Introduction To Human Relations

            The study of human relations helps us understand how people fulfill both personal
growth needs and organizational goals in their careers. Many organizations are beginning to
realize that an employee's life outside the job can have a significant impact on work
performance, and some are developing training programs in human relations that address the
total person. Increasingly, organizations are discovering that many forces influence the
behavior of people at work.

            Human relations is not a set of foolproof techniques for solving people&-related
problems. Rather, it gives people an understanding of basic behavior concepts that may
enable them to make wiser choices when problems arise, to anticipate or prevent conflicts,
and to keep minor problems from escalating into major ones.

            The development of the human relations movement has involved a redefinition of the
nature of work and the gradual perception of managers and workers as complex human
beings. Two landmarks in the study of motivation and worker needs are 'Frederick Taylor's
work in scientific management and Elton Mayo's Hawthorne studies. Many industry leaders
predict an increased emphasis on human relations research and application. The reasons for
this trend include higher educational of employees and managers, worker organizations
pressing for attention to employee concerns, a weakening of the traditional work ethic, and
increased federal legislation affecting organizations.

            Seven major themes emerge from a study of human relations: communication, self&-
awareness, self&-acceptance, motivation, trust, self&-disclosure, and conflict management.
These themes reflect the current concern in human relations with personal growth and
satisfaction of organizational objectives.

          Improving Personal and Organizational Communications

                 Impersonal, one&-way communication methods can be effectively used to share
basic facts, policies, instructions, and other such information that requires no feedback from
the receiver. Interpersonal communication involves a two&-way exchange in which the
receiver understands the message in the same way the sender intended it. 

                 Communication is often filtered through semantics, emotions, attitudes, role
expectations, and nonverbal messages. Body language conveys information about a person's
thoughts and feelings through eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, and use of personal
space, or proxemics.

                 Individuals can make their messages clearer by using repetition, avoiding buzz
words, using discretion when writing correspondence, and timing the message so that the
receiver can focus on what is being said. They can also learn active and empathic listening
skills.

                Communication in organizations unifies group behavior and helps build teamwork.
Formal communication channels follow the structure of  the organization and can be vertical
or horizontal. Informal channels, such as the grapevine, are both vertical and horizontal. The
grapevine often transmits information more rapidly and accurately than formal channels but
can also have an extremely negative effect on the organization if the rumors are untrue.
Organizations can improve their internal communications by creating a climate that
encourages upward communication. The integration of international trade and business
means that companies must train their employees to be able to communicate in spite of
language and cultural differences.

          Attitudes Can Shape Your Life

            An attitude is any strong belief toward people and situations. It is a sate of mind
supported by feelings. People possess hundreds of attitudes about work family life, friends,
coworkers, and the like.

                   Attitudes represent a powerful force in every organization. If the person
employed by a service firm display a caring attitude toward customers, the business will
likely enjoy a high degree of customer loyalty and repeat business. If the employees of a
manufacturing firm display a serious attitude toward safety rules and regulations, fewer
accidents will likely occur.

            People acquire attitudes through early childhood socialization, peer and reference
groups, rewards and punishment, role model identification, and cultural influences.

                  Employers value attitudes that show a willingness to exercise self&-leadership to
learn, and to be a team player. Employers also appreciate employees who have a concern for
health and wellness and an enthusiasm for life and work.

                 Although many factors can influence the formation of an attitude, people do not
easily adopt new attitudes or discard old ones. If you choose to, you can change your attitude
by altering your thinking; thinking for yourself without undue pressure from your peers,
family, and others; and keeping in open mind. You can help others change their attitudes by
altering the consequences

and conditions that surround the situation. Positive consequences and conditions produce
positive attitudes.

                 Organizations are taking steps to improve the quality of work life of their
employees to help them be more productive. Some organizations are adjusting their
structures from authoritarian hierarchies to self&-managed teams to help employees achieve
greater job satisfaction.

          Building High Self&-Esteem

                Self&-Esteem. is appreciating your own worth and importance. If you have high
self&-esteem, you are more likely to feel competent and worthy. If you have low self&-
esteem, you are more likely to feel incompetent, unworthy, and insecure. Self&-esteem
includes your feelings of adequacy about the roles you play, your personality traits, your
physical appearance, your skills, and your abilities. High self&-esteem is the foundation for
a successful personal life and professional life.

            A person starts acquiring and building self&-esteem from birth. Parents friends,
associates, the media, and professional colleagues all influence the development of that
person's self&-esteem. As an adult, a person often defines herself or himself in terms of
possessions, jobs, and/or internal values. People with high self&-esteem tend to be future
oriented, cope with problems creatively, handle their emotions, and give as well as receive
help. They also accept others as unique, talented individuals and exhibit self&-confident
behaviors 

            High self&-esteem is essential for success at work. Personal expectations, as well as
the expectations of others, have a powerful influence on self&-esteem. These expectations
can become self&-fulfilling prophecies. Managers and mentors can strengthen a person's
self&-esteem by expressing belief in her or his abilities and talents.

            To build high self&-esteem, individuals must accept the past and build for the future.
They have to identify and accept their limitations as well as realize the unique qualities of
others. Making decisions and living with the consequences, positive or negative, can also
help build self&-esteem. 

            To build self&-esteem, visualize the results you want, and then set goals that will
take you where you want to go. Strive toward achieving an internal locus of control. Take
control of your thoughts and behavior by consistently monitoring your self&-talk. Many
organizations are realizing they need to help build employees self&-esteem and are doing so
through training sessions and improvement of the respect given individuals in the workplace.

