CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that D.Kavinraj has successfully
completed the Annual Investigatory Project on the
topic,Renal Calculi in the academic year 2022–
2023 as per the CBSE syllabus for Biology in
CLASS XI in Adhyapana School CBSE, Madurai.
Internal Examiner External Examiner
Chief Superintendent
Renal Calculi
A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED BY
D. Kavin raj
In accordance to investigatory project of
CLASS XI-A4 2022 – 2023
IN
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
Affiliation No: 1930311
ADHYAPANA SCHOOL CBSE
Madurai – Dindigul Highway ,Paravai Post , Madurai-625402
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am thankful to our
Correspondent
Mrs. Aruna M.Visvessvar and our Dean of
academics Mr.Visesh Aiyer and Principal
Mrs. Rincy Jose for their continuous support
and motivation.
I like to express my sincere gratitude to my
Physics teacher, Mrs.Meena Malini for her
vital support, guidance and encouragement
without which this project would not have come
forth.
I am thankful to my parents and classmates for
their constant support.
INDEX
S.NO CONTENT PAGE
1. Introduction 1
2. Etiology 1
3. Symptoms 2
4. Risk Factors 3
5. Investigation 5
6. Prevention 6
7. Treatment 9
8. Conclusion 12
9. Reference 12
INTRODUCTION
Kidney stones (also called renal calculi, nephrolithiasis or
urolithiasis) are hard deposits made of minerals and salts that
form inside your kidneys. Diet, excess body weight, some
medical conditions, and certain supplements and medications are
among the many causes of kidney stones
Renal calculi is nothing but a crystalline structures of calcium
oxalate (C2H2CaO5) associated with risk factors like
dehydration, high fat diet, high salt, animal protein and obesity.
Due to the formation crystalline structure in the distal tubule,
collecting duct
ETIOLOGY
A small, hard deposit that forms in the kidneys and is often
painful when passed.
Kidney stones are hard deposits of minerals and acid salts that
stick together in concentrated urine. They can be painful when
passing through the urinary tract, but usually don't cause
permanent damage.
The most common symptom is severe pain, usually in the side of
the abdomen, that's often associated with nausea.
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Treatment includes pain relievers and drinking lots of water to
help pass the stone. Medical procedures may be required to
remove or break up larger stones.
SYMPTOMS
The most common symptom is severe pain, usually in the side of
the abdomen, that's often associated with nausea.
People may experience:
Pain areas: in the back or side part of the body
Pain types: can be severe, sharp, or sudden in the abdomen
Pain circumstances: can occur during urination
Gastrointestinal: nausea or vomiting
Urinary: blood in urine or frequent urination
Also common: sweating
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RISK FACTORS
Factors that increase your risk of developing kidney stones
include:
Dehydration: This is the most common cause and the easiest to
remedy. Kidney stones form when your urine contains more
crystal-forming substances than the fluid in your urine can
dilute. Therefore, not drinking enough water each day can
increase your risk of kidney stones.
Diet: Studies have shown that eating a diet that's high in sodium
can increase your risk of certain types of kidney stones. Too
much sodium in your diet increases the amount of calcium your
kidneys must filter and significantly increases your risk of
kidney stones. In addition, diets that are high in protein and
sugar can increase your kidney stone risk. At the same time,
your urine may lack citrate in your urine, which is known to
prevent crystals from being able to adhere to one another,
creating an ideal environment for kidney stones to form. For
most patients, a low-protein, low-sodium, and moderate-calcium
diet is recommended. Specific dietary recommendations will be
based upon your stone composition and evaluation of your
metabolism.
Family or personal history: If someone in your family has had
kidney stones, you're more likely to develop stones than
someone without a family history.
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Obesity: High body mass index (BMI), large waist size, and
weight gain have all been associated with an increased risk of
both a single episode and recurrent episodes of kidney stones.
Digestive diseases and surgery: Certain disorders of the
digestive system can affect calcium, electrolyte, and water
absorption, which may increase your risk of forming kidney
stones. Common disorders include gastric bypass surgery and
inflammatory bowel diseases, such as Crohn's disease and
ulcerative colitis.
Metabolic disorders: Metabolic conditions that may increase
your risk of kidney stones include renal tubular acidosis,
cystinuria, and hyperparathyroidism.
Urinary tract infections: Patients who suffer from chromic
urinary tract infections may form larger stones up in the kidney.
These are commonly called struvite or infection stones.
Other Risk Factors of Kidney Stones:
Anatomical abnormalities
Obstruction of the kidney or ureter
Calyceal diverticulum
Horseshoe kidney
Ureterocele
Vesicoureteral reflux
Ureteral stricture
Medullary sponge kidney
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INVESTIGATION
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PREVENTION
1. Stay hydrated
Drinking more water is the best way to prevent kidney stones. If
you don’t drink enough, your urine output will be low. Low
urine output means your urine is more concentrated and less
likely to dissolve urine salts that cause stones.
