CHAPTER 2.

3
Biodiversity and Healthy
Society

BIODIVERSITY contributes to many aspects of human well-being, for instance by

providing raw materials and contributing to health. Human actions, however, often lead to
irreversible losses in terms of diversity of life on Earth and these losses have been more
rapid in the past 50 years than ever before in human history. What factors are
responsible for this rapid loss of biodiversity? What would need to be done to significantly
slow this trend?
Learning Outcome:
 Determine the interrelatedness of society, environment, and health
 Identify human- caused species loss as one of the major current threats to
biodiversity
 Define biodiversity hotspots and explain where most of the world’s biodiversity are
located.

Review on basic Concepts of Ecology

Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and the environment
they live in, which brings us to another important term that's used frequently in ecology:
the environment, which is the set of conditions that surround an organism.
Environmental factors include temperature, light, water, air, soil and nutrients that
surround an organism.
• Biotic factors- all living organisms inhabiting the Earth
• Abiotic factors- nonliving parts of the environment (i.e. temperature, soil,
light, moisture)

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

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 Ecological Levels of Organization

Source: Pinterest.com

Organism- any unicellular or multicellular form exhibiting all of the characteristics of life,
an individual.
Population- a group of organisms of one species living in the same place at the same time
that interbreed and compete with each other for resources (ex. food, mates, shelter)
Community- several interacting populations that inhabit a common environment and are
interdependent.
Ecosystem- populations in a community and the abiotic factors with which they interact
(ex. marine, terrestrial)
Biomes – distinct biological communities characterized by the dominant forms of life and
the prevailing climate
Biosphere- life supporting portions of Earth composed of air, land, fresh water, and salt
water

Feeding Relationships

Typical food web for a terrestrial ecosystem

Source: studylib.net

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Feeding Relationships

Producer- all autotrophs (plants), they obtain energy directly from the environment and use
an inorganic form of carbon to build sugars
Consumer- all heterotrophs: they ingest and obtain energy from primary producers

Herbivores – Eat plants (Primary consumers, preys)

Omnivores -eat both plants and meat
Carnivores- eat meat (Predators – Hunt prey animals for food)
Scavengers – Feed on carrion, dead animals
Detritivores - such as earthworms and some insects eat detritus: small bits of
decaying organic matter

Decomposers - breakdown the complex compounds of dead and decaying plants and
animals into simpler molecules that can be absorbed (fungi, bacteria)

Food chain is a sequence of

steps by which some energy
captured by primary producers
is transferred to higher trophic
levels. An organism that
participates in one food chain
usually has a role in many
others as well. All of the food
chains of an ecosystem cross-
connect as a food web.

Source: EchantedLearning.com

BIODIVERSITY: WHAT IS IT, WHERE IS IT, AND

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

Biodiversity is the measure of the number, variety and variability of living organisms.
It includes diversity within species, between species, and among ecosystems. The concept
also covers how this diversity changes from one location to another and over time.
Indicators such as the number of species in a given area can help in monitoring certain
aspects of biodiversity. Biodiversity is everywhere, both on land and in water. It includes all
organisms, from microscopic bacteria to more complex plants and animals. Current
inventories of species, though useful, remain incomplete and insufficient for providing an
accurate picture of the extent and

Levels of Biodiversity:

Genetic Diversity - the diversity of genes within a species. Genetic variability is essential
for maintaining a healthy breeding population.
Species Diversity – the number of species of plants and animals that are present in a
region.
Ecosystem Diversity - the amount of distinctive natural ecosystems described for a
particular geographical location.

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Importance of Biodiversity

Species and ecosystems provide essential goods and services upon which human well-being
depends. They support our health, our environment and our economies.

Ecosystem services include:

• Water purification - plants, animals and microorganisms in wetlands act as sponges to filter
sediments and toxins from waters.
• Pollination - insects pollinate crops worth $6-12 billion a year in the USA.
• Disease control - natural enemies (predators and parasites) of mosquitoes) control diseases
such as malaria, Lyme disease, hantavirus and cholera.

Ecosystem goods include:

• More than 7000 species of plants are cultivated or harvested from the wild.
• Fish and other marine animals provide 20% of animal protein consumed, at a value of $50-
$100 billion annually.
• Medicines - 118 of the top 150 prescription drugs in America contain chemicals derived from
plants, fungi and other species.

Importance of Biodiversity:
•
Maintains soil quality: healthy bacteria, algae, fungi, mites, millipedes and worms help cycle
nutrients
• Maintains air quality: plants purify the air and filter harmful particles out of the air
• Maintains water quality: variety of vegetation reduces erosion and purifies water by
removing (using or absorbing) nutrients and pollution
• Pest control: most crop pests can be controlled by other organisms for a longer period of time
– helpful because many pests become resistant to synthetic pesticides
• Pollination and crop production: More than 1/3 of world’s crops rely on healthy pollinators
• Medicines: many current and possible future medications found in areas with high
biodiversity.