          Understanding Your Communication Style

                   Communication styles are the patterns of behaviors that are observable to others.
Communication style tends to be stable throughout a person's lifetime. Each person has a
distinctive way of responding to people and events. Communication style bias is a common
problem in organizations and should be viewed as a major barrier to good human relations.

            The communication style model is formed by combining Two important dimensions
of human behavior: dominance and sociability. Combinations of these two aspects create
four communication styles &- emotive, director, reflective, and supportive. With practice
you can learn to identify other people's communication styles. A third dimension of human
behavior &- versatility &- is important in dealing with varying communication styles. You
can adjust your own style to meet the needs of others &- a process called style flexing.

          Motivating Yourself and Others

             Motivation is a major component of human relations  training because it gives  us a
framework for understanding why people do the things they do. In a work  setting, it is what
makes people want to work. Internal motivation occurs when the task or duty performed is in
itself a reward. External motivation is initiated  by another person and usually involves
rewards or other forms of reinforcement for a job well done. Most authorities on motivation
recommend that organizations attempt to provide their employees with a mix of external
rewards and internal satisfaction.

            People are motivated by different needs. The motivational cycle describes the steps
an individual goes through in satisfying a felt need. Motives are individualistic and can
change over the years. Because there is no valid measure of  a person's motives, motives can
only be inferred. Motives vary in strength and importance and are therefore hierarchical.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory states that psychological needs will come first, followed
by safety and security,  social, esteem, and then self&-actualization needs. According to
Maslow, although any need can be a motivator, only higher&-order needs will motivate 
people over the long run.

                  Managers must accomplish their goals through and with other people, and they
are primarily responsible for motivating their subordinates. McGregor's  Theory X and
Theory Y reflect a pessimistic and an optimistic view of human behavior, respectively.
Theory X managers believe that employees do not really  want to work and can be motivated
to do so only through close supervision and the threat of punishment. Theory Y managers
attempt to understand what truly motivates employees and give them due respect and
consideration.

            William Ouchi formulated a third theory, Theory Z, which describes another
management style. This style, based on a model used by many successful Japanese
companies, emphasizes treatment of employees like a family, lifetime employment, group
decision making, and loyalty to the company. This management  style has been found to
satisfy both lower&-level and higher&-level needs.

                 Contemporary organizations attempt to motivate their employees through job
design modifications, intrapreneurial incentives, training and education, incentives, and
empowerment.

          Personal and Organizational Values: Making The Best Ethical Choices

            A strong sense of character grows out of your personal standards of behavior. It is
based on your internal values and your judgment of what is right and what is wrong. Your
values are the personal worth or importance you assign to an object or idea. People's values
systems serve as the foundation for their attitudes, preferences, opinions, and behaviors.

                  Personal values are largely formed early in life and are influenced by family
religious upbringing, schools, the media, and changes in society's values. Simon, Howe, and
Kirschenbaum suggests you can learn a valuing process to help clarify your values. This
process includes five dimensions: thinking, feeling, communicating, choosing, and acting.
Milton Rokeach has written that values can be categorized as terminal or instrumental. Most
people's value systems are oriented toward ideas, people, or things.
            Internal value conflicts involve choices between strongly held values. Value conflicts
with others, often based on age, racial, religious, gender, or ethnic differences, require
skilled intervention before they can be resolved. 

                 Corporate values act as standards for behavior, goal setting, and strategic decision
making. They also have an impact on human relations within the organization. They are
strongly influenced by top management, which plays a significant role in setting the
corporate climate by exemplifying and communicating it to others. By establishing strong
corporate values, however, organizations may risk obsolescence, resistance to change, and
inconsistencies among various departments.

            Shared values unify employees in an organization by providing guidelines for
behavior and decisions. Employees can choose the career and the organization that best suit
their needs by ensuring that their personal values are compatible with the values of the
organization in which they work. 

                Corporate values and ethics on both the domestic and international levels are
receiving increasing attention. As multinational organizations increase in number, the
individuals involved will need to consciously examine their values and ethical standards to
deal effectively with the differing value structures in each country. Top management,
governments, and the public are holding organizations more accountable for their actions
than in the past.

          Constructive Self&-Disclosure

            Open communication is an important key to personal growth and job satisfaction.
Self&-disclosure&-the process of letting another person know what you think, feel, or
want&-promotes communication within an organization. It differs from self&-description in
that it usually involves some risk. Most  people want and need accurate feedback from
coworkers and the person who supervises their work.

                Constructive self&-disclosure can result in many rewards to people and
organizations. It can pave the way for increased accuracy in communication, reduction of
stress, increased self&- awareness, and stronger interpersonal relations.

            The Johari Window helps conceptualize four kinds of information areas involved in
communication: the open area, what you and others know about you; the blind area, what
others know about you that you don't know about yourself; the hidden area, what you know
but others do not; and the unknown area, what neither you nor others know. Most people
gradually increase the open area as they learn to communicate with others. 

                 Everyone can learn how to use self&-disclosure in a constructive way. Your goal
should always be to approach self&-disclosure with the desire to improve your relationship
with the other person. Describe your feelings and emotions accurately, and avoid making
judgments about the other person. Disturbing
situations should be discussed as they happen; it is difficult to recapture feelings once they
have passed. Select the right time and place to share your thoughts and avoid inappropriate
disclosure of highly emotional or intimate information.

