C1.
PHONEMIC CHART
DIPHTHONGS
i: ɪ ʊ u: ɪə eɪ
cheap chip put you here wait
/tʃi:p/ /tʃɪp/ /pʊt/ /ju:/ /hɪə(r)/ /weɪt/
VOWELS
e ə ɜ: ɔ: ʊə ɔɪ əʊ
bed teacher bird door tour boy show
/bed/ /ti:tʃə(r)/ /bɜ:(r)d/ /dɔ:(r)/ /tʊə(r)/ /bɔɪ/ /ʃəʊ/
æ ʌ ɑ: ɒ eə aɪ aʊ
Anne up far on hair my cow
/æn/ /ʌp/ /fɑ:(r)/ /ɒn/ /heə(r)/ /maɪ/ /kaʊ/
p t f θ tʃ s ʃ k
pea tea fly think cheese say shoe car
/pi:/ /ti:/ /flaɪ/ /θɪŋk/ /tʃi:z/ /seɪ/ /ʃu:/ /kɑ:(r)/
CONSONANTS
b d v ð dʒ z ʒ g
boat dog video this June zoo vision go
/bəʊt/ /dɒg/ /'vɪdiəʊ/ /ðɪs/ /dʒu:n/ /zu:/ /'vɪʒ(ə)n/ /gəʊ/
m n ŋ h l r w j
man now sing hat love red wet yellow
/mæn/ /naʊ/ /sɪŋ/ /hæt/ /lʌv/ /red/ /wet/ /'jeləʊ/
voiced sounds: vocal cords vibrate
unvoiced sounds: vocal cords do not vibrate
Mouth diagram: The different vocalic sounds are placed in
Teeth
the area within the mouth where they are formed.
Phonemic chart: The two first rows of consonants illustrate i: ɪ ʊ u:
the voiced/voiceless pairs. The only difference is that the e ə ɜ: ɔ:
Lips Throat
vocal folds do not vibrate in the articulation of the sounds æ ʌ ɑ: ɒ
in the first row (p/t/f…), whereas they do in the second row
(b/d/v…). The sounds located in the same column share Tongue
the same place of articulation (lips, teeth, palate) and the
same manner of articulation (a sudden release of blocked
air, air pushing through a small passage in the mouth or a
combination of both).
Pronunciation Guide
law/lɔː/- law and order/lɔːrənˈɔːdə/
LINKING
Victoria/vɪkˈtɔːrɪə/-
• When
we speak at a natural pace, words are not Victoria and Albert Museum
pronounced in isolation, rather they are linked /vɪkˈtɔːrɪərəndˈælbət mjuːˈziːəm/
together. They connect to one another in these ways:
• Sometimes
the intrusive r appears in the middle
of a word, but this is much less frequent. The most
vowel + consonant common word is drawing.
consonant + vowel
Listen and repeat.
Listen and repeat. 93 draw/ˈdrɔ:/ -
87 aspecialoffer /əˈspeʃ(ə)lˈɒfə(r)/ draw(r)ing /ˈdrɔ:rɪŋ/
linking /r/
VOCALIC CONSONANTS
In varieties of English in which the sound /r/ after
a vowel is not pronounced at the end of a word,
the /r/ emerges when followed by a vowel: many words ending in /ə/ + /m/, /n/ or /l/, the vowel
• In
/ə/ disappears and the final consonant becomes
Listen and repeat. vocalic /m̩/, /n̩/ or /l̩ /. That means this consonant works
88 my teacher /maɪˈtiːtʃə(r)/ as the vocalic element of the syllable.
my teacheris here /maɪˈtiːtʃərɪzˈhɪə/ Listen and repeat.
