviet
sympathizers, following a high-profile accusation that Alger Hiss, an American who had taken part in
the establishment of the UN, had been a Soviet spy. US Senator Joseph McCarthy claimed that the
UN Secretariat under Secretary-General Lie harbored American communists, leading to further
pressure that the UN chief resign.[235] The US saw nascent opposition to the UN into the 1960s,
particularly among political conservatives, with groups such as the John Birch Society alleging that
the organization was an instrument for communism.[236] Popular opposition to the UN was
expressed through bumper stickers and signs with slogans such as "Get the U.S. out of the U.N. and
the U.N. out of the U.S.!" and "You can't spell communism without U.N."[237]

National sovereignty

In the United States, there were concerns about supposed threats to national sovereignty, most
notably promoted by the John Birch Society, which mounted a nationwide campaign in opposition to
the UN during the 1960s.[238][239][240]

Beginning in the 1990s, the same concern appeared with the American Sovereignty Restoration Act,
which has been introduced multiple times in the United States Congress. In 1997, an amendment
containing the bill received a floor vote, with 54 representatives voting in favor.[241][242] The 2007
version of the bill (H.R.  1146 (https://www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/house-bill/1146)) was
authored by U.S. Representative Ron Paul, Republican of the 14th district of Texas, to effect U.S.
withdrawal from the United Nations. It would repeal various laws pertaining to the UN, terminate
authorization for funds to be spent on the UN, terminate UN presence on U.S. property, and
withdraw diplomatic immunity for UN employees.[243] It would provide up to two years for the U.S.
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to withdraw.[244] The Yale Law Journal cited the Act as proof that "the United States’s complaints
against the United Nations have intensified."[245] The most recent iteration, as of 2022, is H.R.7806,
introduced by Rep. Mike D. Rogers.[246]

Bias

The UN's attention to Israel's treatment of Palestinians is considered excessive by a range of critics,
including Israeli diplomat Dore Gold, British scholar Robert S. Wistrich, American legal scholar Alan
Dershowitz, Australian politician Mark Dreyfus, and the Anti-Defamation League.[247] In September
2015, Saudi Arabia's Faisal bin Hassan Trad was elected chair of an advisory committee in the UN
Human Rights Council that appoints independent experts,[248] a move criticized by human rights
groups.[249][250] The UNHRC has likewise been accused of anti-Israel bias, as it has passed more
resolutions condemning Israel than the rest of the world combined.[251]

Effectiveness

According to international relations scholar Edward Luck, former director of the Center on
International Organization of the School of International and Public Affairs of Columbia University,
the United States has preferred a feeble United Nations in major projects undertaken by the
organization so as to forestall UN interference with, or resistance to, American policies. "The last
thing the U.S. wants is an independent U.N. throwing its weight around," Luck said. Similarly,
former US Ambassador to the United Nations Daniel Patrick Moynihan explained that "The
Department of State desired that the United Nations prove utterly ineffective in whatever measures it
undertook. The task was given to me, and I carried it forward with not inconsiderable success."[252]

In 1994, former special representative of the secretary-general of the UN to Somalia Mohamed

Sahnoun published Somalia: The Missed Opportunities,[253] a book in which he analyses the reasons
for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia. Sahnoun claims that between the start of the
Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre regime in January 1991, the UN missed at least
three opportunities to prevent major human tragedies; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian
assistance, they were totally outperformed by NGOs, whose competence and dedication sharply
contrasted with the UN's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies. Sahnoun warned that if
radical reform were not undertaken, then the UN would continue to respond to such crises with inept
improvisation.[254]

Beyond specific instances or areas of alleged ineffectiveness, some scholars debate the overall
effectiveness of the UN. Adherents to the realist school of international relations take a pessimistic
position, arguing that the UN is not an effective organization because it is dominated and constrained
by great powers. Liberal scholars counter that it is an effective organization because it has proved
capable of solving many problems by working around the restrictions imposed by powerful member
states. The UN is generally considered by scholars to be more effective in realms such as public
health, humanitarian assistance, and conflict resolution.[255]

Inefficiency and corruption

Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption. In 1976, the
General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out inefficiencies within the UN
system. During the 1990s, the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the
condition that a major reforms initiative be introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight
Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog.[256]

In 2004, the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil-for-Food Programme—in which Iraq
had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions—had suffered from
widespread corruption, including billions of dollars of kickbacks. An independent inquiry created by
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the UN found that many of its officials had been involved in the scheme, and raised "significant"
questions about the role of Kojo Annan, the son of Kofi Annan.[257]

Model United Nations

The United Nations has inspired the extracurricular activity Model United Nations (MUN). MUN is a
simulation of United Nations activity based on the UN agenda and following UN procedure. It is
usually attended by high school and university students who organize conferences to simulate the
various UN committees to discuss important issues of the day.[258] Today, MUN educates tens of
thousands on the activities of the UN around the world. MUN has many famous and notable alumni,
such as former UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.[259]