            A climate of trust serves as a foundation for self&-disclosure. In the absence of trust,
people usually avoid revealing their thoughts and feelings to others. Self&-disclosure is also
more apt to take place within an organization when people feel comfortable stepping outside
their assigned roles and displaying openness for the feelings of others than when they do not.

            Lack of familiarity can be a barrier to constructive self&-disclosure. To the extent
that you remain a mystery, other people may decide the risks of  self&-disclosure are too
high. The old saying that "familiarity breeds contempt" is simply a myth. Too much distance
between people can set the stage for mutual distrust.

            As with learning any new skill, you can improve your ability to disclose your
thoughts and feelings by starting with less threatening disclosures and proceeding slowly to
more challenging situations. 

          Learning to Achieve Emotional Control

                 Throughout life your behavior is influenced by the conscious and the
subconscious parts of your mind. The conscious part is the mental activity you are aware and
can control. The subconscious part of your mind has been described by William Menninger
as a "storehouse of forgotten memories." It ismental activity that goes on without your
knowledge.

                 Research conducted by Eric Berne helps us understand the influence of
subconscious mental activity. He developed transactional analysis, a way of analyzing the
transactions that take place when two people meet. Berne discovered that everyone's
personality is composed of three distinct parts called "ego states": Parent, Child, and Adult.
People do not remain permanently fixed in any of these ego states but may fluctuate from
one to another depending on the situation.

            The contacts you have with people at work involve a series of transactions between
ego states. With practice you can learn to analyze transaction is one that determine which of
your ego states (Parent, Adult, or Child) is speaking and which ego state the other person is
using.

                       Transactions between people can be classified into three major categories:
complementary, crossed, and ulterior. A complementary transaction is one that occurs when
a message, sent from a specific ego state, gets the predicated or desired response from a
specific ego state in the other person. A crossed transaction occurs when the sender of the
message does not get the response that was expected or desired. An ulterior transaction
occurs when the message says one thing but has another meaning. Both crossed and ulterior
transactions often cause breakdowns in communication. Making the correct response to each
transaction requires considerable control over your emotions. Emotional maturity is an
important key to success at work.
          The Power of Positive Reinforcement

            People usually feel good when their accomplishments are recognized and conversely
become upset when work well done is ignored. Positive reinforcement, when used correctly
to reward accomplishments, is a powerful motivator. Everyone needs to receive personal
recognition and to feel important.

                  Although many studies indicate that recognition is an important employee reward
preference, often ranked higher than monetary rewards and job security, many people seem
unable or unwilling to reward a job well done. Confirmation behaviors must be used in
organizational settings more often. Praise, simple courtesy, active listening, written thank&-
you notes, incentives, and awards represent some of the ways we can reinforce another's
behavior.

                   Preoccupation with self is a major obstacle to providing reinforcement to others.
Self&-centered persons are more apt to overlook the accomplishments of other people.
Another obstacle is the view that "employees are hire to do a job, and they don't deserve any
rewards beyond the paycheck." Some managers say a busy schedule does not allow time to
give recognition to others. These and other barriers tend to minimize the use of positive
reinforcement.

          The Power of Positive Impressions

            People tend to form impressions of others quickly at the time they first meet them,
and these first impressions tend to be preserved. Leonard and Natillie Zunin describe the
four&-minute barrier as the average time people spend together before a relationship is
either established or denied. In an organizational setting, the time interval is often reduced to
seconds. Positive impressions are important because they contribute to repeat business and
referrals from customers.

            The impression you form of another person during the initial contact is made up of
assumptions and facts. When meeting someone for the first time, people tend to rely heavily
on assumptions. Many of your assumptions can be traced to early cultural influences.
Assumptions are also based on perceptions of surface language. The Zunins describe surface
language as a pattern of immediate impressions conveyed by appearance. The clothing and
jewelry you wear, your hair style, and the fragrances you use all combine to make a
statement about yourself to others.

            Image consultants contend that discrimination on the basis of appearance is still a
fact of life. The clothing you wear is an important part of the image you communicate to
others. Four factors tend to influence your choice of clothing for work: (1) the products or
services offered by the employer, (2) the type of person served, (3) the &- desired image
projected by the organization, and (4)  the region where you work.

            In addition to clothing, research indicates that facial expressions strongly influence
people's reactions to each other. The expression on your face can quickly trigger a positive or
negative reaction. Similarly, your entrance and carriage, voice, handshake, and manners also
contribute to the image you project when meeting others.
          Team Building: A Leadership Strategy

                Teamwork ensures not only that a job gets done but also that it gets done
efficiently. Therefore, successful teamwork can often make the difference between the
profitable and the unprofitable operation of an organization. The team&-building leadership
style is effective because it is suited to the needs of most of today's employees.

            An effective work team tends to be informal and relaxed, with no obvious tensions.
People are involved, interested, and anxious to participate in solving work&-related
problems. An effective work group also has clearly understood goals and objectives.

            Two important dimensions of supervisory leadership contribute to team building.
One of these dimensions, consideration, reflects the extent to which a supervisor maintains
relationships with employees that are characterized by mutual trust, respect, and rapport. The
other dimension, structure, reflects the extent to which a supervisor is likely to direct group
activities through planning, goal setting, communication, scheduling, and evaluating. The
managerial Grid helps clarify these two dimensions of leadership.

                    Members of an effective work group should assume effective leadership and
membership roles. Each helps the group achieve its mission. Everyone assumes the role of
team builder.

                  Employees are in a unique position to give guidance and support to their
supervisor or manage. Most bosses need this assistance and support to achieve success. To
manage the relationship with your boss, it is first necessary to understand him or her. Next,
you must assess your own strengths and try to identify personal characteristics that might
impede or facilitate a working relationship. And finally, you must work hard to develop and
maintain the relationship.