94
vowel + vowel Written word Syllabic pronunciation
/ʊ/ or /u:/ + vowel ➞ /w/ emerges button /ˈbʌ-tn̩/
Listen and repeat. garden /ˈɡɑː-dn̩/
89 goout /ˈɡəʊwˈaʊt/ frighten /ˈfraɪ-tn̩/
doit now /ˈduːwɪtˈnaʊ/
rhythm /ˈrɪ-ðm̩/
/ɪ/ or /i:/ + vowel ➞ /j/ emerges bottom /ˈbɒ-tm̩/
Listen and repeat. blossom /ˈblɒ-sm̩/
90 byand large /ˈbaɪjˈəndˌlɑː(r)dʒ/
tunnel /ˈtʌnl̩ /
beour friend /ˈbi:jaʊə(r)ˈfrend/
mantle /ˈmæntl̩ /
fiddle /ˈfɪdl̩ /
INTRUSIVE R
• In
British English and in other varieties, the sound /r/ GLOTTAL STOPS
is not pronounced after a vowel sound at the end of
words unless there is a vowel immediately afterwards.
• Glottal
stops are made by suddenly stopping the flow
Listen and repeat. of air in your glottis (throat) as it comes out when you
speak. The phonetic symbol for a glottal stop is /ʔ/.
91 the teacher - the teacher and the students
Today, this phenomenon is frequent in most varieties
four - four of us of English, including standard British and American
my car - my car is red English.
• F
ollowing this pattern, speakers sometimes include
Glottal stops frequently substitute the sounds /p/, /t/
an extra r which does not correspond to the spelling and /k/ (sometimes also /b/, /d/, /g/) at the end of a
of a word. This is called intrusive ‘r’ and it appears word.
after the sounds /ə/, /ɪə/, /ɑː/, or /ɔː/.
Listen and repeat.
Listen and repeat. 95
92 Canada/ˈkænədə/ - taught /tɔːt/ /tɔːʔ/
Canada and Brazil/ˈkænədərənbrəˈzɪl/
right /raɪt/ /raɪʔ/
drama /ˈdrɑːmə/ -
drama or comedy /ˈdrɑːmərɔː ˈkɒmədi/ trip /trɪp/ /trɪʔ/
they saw /ðeɪsɔː/ -
fake /feɪk/ /feɪʔ/
they saw a documentary /ðeɪsɔːrəˌdɒkjəˈmentəri/
C1.2
• They
are also very common when words end in –t + • Endings in –sm / –thm
vowel + -n / -nce / -nt.
lthough there isn’t a written vowel, a weak schwa
A
Listen and repeat. /ə/ sound appears in the middle of these consonant
96
groups.
button /ˈbʌtən/ /ˈbʌʔn/ Listen and repeat.
bitten /ˈbɪtən/ /ˈbɪʔn/ 100
Written word Pronunciation
forgotten /fəˈgɒtən/ /fəˈgɒʔn/
journalism /ˈdʒɜːnəlɪzəm/
Clinton /ˈklɪntən/ /ˈklɪnʔn/
cubism /ˈkjuːbɪzəm/
sentence /ˈsentəns/ /ˈsenʔns/
communism /ˈkɒmjənɪzəm/
important /ɪmˈpɔːtənt/ /ɪmˈpɔːʔnt/
protestantism /ˈprɒtəstənˌtɪzəm/
didn’t /ˈdɪdənt/ /ˈdɪʔnt/
realism /ˈrɪəlɪzəm/
• Ending –asm
DIFFICULT WORD ENDINGS
Written word Pronunciation
• The
following word endings may present problems
for Spanish speakers because the spelling may be enthusiasm /ɪnˈθjuːziæzəm/
misleading.
sarcasm /ˈsɑːkæzəm/
• Suffix -able
orgasm /ˈɔːɡæzəm/
suffix is pronounced /bəl/, with a weak, almost
This
disappearing, schwa /ə/ sound that is usually spasm /ˈspæzəm/
replaced by a vocalic /l̩ /. Remember this suffix is
never stressed. chasm /ˈkæzəm/
Listen to the following examples and repeat.
• Ending –thm
97 palatable /ˈpælətə-bl̩ /
comfortable /ˈkʌmftə-bl̩ / Written word Pronunciation
sustainable /səˈsteɪnə-bl̩ /
rhythm /ˈrɪðəm/
vulnerable /ˈvʌlnərə-bl̩ /
algorithm /ˈælɡərɪðəm/
• Suffix –tion
This suffix is pronounced /ʃən/, again with a weak,
almost disappearing schwa /ə/ sound. CONSONANT CLUSTERS
Listen and repeat.
caption /ˈkæpʃən/ • A
consonant cluster is a group of 2, 3 or 4
98
consecutive consonant sounds which can appear at
civilisation/ˌsɪv əlaɪˈzeɪʃən/ the beginning, at the end or in the middle of a word.
nomination /ˌnɒmɪˈneɪʃən/ They can be difficult to pronounce as there are no
vowels to break down the sounds. Mispronouncing
perfection /pəˈfekʃən/ consonant clusters may affect communication.
station/ˈsteɪʃən/ Listen and repeat.