See also
Politics portal

World portal

International relations
List of country groupings
List of current Permanent Representatives to the United Nations
List of multilateral free-trade agreements
United Nations in popular culture
United Nations Memorial Cemetery
United Nations television film series
World Summit on the Information Society
Spying on United Nations leaders by United States diplomats
League of Nations
UNICEF

Notes
a. Poland had not been represented among the fifty nations at the San Francisco conference due to
the reluctance of the Western superpowers to recognize its post-war communist government.
However, the Charter was later amended to list Poland as a founding member, and Poland
ratified the Charter on 16 October 1945.[39][40]
b. Some sources identify seventeen specialized agencies, taking into account the three specialized
agencies that make up the World Bank Group, which is now treated as one organization: the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development
Association (IDA), and the International Finance Corporation (IFC).
c. For details on Vatican City's status, see Holy See and the United Nations.

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original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
259. "Global Model UN (Program No. 1207)" (https://www.un.org/webcast/pdfs/unia1207.pdf) (PDF).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201116165837/https://www.un.org/webcast/pdfs/unia120
7.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2019.

Bibliography
Ball, Howard (2011). Genocide: A Reference Handbook (https://archive.org/details/genociderefer
enc0000ball). Contemporary World Issues. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-
1598844887.
Coulon, Jocelyn (1998). Soldiers of Diplomacy: The United Nations, Peacekeeping, and the New
World Order. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0802008992.
Fasulo, Linda (2004). An Insider's Guide to the UN (https://archive.org/details/insidersguidetou00l
ind). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300101553.
Fomerand, Jacques (2009). The A to Z of the United Nations. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow
Press. ISBN 978-0810855472.
Gold, Dore (2004). Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos (https://ar
chive.org/details/unset0000unse_h8s1). New York: Crown Forum. ISBN 978-1400054756.
Grant, Thomas D. (2009). Admission to the United Nations: Charter Article 4 and the Rise of
Universal Organization. Legal Aspects of International Organization. Vol. 50. Leiden,
Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-9004173637. ISSN 0924-4883 (https://www.
worldcat.org/issn/0924-4883).
Hoopes, Townsend; Brinkley, Douglas (2000) [1997]. FDR and the Creation of the U.N. New
Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300085532.

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Kennedy, Paul (2007) [2006]. The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the
United Nations. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0375703416.
Manchester, William; Reid, Paul (2012). The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill. Vol. 3:
Defender of the Realm, 1940–1965. New York: Little Brown and Company. ISBN 978-
0316547703.
Meisler, Stanley (1995). United Nations: The First Fifty Years (https://archive.org/details/unset000
0unse_z7w4). New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 978-0871136169.
Mires, Charlene (2013). Capital of the World: The Race to Host the United Nations. New York
University Press. ISBN 978-0814707944.
Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan (2004). Mango, Anthony (ed.). Encyclopedia of the United Nations and
International Agreements. Vol. 4. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0415939249.
Schlesinger, Stephen C. (2003). Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations: A Story of
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ISBN 978-0813333243.
Sherwood, Robert E. (1948). Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History. New York: Harper and
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Weiss, Thomas G.; Daws, Sam, eds. (2009) [2007]. The Oxford Handbook on the United
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Further reading
Lowe, Vaughan; Roberts, Adam; Welsh, Jennifer; Zaum, Dominik, eds. (2008). The United
Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0199533435.
Mazower, Mark (2009). No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of
the United Nations. Princeton University Press.
Roberts, Adam; Kingsbury, Benedict, eds. (1994). United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Roles
in International Relations (https://archive.org/details/unitednationsdiv00adam) (2nd ed.). Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0198279266.

External links
Records of the UN Registry (https://search.archives.un.org/united-nations-registry-section-1946-1
979) at the United Nations Archives

Official websites
Official website (https://www.un.org/) (in English, French, Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, and
Russian)
The United Nations Regional Information Centre (UNRIC) (https://www.unric.org/)
United Nations Volunteers (https://www.unv.org/)
United Nations Documentation Research Guide (http://research.un.org/en/docs)

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Official YouTube channel (https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC5O114-PQNYkurlTg6hekZw)

(English)

Others
Searchable archive (http://www.undemocracy.com/) of UN discussions and votes
United Nations Association of the UK (http://www.una.org.uk/) – independent policy authority on
the UN
Website (http://www.globalpolicy.org/) of the Global Policy Forum – independent think tank on the
UN
UN Watch (http://www.unwatch.org/) – NGO monitoring UN activities
UN Coronavirus page (https://www.un.org/coronavirus)
United Nations COVID-19 Statement (https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/statemen
t/unep-statement-covid-19)
Works by or about United Nations (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%2
2Nations%2C%20United%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22United%20Nations%22%20OR%20cre
ator%3A%22Nations%2C%20United%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22United%20Nations%22%2
0OR%20creator%3A%22Nations%2C%20U%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22United%20Nation
s%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Nations%2C%20United%22%20OR%20description%3A%
22United%20Nations%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet
Archive
Works by United Nations (https://librivox.org/author/1903) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

United Nations (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/748) on Nobelprize.org

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