Lemonade and orange juice are also good options. They both
contain citrate, which may prevent stones from forming.Try to
drink around eight glasses of fluids daily, or enough to pass two
liters of urine. If you exercise or sweat a lot, or if you have a
history of cystine stones, you’ll need additional fluids.You can
tell whether you’re hydrated by looking at the color of your
urine — it should be clear or pale yellow. If it’s dark, you need
to drink more.
2. Eat more calcium-rich foods
The most common type of kidney stone is the calcium oxalate
stone, leading many people to believe they should avoid eating
calcium. The opposite is true. Low-calcium diets may increase
your kidney stone risk and your risk of osteoporosis.
Calcium supplements, however, may increase your risk of
stones. Taking calcium supplements with a meal may help
reduce that risk.
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Low-fat milk, low-fat cheese, and low-fat yogurt are all good
calcium-rich food options.
3. Eat less sodium
A high-salt diet increases your risk of calcium kidney stones.
According to the Urology Care Foundation, too much salt in the
urine prevents calcium from being reabsorbed from the urine to
the blood. This causes high urine calcium, which may lead to
kidney stones.Eating less salt helps keep urine calcium levels
lower. The lower the urine calcium, the lower the risk of
developing kidney stones.To reduce your sodium intake, read
food labels carefully.
Foods notorious for being high in sodium include:
processed foods, such as chips and crackers
canned soups
canned vegetables
lunch meat
condiments
foods that contain monosodium glutamate
foods that contain sodium nitrate
foods that contain sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
To flavor foods without using salt, try fresh herbs or a salt-free,
herbal seasoning blend.
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4. Eat fewer oxalate-rich foods
Some kidney stones are made of oxalate, a natural compound
found in foods that binds with calcium in the urine to form
kidney stones. Limiting oxalate-rich foods may help prevent the
stones from forming.
Foods high in oxalates are:
spinach
chocolate
sweet potatoes
coffee
beets
peanuts
soy products
wheat bran
Oxalate and calcium bind together in the digestive tract before
reaching the kidneys, so it’s harder for stones to form if you eat
high-oxalate foods and calcium-rich foods at the same time.
5. Eat less animal protein
Foods high in animal protein are acidic and may increase urine
acid. High urine acid may cause both uric acid and calcium
oxalate kidney stones.
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You should try to limit or avoid:
beef
poultry
fish
pork
6. Avoid vitamin C supplements
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) supplementation may cause kidney
stones, especially in men.According to one 2013 studyTrusted
Source, men who took high doses of vitamin C supplements
doubled their risk of forming a kidney stone. Researchers don’t
believe vitamin C from food carries the same risk.
TREATMENT
Medications can control the amount of minerals and salts in the
urine and may be helpful in people who form certain kinds of
stones. The type of medication your doctor prescribes will
depend on the kind of kidney stones you have. Here are some
examples:
Calcium stones. To help prevent calcium stones from
forming, your doctor may prescribe a thiazide diuretic or a
phosphate-containing preparation.
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Uric acid stones. Your doctor may prescribe allopurinol
(Zyloprim, Aloprim) to reduce uric acid levels in your blood
and urine and a medicine to keep your urine alkaline. In
some cases, allopurinol and an alkalizing agent may dissolve
the uric acid stones.
Struvite stones. To prevent struvite stones, your doctor may
recommend strategies to keep your urine free of bacteria that
cause infection, including drinking fluids to maintain good
urine flow and frequent voiding. In rare cases long-term use
of antibiotics in small or intermittent doses may help achieve
this goal. For instance, your doctor may recommend an
antibiotic before and for a while after surgery to treat your
kidney stones.
Cystine stones. Along with suggesting a diet lower in salt
and protein, your doctor may recommend that you drink
more fluids so that you produce a lot more urine,. If that
alone doesn't help, urine.
A procedure called percutaneous nephrolithotomy (nef-row-
lih-THOT-uh-me) involves surgically removing a kidney stone
using small telescopes and instruments inserted through a small
incision in your back. You will receive general anesthesia during
the surgery and be in the hospital for one to two days while you
recover
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CONCLUSION
Close to 80 to 90% of renal calculi pass spontaneously. About
3% of patients need admission because of the pain, inability to
pass the stone, or hydration. A few patients may develop urinary
tract obstruction and an upper urinary tract infection. This can
result in urosepsis or pyelonephritis.
Although Renal Calculi is complex it can be cured by
medications and treatments.
REFERENCE
https://www.mayoclinic.org
https://www.healthline.com
https://www.google.com
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