          Managing Conflicts Constructively

                 Conflicts between people can arise over breakdowns in communication, value
clashes, personality clashes, and culture clashes. Additionally, organizations may create
conflicts through their work policies, practices, and adversarial management.

            Anger is at the root of many conflicts and usually indicates that a problem needs to
be addressed. Even though anger can be expressed in nonproductive ways, you can choose to
show or use your anger in ways that benefit everyone. At the same time, the normal and
appropriate expression of anger can address your anxiety and help you get rid of unhealthy
stress.

            There are several approaches for dealing with conflict, which may be grouped into
three basic strategies: win/lose, lose/lose, and win/win. Using the win/win strategy not only
can resolve a conflict but can also preserve good human relations. Regardless of the strategy
implemented, your level of assertiveness and desire for cooperation are key factors in the
effective resolution of personal conflicts with others. When people cannot solve their
conflicts in an informal manner, many organizations create solutions through a conflict
resolution process.  This process is dependent on win /win attitudes: a strong sensitive
leader; and a clear outline of the steps that need to be taken to resolve the conflict.

            Conflict between employers and workers can be handled by labor unions negotiating
with management. Labor unions are usually organized on a national level and help balance
the power between labor and management. Unions engage in collective bargaining, which
defines the rights and privileges of both sides and establishes the terms of employment in a
contract or other types of legally binding document. If neither side can agree on issues, they
can submit their disputes to arbitration or mediation for settlement. Whereas arbitration is
binding on both parties, the decision reached through mediation for may be accepted or
rejected by either side. Conflicts that arise after a contract has been negotiated can be
handled through the grievance procedure.

            Both unions and management are facing complex problems that involves
productivity, job security and worker training, and the preservation of the quality of work
life enjoyed by employees. Both sides are attempting to cope with the challenges of hugh
technology and changing economic conditions.

          Adapting to Personal and Work Related Stress

            When individuals cannot adequately respond or successfully adapt to a changing or
unexpected set of circumstances, stress is usually the result. People tend to resist change
because they feel inadequate to meet the challenge, feel their security is threatened, fear the
unknown, mistrust those initiating the change, or lack the ability to see, the big picture.
Nevertheless individuals can respond successfully to change by using their values as a
guideline for making decisions and achieving goals and by cultivating active adaptability.

            Many of the stressors we experience are generated at work. Technostress the inability
to cope with computer technology in a healthy manner, is a significant contemporary threat
to individuals and organizations. As organizations downsize, they force fewer employees to
produce more work in less time. This emphasis on speed is often aggravated by incompetent
supervision. In addition, transitions that occur in personal life, such as marriage, divorce, or
relocation may add more stressors that interfere with a person's effectiveness on the job.
Workers also experience stress when changing jobs, when trying to keep up with rapidly
evolving jobs, and when dealing with unemployment. Organizations are attempting to aid
workers in dealing with stress.

                 Nevertheless, some stress in life is beneficial and helps keep a person motivated
and excited. Therefore, the goal is not to eliminate stress but to learn how to identify it and
then manage it. Individuals can take personal responsibility for the effect stress has on their
lives by controlling their goals and expectations; eating a balanced diet; exercising regularly;
taking time for mental relaxation; and effectively expressing their emotions. Many
organizations offer wellness pro grams to help their employees counteract the effects of
stress. These may include incentives to stay healthy, such as no&-smoking campaigns and
weight control programs. Many wellness programs provide physical fitness opportunities,
and nutrition training. Counseling programs are available in most organizations through
employee assistance programs (EAPs). Some people turn to twelve&-step programs for help
in coping with the various addictions that often result from too much stress. When workers
are unable to manage an appropriate level of stress in their lives, they may be subjecting
themselves to the effects of burnout. This condition requires effective self&-help and help
from others if it is to be overcome.

          Valuing Work Force Diversity

            Work force diversity, or variety, has become an important issue for organizations that
want to remain competitive in a global economy. These organizations are beginning to move
away from focusing on prejudice and discrimination and toward valuing diversity. Two
dimensions, or characteristics, are the basis of every individual's diversity. Primary
dimensions include gender, age, race,  physical and mental abilities, and sexual orientation.
Secondary dimensions often include religious beliefs, ethnic customs, communication style,
and parental status.

                  Prejudice and discrimination are major barriers to effective human relations 
Prejudice is an attitude based partly on observation of others differences and partly on
ignorance, fear, and cultural conditioning. Prejudiced people tend to see others as stereotypes
rather than as unique individuals. Prejudicial attitudes are formed through the effects of
contamination, ethocentrisn, and economic factors. Discrimination is behavior based on
prejudicial attitudes. Groups protected by law from discrimination in the workplace include
women, people of color, older and younger workers, and those who have disabilities. More
subtle forms of discrimination not covered by law include discrimination arising from sexual
orientation, appearance, criminal convictions, and so on.

            These more subtle forms of discrimination are often difficult to prove but may be
offset through assertiveness, a change in the behavior that causes the discrimination, or a
move to a more tolerant organization.

           The issue of valuing diversity is an economic one for most organizations. The
changing demographics of the American society mean that the work force will soon be made
up of a minority of white men and a majority of diverse, talented, and well&-educated
women and people of color. Companies cannot afford to ignore this change in the pool of
human resources.