• Suffix –ture 101 Two-consonant sounds: clothes, old
Three-consonant sounds: crisps, description
he spelling of this ending is particularly misleading.
T
It is pronounced /tʃər/. Four-consonant sounds: twelfths, extra
Listen and repeat.
• How to improve the pronunciation of consonant
clusters
99 literature /ˈlɪtrətʃə /r
architecture /ˈɑːkɪtektʃər/ useful strategy is to break down the cluster and
A
elongate each sound.
signature /ˈsɪɡnətʃər/
Listen and repeat.
nature /ˈneɪtʃər/
102 tests /tes/ /test/ /tests/
future /ˈfjuːtʃər/
sixth /sɪk/ /sɪks/ /sɪksθ/
Pronunciation Guide
• Initial clusters beginning with /s/
WORD STRESS
Avoid putting an extra /e/ sound before an initial /s/.
• S
tressed syllables generally sound louder, longer,
Listen and repeat. clearer and have a higher pitch than the rest. In
103 splash /splæʃ/ contrast, unstressed syllables, or words, tend to be
strength /streŋθ/ pronounced /ə/ (schwa).
Spain /speɪn/ Listen and repeat.
permanent /ˈpɜː(r)mənənt/,
stumble /ˈstʌmbəl/ 107
comfortable /ˈkʌmftəb(ə)l/
In connected speech, the /s/ sound often attaches
itself to a preceding vowel or consonant. • K
nowing where the stress falls is an essential
part of learning a word. Word stress is marked in
Listen and repeat. dictionaries by placing the symbol /ˈ/ in front of the
104 the splash /ðəsplæʃ/ stressed syllable.
in Spain /ɪnspeɪn/ Listen and repeat.
we stumble /wistʌmbəl/ 108 infringement /ɪnˈfrɪndʒmənt/,
such strength /sʌtʃstreŋθ/ harassment /ˈhærəsmənt/*
*
Sometimes a word can have alternative pronunciations
• Final clusters containing grammatical information and this is also reflected in the dictionary (in this case,
lusters at the end of the word are particularly important
C /ˈhærəsmənt/ or /həˈræsmənt/).
when they carry relevant grammatical information:
• Some
long words have two stressed syllables with
Adding –s the main stress marked with /ˈ/, and the secondary
stress marked with /ˌ/.
Listen and repeat. Listen and repeat.
105
Without –s With –s 109 assassination /əˌsæsɪˈneɪʃn/,
Plural forms intimidation /ɪnˌtɪmɪˈdeɪʃn/,
manslaughter /ˈmænˌslɔːtə(r)/
tourist /ˈtʊərɪst/ tourists /ˈtʊərɪsts/
month /mʌnθ/ months /mʌnθs/ • Compound
words also have a main stress and a
secondary stress. In noun + noun compounds the
desk /desk/ desks /desks/ stress usually falls on the first element.
podcast podcasts Listen and repeat.
/ˈpɒd.kɑːst/ /ˈpɒd.kɑːsts/ 110 community service /kəˈmjuːnətɪˌsɜː(r)vɪs/,
3rd person singular cyber bullying /ˈsaɪbə(r)ˌbʊlɪɪŋ/,
death penalty /ˈdeθˌpen(ə)lti/, but
expect /ɪkˈspekt/ expects /ɪkˈspekts/ suspended sentence /səˌspendɪdˈsentəns/
tempt /tempt/ tempts /tempts/
THE SCHWA /Ə/
lift /lɪft/ lifts /lɪfts/
burst /bɜːst/ bursts /bɜːsts/ • This
is the most common sound in English. It occurs
when a syllable is not stressed. Compare.
Adding –ed
Listen and repeat.