Threats to Biodiversity
•
Habitat destruction/fragmentation – Changing and displacing a habitat to suit human
needs.
• Invasive species – organisms that has been relocated and introduced to a region, these out-
compete native species resulting in disruption of the ecosystem and food chain
• Population growth - Increasing population means greater demand for food, shelter, fuel and
water; this often leads to habitat loss, pollution, resource scarcity and overconsumption
• Pollution - Pollution can alter the habitat to the point where some plants and animals cannot
adapt.
• Global Climate Change - many species are intolerant to changes in temperature--affects
feeding relationships and breeding patterns.
• Overconsumption - Individuals consuming way more resources than needed to survive –
sometimes more than is needed to satisfy a high standard of life.

Key terms in Biodiversity:

• An endangered species faces threats that may cause it to become extinct within a short
period.
• A threatened species is a species whose population has declined to the point that it may be at
risk of extinction.
• An endemic species is an organism exclusively native to a place or biota.
• Biodiversity hotspots are regions that continue to experience an alarming rate of destruction
of important natural resources that harbor biodiverse organisms.
• Conservation biology is the scientific study of how humans impact organisms and of the
development of ways to protect biological diversity.

•
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 Philippine Biodiversity
The Philippines belongs among the countries that are gifted with rich biological
diversity, classified as a megadiverse country. Its archipelagic composition, geographic
location (i.e. its proximity to the equator), and tropical climate enable various forms of life and
entire ecosystems to flourish across its 7,000-plus islands and hundreds of reefs, further
enriching the locales’ natural beauty. Because of this, the country is recognized as one of the
most biologically and ecologically diverse in the world – and one with the highest
concentration of species per square kilometer. The Philippines, in fact, ranks second only to
Madagascar in terms of having the highest number of endemic species per unit area of
habitat.

DENR Administrative Order (DAO) No. 2004-15 establishes the national list of threatened
faunal species that includes 34 species of mammals, 80 species of birds, 18 species of reptiles
and 14 species of amphibians (Table 1). Among the critically endangered are the Tamaraw
(Bubalus mindorensis) which is endemic to Mindoro and the Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga
jefferyi). This list, however, includes some non-forest dependent species of birds, a marine
mammal (Dugong dugon) and 4 species of marine turtles.

What is it about the Philippines that enables it to support 70-80% of the entire
world’s species?
Here are the geographic and ecological characteristics of the country that allow it to
support such a varied and well-distributed diversity of species of wild fauna and flora.

 The Philippines is found in the tropics, where the climate supports a high level of
organic productivity to provide the resources needed by interdependent organisms to
survive.
 The Philippines has a highly heterogeneous and complex topography. Philippine
ecological locations vary from mountain ranges to coral reefs, providing multitudes of
plant and animal species more than adequate space to occupy.
 The isolation created by separate islands, as well as peaks of mountain ranges
support genes-level and species-level diversity.
 Elevation has an influence on biodiversity. In the Philippines’s rugged topography, one
may find a generous offering of biological diversity, especially in the highlands.

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 Threats: Forest/ Habitat Fragmentation – deforestation & kaingin
Anthropogenic Activities/Pressure– as of 2017, PH has a population of 104.7 million
Introduction of invasive species – invasive species dramatically alter ecosystem.

Invasive alien species in the Philippines

EARTH'S BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS

The areas that support natural ecosystems that are largely intact and where native
species and communities associated with these ecosystems are well represented are called
biodiversity hotspots. The concept was given in 1988 by Norman Myers of Oxford University.
To qualify as biodiversity hotspot, according to Myers, 2000 edition of hotspots, a region must
meet two strict criteria: First, it must have at least 1.500 species of vascular plants as
endemic (endemism). Secondly, it must contain 30% or less of its original natural vegetation
(loss of biodiversity). There are areas with a high diversity of locally endemic species not found
or found outside the hotspots. It is marked by human serious threat to biodiversity. In other
words, these are areas that cover both extraordinary biologically rich endemic plants and
animals and are highly threatened by human actions. Forest habitat is an example of
Biodiversity hotspot as they persistently face devastation and degradation due to illegal
logging. pollution, and deforestation.

World's Most Threatened Biodiversity Hotspots

As identified by Conservation International, approximately there are 35 areas around

the world that qualify as hotspots. They represent just 2.% of Earths land surface that
support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species which
majority of these are endemics Hrdina and Romportl (2017) point out the most important
hotspots are Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Isiands and Sundaland.
The Philippines is one of the most mega-diverse countries in the world when it comes
to variety of genetic, species, and ecological biodiversity Due to continue experience of
destruction to these resources made by human activities (deforestation. land degradation, and
pollution) the country is alse considered a biodiversity hotspot. The hotspot is a habitat for
6.000 endemic species and a large indefinite number of bird species including the Philippine
eagle and the Cebu flowerpecker.