                    Individuals can enhance diversity by letting go of their stereotypes and learning
to monitor their prejudiced attitudes as they work and socialize with people who are
different. They will need to develop a sensitivity to differences and use language
appropriately.

           Finally, organizations must develop a culture that respects and enhances diversity.
Affirmative action guidelines will help bring many different individuals into the
organization, but training and education will help all men and women reach their potential.

          The Changing Roles of Men and Women

            Gender bias is discrimination 'based on widely held beliefs about the abilities,
characteristics, and behavior of men and women. The traditional roles assigned to both
genders limit their opportunities to choose careers and lifestyles best suited to their abilities
and true interests.

            Many men and women are breaking out of these traditional roles. Over the past few
decades, women have entered the job world in increasing numbers and in professions
previously considered all&-male. They also have a wider range of choices regarding
marriage and children then ever before. Organizations are beginning to offer their employees
options such as job sharing, flextime, and home&-based work so that they can better handle
the demands of work and family

            Women are still subject to a wage gap as compared with men's wages for similar
work, but the gap is narrowing. Moreover, the Department of labor has confirmed that the
glass ceiling does exist and is holding women back from achieving high&-level positions in
organizations. In some cases, women are as much a deterrent to other women's success in
organizations as are gender&-biased men.

            Men are also choosing new roles for themselves. They are working to dispel the myth
that men must always be in control, emotionally unexpressive, logical, and achievement
oriented. They realize that the rigid male role  has had adverse effects on men's health and on
their relationships with women and other men. Men are learning to make conscious choices
about marriage, children, and career emphasis that better fit their value systems. Men have
been entering traditionally female professions in increasing numbers and choosing more
personally rewarding careers that allow time for family responsibilities, even if they sacrifice
some material gain to do so.

            Sexual harassment may be a problem for some men as well as women. It may take
one of two forms: quid pro quo, the threat of job security or promotions in exchange for
sexual favors, or sexually explicit language, photos, or innuendoes that create a hostile work
environment. Most organizations have developed  guidelines to help employees avoid
harassment or fight it when it occurs.

                 Methods of coping with gender&-biased behavior include learning how to
effectively communicate with the opposite sex, observing the new rules of etiquette in the
workplace, and learning office politics.

          A Life Plan for Effective Human Relations

            The traditional definitions of success that most of us know are too confining. They
view success almost entirely in terms of measurable job achievements. These definitions
leave out the intangible successes to be had in private and in professional life.

            Many people today are discovering that true success is a combination of
achievements. Achieving right livelihood is one important dimension of success. Right
livelihood is work consciously chosen, done with full awareness and care, and leading to
enlightenment. Right livelihood is based on conscious choice. Although right livelihood
recognizes that work is a vehicle for self&-expression, it is a concept that places money in a
secondary position. People who choose right livelihood are more apt to have high self&-
esteem, are self&-disciplined, and have established meaningful goals.
            A person's nonfinancial resources make one of the biggest contributions to a happy
and fulfilling life. Each of us has four nonfinancial resources that can enrich our lives:
physical and mental health, education and training  (intellectual growth), leisure time (time
for family, socializing, recreation), and healthy spirituality These nonfinancial resources can
be acquired throughout our lives.

            Many Americans are working to achieve lifestyles. Healthy lifestyles can give us a
higher energy level, a greater sense of self&-confidence, and generally a  more positive
outlook. People who maintain good health  usually have more endurance, spend less time
feeling tired or ill and miss less work than persons who are not physically fit.

                  Planning for changes in your life often requires breaking negative habits or
forming positive habits. The process of breaking habits and forming new ones involves five
steps: motivation, knowledge, practice, feedback, and reinforcement. Goal setting is also an
integral part of a successful plan to make changes. Unspecified or vague goals are harder to
reach and contribute less than they could to a productive, enriching life.

Attitudes Can Shape Your Life

            An attitude is any strong belief toward people and situations. It is a sate of mind
supported by feelings. People possess hundreds of attitudes about work family life, friends,
coworkers, and the like.

            Attitudes represent a powerful force in every organization. If the person employed by
a service firm display a caring attitude toward customers, the business will likely enjoy a
high degree of customer loyalty and repeat business. If the employees of a manufacturing
firm display a serious attitude toward safety rules and regulations, fewer accidents will likely
occur.

            People acquire attitudes through early childhood socialization, peer and reference
groups, rewards and punishment, role model identification, and cultural influences.

            Employers value attitudes that show a willingness to exercise self&-leadership to
learn, and to be a team player. Employers also appreciate employees who have a concern for
health and wellness and an enthusiasm for life and work.

            Although many factors can influence the formation of an attitude, people do not
easily adopt new attitudes or discard old ones. If you choose to, you can change your attitude
by altering your thinking; thinking for yourself without undue pressure from your peers,
family, and others; and keeping in open mind. You can help others change their attitudes by
altering the consequences and conditions that surround the situation. Positive consequences
and conditions produce positive attitudes.

            Organizations are taking steps to improve the quality of work life of their employees
to help them be more productive. Some organizations are adjusting their structures from
authoritarian hierarchies to self&-managed teams to help employees achieve greater job
satisfaction.

Building High Self&-Esteem

             Self&-Esteem. is appreciating your own worth and importance. If you have high
self&-esteem, you are more likely to feel competent and worthy. If you have low self&-
esteem, you are more likely to feel incompetent, unworthy, and insecure. Self&-esteem
includes your feelings of adequacy about the roles you play, your personality traits, your
physical appearance, your skills, and your abilities. High self&-esteem is the foundation for
a successful personal life and professional life.