Listen and repeat. 111
photographer /fəˈtɒɡrəfə(r)/
106 photography /fəˈtɒɡrəfɪ/
Base form Past simple
photograph /ˈfəʊtəɡrɑːf/
unvoiced consonant + -ed /t/
mix /mɪks/ mixed /mɪkst/ • In writing, the schwa can correspond to the letters
a, e, o, u or a combination of letters.
help /help/ helped /helpt/
Listen and repeat.
push /pʊʃ/ pushed /pʊʃt/
112 appear /əˈpɪə(r)/, permanent /ˈpɜːmənənt/,
glimpse /ɡlɪmps/ glimpsed /ɡlɪmpst/ economy /ɪˈkɒnəmɪ/, support /səˈpɔː(r)t/,
vowel or voiced consonant + -ed /d/ famous /ˈfeɪməs/.
live /lɪv/ lived /lɪvd/ • M
any grammar words (i.e. auxiliary verbs, modal
change /tʃeɪndʒ/ changed /tʃeɪndʒd/ verbs, pronouns and prepositions) have a weak
form with /ə/ when they are not stressed.
overwhelm overwhelmed
Listen and repeat.
/ˌəʊvəˈwelm/ /ˌəʊvəˈwelmd/ 113
does /dəz/, were /wə/, can /kən/, us /əs/, you /jə/,
quiz /kwɪz/ quizzed /kwɪzd/ at /ət/, of /əv/, etc.
C1.2
Philosophers | will expect | some recognition
WORD GROUPS
Philosophers | will expect | some kind | of recognition
• When
we speak, we use intonation to group
together words that form a unit of meaning. This Philosophers | will be expecting | some kind | of
helps the listener make meaning out of what they recognition
hear.
Listen and repeat. RISING AND FALLING INTONATION
114
he woman walking towards us seems interested
T
in you. Listen and repeat.
118
• The
way we group words can change the meaning
of what we say. Rising
Listen and repeat. To express politeness, surprise or doubt. To indicate
115 You need a car or a bicycle and a helmet. that a sentence or a list of elements is not finished
(You need a helmet in both cases.) (for example, 'when you read this letter,...' or 'there
You need a car or a bicycle and a helmet. were books, empty glasses, dirty clothes... ').
(You only need a helmet with the bike.)
• Yes/No questions
• A
good example of the importance of word groups
is the distinction between defining and non-defining Are you English?
relative clauses:
• Wh- echo questions
Listen and repeat.
116 The bombing which ended the war You’re going to do what? (surprise)
is considered a crime against humanity.
(defining)
Compare with:
What are you going to do?
The bombing which ended the war
is considered a crime against humanity.
(non-defining)
• Questions tags when we are actually asking for
information
• Telling stories
You’re ready for the challenge, aren’t you?
When narrating, the speaker keeps control of the
story by marking word groups, which are often
followed by a pause, used to create suspense and Falling
to make the story easy to follow. In order to keep For assertions, orders, final statements and to end
the listeners entertained, there are also frequent lists.
changes in pitch, for example, to impersonate
different characters. • Wh- questions
• Statements
SENTENCE STRESS: EMPHASIS
Where are you from?
• English
as an isochronous language I’m from Spain.
In spoken English, only words that carry essential
meaning are stressed. These words are pronounced • Other echo questions
more clearly: they sound louder, higher in pitch A: I love my job!
and have longer vocalic elements. The rest of the
B: Do you?
words get shorter, weaker and are grouped around
those that are stressed. Each group of unstressed
• Question tags when we assume the other person
words lasts approximately the same, regardless is going to agree
of the number of words it may contain. This
means that the words that are not stressed will be She’s a great leader, isn’t she?
pronounced faster and may sound “blurred” or
“unclear”because they need to fit into the interval • Sentences can start at a high pitch (to show surprise
marked by the stressed element. or anger, for example) or at a low pitch (for instance,
Listen and repeat. to show sadness, disappointment or fear). For
117
example, Wh- echo questions usually start at a high
a book | a pen | the table pitch. In contrast, when we offer condolences, we
a book | and a pen | on the table start at a low pitch and the intonation goes down.
He had a book |and a pen | on the table
Philosophers | expect | recognition I'm so sorry to hear of your loss.