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 The importance of biodiversity to human health
Health is our most basic human right. For most people, it does not just mean
freedom from illness, but a state of overall social, emotional, physical, spiritual and
cultural welfare. Being well, and having the capacity to look after our health and that of
our family or community, depends range of factors, including our economic status and
ultimately on our environment. Health is therefore one of the most important indicators
of sustainable development.

Biodiversity is the foundation for human health by securing the life-sustaining

goods and services which biodiversity provides to us, the conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity can provide significant benefits to our health. In contrast, the
continuing loss of biodiversity on a global scale represents a direct threat to our health
and well-being. Without a global environment that is healthy and capable of supporting
a diversity of life, no human population can exist.

The reports of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Intergovemmental

Panel on Climate Change have highlighted how human well-being is affected by the state
of the global environment and the sustainability of ecosystems. However, the enormous
range of benefits which biodiversity provides to our health and well-being is largely
underappreciated and unrecognized within the health community, and fails to inform
critical decisions on global and regional health strategies. At the same time, the wider
social and public health importance of biodiversity is not always understood by those
concerned with biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity supports food security, dietary
health, livelihood sustainability

Biodiversity supports food security, dietary health, livelihood sustainability

Genetic diversity in food systems

provides the foundation of crop
development and food security, and
promotes- resistance and resilience to
environmental stresses including posts
and diseases of crops and livestock Diets
based on a diversity of food species
promote health, and can help to protect
against disease by addressing the
problem of micronutrient and vitamin
deficiencies. Loss of agricultural Source: www.cohabnet.org
biodiversity can therefore threaten
health,
livelihood sustainability and our future
security of food and nutrition.

Biodiversity provides important resources for medical research

Studies of wildlife anatomy, physiology and biochemistry can lead to important developments
in human medicine Examples of species of interest to medical science include bears (for
insights Into osteoporosis, cardio-vascular disorders, renal disease and diabetes), sharks
(osmoregulation and immunology), cetaceans (respiration and treatments for divers suffering
from decompression sickness) and horse-shoe crabs (optometry / ophthalmology and
molecular cell biology)

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 Biodiversity provides important resources for traditional and modern medicine

Biodiversity loss can impact on community

traditions and livelihoods centered on traditional
medicinal practices that utilize wild animals and
plants, particularly for indigenous and local
communities. Millions of people depend upon
traditional medicines for their primary health
care.
Source: www.cohabnet.org
Modern drugs derived from wild species include inter alia pain killers (e g Zinconitide
from cone snail toxin), cardiac drugs (eg. Lanoxin from Digrtalis plants), anti-cancer
drugs (e.g. Taxol from Taxus trees and Hycamtin from Camptotheca trees) and
treatments for diabetes (including Exanitide from Heloderma lizards). Many other
potentially important species are yet to be investigated or discovered.

Biodiversity piays a role in the regulation and control of infectious diseases

Biodiversity loss and ecosystem change can
increase the risk of emergence or spread of
infectious diseases in animals, plants and
humans, including economically important
livestock diseases, zoonotic outbreaks and global
pandemics. In recent years outbreaks of SARS,
Ebola, Marburg, Hantavirus pulmonary
syndrome, avian influenza and malaria have been
attributed to human impacts on biodiversity, the
wildlife trade or unsustainable land use change.
Without a greater understanding of disease
ecology, there is also a risk that programmes to
tackle infectious diseases may impact negatively
on biodiversity, through use of biocides and other Source: www.cohabnet.org
chemicals and wildlife culls.

Biodiversity has social, cultural and spiritual importance within communities

Ecosystem change can result in disconnection of populations from open spaces or the wider
countryside, with negative implications for physical and mental well-being and loss of "sense of
place". This has been linked to an increased prevalence of 'diseases of affluence' (diabetes,
obesity, cardio-pulmonary illness) and psychological disorders in many communities.
Conversely, access to 'greenspace' (natural and artificial) are associated with better health
outcomes, shorter hospital visits and reduced convalescence time for patients than purely urban
environments. An awareness of environmental values and respect for other species has been
associated with reduced propensity towards anti-social behavior in children and young adults.

Conservation of biodiversity is essential for climate change adaptation

Climate change will have a range of significant impacts on human health, many of which are
directly associated with climate impacts on ecosystems. For example, changes in the ecology of
pathogens, or in the populations or distribution of disease vectors such as mosquitoes, could
lead to changes in disease patterns and increase the risk of outbreaks. Loss of ecosystem
services also places communities at greater risk from other climate impacts, such as extreme
weather events, drought and crop failure

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