            A person starts acquiring and building self&-esteem from birth. Parents friends,
associates, the media, and professional colleagues all influence the development of that
person's self&-esteem. As an adult, a person often defines herself or himself in terms of
possessions, jobs, and/or internal values. People with high self&-esteem tend to be future
oriented, cope with problems creatively, handle their emotions, and give as well as receive
help. They also accept others as unique, talented individuals and exhibit self&-confident
behaviors 

            High self&-esteem is essential for success at work. Personal expectations, as well as
the expectations of others, have a powerful influence on self&-esteem. These expectations
can become self&-fulfilling prophecies. Managers and mentors can strengthen a person's
self&-esteem by expressing belief in her or his abilities and talents.

            To build high self&-esteem, individuals must accept the past and build for the future.
They have to identify and accept their limitations as well as realize the unique qualities of
others. Making decisions and living with the consequences, positive or negative, can also
help build self&-esteem. 

            To build self&-esteem, visualize the results you want, and then set goals that will
take you where you want to go. Strive toward achieving an internal locus of control. Take
control of your thoughts and behavior by consistently monitoring your self&-talk. Many
organizations are realizing they need to help build employees self&-esteem and are doing so
through training sessions and improvement of the respect given individuals in the workplace.

Constructive Self&-Disclosure
            Open communication is an important key to personal growth and job satisfaction.
Self&-disclosure&-the process of letting another person know what you think, feel, or
want&-promotes communication within an organization. It differs from self&-description in
that it usually involves some risk. Most  people want and need accurate feedback from
coworkers and the person who supervises their work.

            Constructive self&-disclosure can result in many rewards to people and
organizations. It can pave the way for increased accuracy in communication, reduction of
stress, increased self&- awareness, and stronger interpersonal relations.

            The Johari Window helps conceptualize four kinds of information areas involved in
communication: the open area, what you and others know about you; the blind area, what
others know about you that you don't know about yourself; the hidden area, what you know
but others do not; and the unknown area, what neither you nor others know. Most people
gradually increase the open area as they learn to communicate with others. 

            Everyone can learn how to use self&-disclosure in a constructive way. Your goal
should always be to approach self&-disclosure with the desire to improve your relationship
with the other person. Describe your feelings and emotions accurately, and avoid making
judgments about the other person. Disturbing situations should be discussed as they happen;
it is difficult to recapture feelings once they have passed. Select the right time and place to
share your thoughts and avoid inappropriate disclosure of highly emotional or intimate
information.

            A climate of trust serves as a foundation for self&-disclosure. In the absence of trust,
people usually avoid revealing their thoughts and feelings to others. Self&-disclosure is also
more apt to take place within an organization when people feel comfortable stepping outside
their assigned roles and displaying openness for the feelings of others than when they do not.

            Lack of familiarity can be a barrier to constructive self&-disclosure. To the extent
that you remain a mystery, other people may decide the risks of  self&-disclosure are too
high. The old saying that "familiarity breeds contempt" is simply a myth. Too much distance
between people can set the stage for mutual distrust.

            As with learning any new skill, you can improve your ability to disclose your
thoughts and feelings by starting with less threatening disclosures and proceeding slowly to
more challenging situations.

Motivating Yourself and Others

             Motivation is a major component of human relations  training because it gives  us a

framework for understanding why people do the things they do. In a work  setting, it is what
makes people want to work. Internal motivation occurs when the task or duty performed is in
itself a reward. External motivation is initiated  by another person and usually involves
rewards or other forms of reinforcement for a job well done. Most authorities on motivation
recommend that organizations attempt to provide their employees with a mix of external
rewards and internal satisfaction.

            People are motivated by different needs. The motivational cycle describes the steps
an individual goes through in satisfying a felt need. Motives are individualistic and can
change over the years. Because there is no valid measure of  a person's motives, motives can
only be inferred. Motives vary in strength and importance and are therefore hierarchical.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory states that psychological needs will come first, followed
by safety and security,  social, esteem, and then self&-actualization needs. According to
Maslow, although any need can be a motivator, only higher&-order needs will motivate 
people over the long run.

            Managers must accomplish their goals through and with other people, and they are
primarily responsible for motivating their subordinates. McGregor's  Theory X and Theory Y
reflect a pessimistic and an optimistic view of human behavior, respectively. Theory X
managers believe that employees do not really  want to work and can be motivated to do so
only through close supervision and the threat of punishment. Theory Y managers attempt to
understand what truly motivates employees and give them due respect and consideration.

            William Ouchi formulated a third theory, Theory Z, which describes another
management style. This style, based on a model used by many successful Japanese
companies, emphasizes treatment of employees like a family, lifetime employment, group
decision making, and loyalty to the company. This management  style has been found to
satisfy both lower&-level and higher&-level needs.

            Contemporary organizations attempt to motivate their employees through job design
modifications, intrapreneurial incentives, training and education, incentives, and
empowerment.

Personal and Organizational Values: Making

The Best Ethical Choices
           A strong sense of character grows out of your personal standards of behavior. It is
based on your internal values and your judgment of what is right and what is wrong. Your
values are the personal worth or importance you assign to an object or idea. People's values
systems serve as the foundation for their attitudes, preferences, opinions, and behaviors.

            Personal values are largely formed early in life and are influenced by family religious
upbringing, schools, the media, and changes in society's values. Simon, Howe, and
Kirschenbaum suggests you can learn a valuing process to help clarify your values. This
process includes five dimensions: thinking, feeling, communicating, choosing, and acting.
Milton Rokeach has written that values can be categorized as terminal or instrumental. Most
people's value systems are oriented toward ideas, people, or things.

            Internal value conflicts involve choices between strongly held values. Value conflicts
with others, often based on age, racial, religious, gender, or ethnic differences, require
skilled intervention before they can be resolved.

            Corporate values act as standards for behavior, goal setting, and strategic decision
making. They also have an impact on human relations within the organization. They are
strongly influenced by top management, which plays a significant role in setting the
corporate climate by exemplifying and communicating it to others. By establishing strong
corporate values, however, organizations may risk obsolescence, resistance to change, and
inconsistencies among various departments.

            Shared values unify employees in an organization by providing guidelines for
behavior and decisions. Employees can choose the career and the organization that best suit
their needs by ensuring that their personal values are compatible with the values of the
organization in which they work. 

            Corporate values and ethics on both the domestic and international levels are
receiving increasing attention. As multinational organizations increase in number, the
individuals involved will need to consciously examine their values and ethical standards to
deal effectively with the differing value structures in each country. Top management,
governments, and the public are holding organizations more accountable for their actions
than in the past.

Team Building: A Leadership Strategy

            Teamwork ensures not only that a job gets done but also that it gets done efficiently.
Therefore, successful teamwork can often make the difference between the profitable and the
unprofitable operation of an organization. The team&-building leadership style is effective
because it is suited to the needs of most of today's employees.

            An effective work team tends to be informal and relaxed, with no obvious tensions.
People are involved, interested, and anxious to participate in solving work&-related
problems. An effective work group also has clearly understood goals and objectives.

            Two important dimensions of supervisory leadership contribute to team building.
One of these dimensions, consideration, reflects the extent to which a supervisor maintains
relationships with employees that are characterized by

mutual trust, respect, and rapport. The other dimension, structure, reflects the extent to which
a supervisor is likely to direct group activities through planning, goal setting,
communication, scheduling, and evaluating. The managerial Grid helps clarify these two
dimensions of leadership.

            Members of an effective work group should assume effective leadership and
membership roles. Each helps the group achieve its mission. Everyone assumes the role of
team builder.

            Employees are in a unique position to give guidance and support to their supervisor
or manage. Most bosses need this assistance and support to achieve success. To manage the
relationship with your boss, it is first necessary to understand him or her. Next, you must
assess your own strengths and try to identify personal characteristics that might impede or
facilitate a working relationship. And finally, you must work hard to develop and maintain
the relationship.

The Changing Roles of Men and Women

            Gender bias is discrimination 'based on widely held beliefs about the abilities,
characteristics, and behavior of men and women. The traditional roles assigned to both
genders limit their opportunities to choose careers and lifestyles best suited to their abilities
and true interests.

            Many men and women are breaking out of these traditional roles. Over the past few
decades, women have entered the job world in increasing numbers and in professions
previously considered all&-male. They also have a wider range of choices regarding
marriage and children then ever before. Organizations are beginning to offer their employees
options such as job sharing, flextime, and home&-based work so that they can better handle
the demands of work and family

            Women are still subject to a wage gap as compared with men's wages for similar
work, but the gap is narrowing. Moreover, the Department of labor has confirmed that the
glass ceiling does exist and is holding women back from achieving high&-level positions in
organizations. In some cases, women are as much a deterrent to other women's success in
organizations as are gender&-biased men.

            Men are also choosing new roles for themselves. They are working to dispel the myth
that men must always be in control, emotionally unexpressive, logical, and achievement
oriented. They realize that the rigid male role  has had adverse effects on men's health and on
their relationships with women and other men. Men are learning to make conscious choices
about marriage, children, and career emphasis that better fit their value systems. Men have
been entering traditionally female professions in increasing numbers and choosing more
personally rewarding careers that allow time for family responsibilities, even if they sacrifice
some material gain to do so.

            Sexual harassment may be a problem for some men as well as women. It may take
one of two forms: quid pro quo, the threat of job security or promotions in exchange for
sexual favors, or sexually explicit language, photos, or innuendoes that create a hostile work
environment. Most organizations have developed  guidelines to help employees avoid
harassment or fight it when it occurs.

            Methods of coping with gender&-biased behavior include learning how to effectively
communicate with the opposite sex, observing the new rules of etiquette in the workplace,
and learning office politics.

The Power of Positive Impressions

            People tend to form impressions of others quickly at the time they first meet them,
and these first impressions tend to be preserved. Leonard and Natillie Zunin describe the
four&-minute barrier as the average time people spend together before a relationship is
either established or denied. In an organizational setting, the time interval is often reduced to
seconds. Positive impressions are important because they contribute to repeat business and
referrals from customers.

            The impression you form of another person during the initial contact is made up of
assumptions and facts. When meeting someone for the first time, people tend to rely heavily
on assumptions. Many of your assumptions can be traced to early cultural influences.
Assumptions are also based on perceptions of surface language. The Zunins describe surface
language as a pattern of immediate impressions conveyed by appearance. The clothing and
jewelry you wear, your hair style, and the fragrances you use all combine to make a
statement about yourself to others.

            Image consultants contend that discrimination on the basis of appearance is still a
fact of life. The clothing you wear is an important part of the image you communicate to
others. Four factors tend to influence your choice of clothing for work: (1) the products or
services offered by the employer, (2) the type of person served, (3) the &- desired image
projected by the organization, and (4)  the region where you work.

            In addition to clothing, research indicates that facial expressions strongly influence
people's reactions to each other. The expression on your face can quickly trigger a positive or
negative reaction. Similarly, your entrance and carriage, voice, handshake, and manners also
contribute to the image you project when meeting others.

The Power of Positive Reinforcement

             People usually feel good when their accomplishments are recognized and conversely
become upset when work well done is ignored. Positive reinforcement, when used correctly
to reward accomplishments, is a powerful motivator. Everyone needs to receive personal
recognition and to feel important.

            Although many studies indicate that recognition is an important employee reward
preference, often ranked higher than monetary rewards and job security, many people seem
unable or unwilling to reward a job well done. Confirmation behaviors must be used in
organizational settings more often. Praise, simple courtesy, active listening, written thank&-
you notes, incentives, and awards represent some of the ways we can reinforce another's
behavior.

            Preoccupation with self is a major obstacle to providing reinforcement to others.
Self&-centered persons are more apt to overlook the accomplishments of other people.
Another obstacle is the view that "employees are hire to do a job, and they don't deserve any
rewards beyond the paycheck." Some managers say a busy schedule does not allow time to
give recognition to others. These and other barriers tend to minimize the use of positive
reinforcement.

Understanding Your Communication Style

            Communication styles are the patterns of behaviors that are observable to others.
Communication style tends to be stable throughout a person's lifetime. Each person has a
distinctive way of responding to people and events. Communication style bias is a common
problem in organizations and should be viewed as a major barrier to good human relations.

            The communication style model is formed by combining Two important dimensions
of human behavior: dominance and sociability. Combinations of these two aspects create
four communication styles &- emotive, director, reflective, and supportive. With practice
you can learn to identify other people's communication styles. A third dimension of human
behavior &- versatility &- is important in dealing with varying communication styles. You
can adjust your own style to meet the needs of others &- a process called style flexing.

Valuing Work Force Diversity

            Work force diversity, or variety, has become an important issue for organizations that
want to remain competitive in a global economy. These organizations are beginning to move
away from focusing on prejudice and discrimination and toward valuing diversity. Two
dimensions, or characteristics, are the basis of every individual's diversity. Primary
dimensions include gender, age, race,  physical and mental abilities, and sexual orientation.
Secondary dimensions often include religious beliefs, ethnic customs, communication style,
and parental status.

            Prejudice and discrimination are major barriers to effective human relations 
Prejudice is an attitude based partly on observation of others differences and partly on
ignorance, fear, and cultural conditioning. Prejudiced people tend to see others as stereotypes
rather than as unique individuals. Prejudicial attitudes are formed through the effects of
contamination, ethocentrisn, and economic factors. Discrimination is behavior based on
prejudicial attitudes. Groups protected by law from discrimination in the workplace include
women, people of color, older and younger workers, and those who have disabilities. More
subtle forms of discrimination not covered by law include discrimination arising from sexual
orientation, appearance, criminal convictions, and so on.

            These more subtle forms of discrimination are often difficult to prove but may be
offset through assertiveness, a change in the behavior that causes the discrimination, or a
move to a more tolerant organization.

           The issue of valuing diversity is an economic one for most organizations. The
changing demographics of the American society mean that the work force will soon be made
up of a minority of white men and a majority of diverse, talented, and well&-educated
women and people of color. Companies cannot afford to ignore this change in the pool of
human resources.

            Individuals can enhance diversity by letting go of their stereotypes and learning to
monitor their prejudiced attitudes as they work and socialize with people who are different.
They will need to develop a sensitivity to differences and use language appropriately.
           Finally, organizations must develop a culture that respects and enhances diversity.
Affirmative action guidelines will help bring many different individuals into the
organization, but training and education will help all men and women reach their potential.

A Life Plan for Effective Human Relations

LOOKING BACK: Reviewing the Concepts

• Define success by standards that are compatible with your needs and values.

The traditional definitions of success that most of us know are too confining. They describe success
almost entirely in terms of measurable job achievements. These definitions leave out the intangible
successes to be had in private and professional life. Many people today are discovering that true success
is a combination of achievements.

• Learn how to cope with the forces that influence work/life balance.

The labor market has become a place of great uncertainty due to the heavy volume of mergers,
acquisitions, business closings, and downsizing. There is increasing pressure to work harder, work longer
hours, and give up more leisure time. Learning how to cope with the forces that influence work/life
balance has never been more challenging.

• Discuss the meaning of right livelihood.

Achieving right livelihood is a very important dimension of success. Right livelihood is work consciously
chosen and done with full awareness and care that leads to enlightenment. Right livelihood recognizes
that work is a vehicle for self-expression, and places money in a secondary position.

• Describe four nonfinancial resources that can enrich your life.

A person's nonfinancial resources often make the biggest contribution to a happy and fulfilling life. Each
of us has four nonfinancial resources that can enrich our lives: physical and mental health, education
and training (intellectual growth), leisure time (time for family, socializing, recreation), and healthy
spirituality.

• Provide guidelines for developing a healthy lifestyle.

Many Americans are working to achieve healthy lifestyles. Healthy lifestyles can give us a higher energy
level, greater sense of self-confidence, and generally a more positive outlook. People who maintain good
health usually have more endurance, spend less time feeling tired or ill, and miss less work than those
who are not physically fit.

• Develop a plan for making needed changes in your life.

Planning for changes in your life often requires breaking negative habits or forming positive habits. The
process of breaking habits and forming new ones involves five steps: motivation, knowledge, practice,
feedback, and reinforcement. Goal setting is also an integral part of a successful plan to make changes.
Chapter 4 deals with goal setting in detail.