8601

General Method of
Teaching

Submitted by: Ayesha Khalid

Assignment number 2
B.ED 1.5 year

Allama Iqbal Open University

8/9/2022
Q. 1 Identify advantages and disadvantages of discussion method. Analyze the rules to organize
classroom discussion.

“Discussion is an excellent way of developing thinking skills and higherorder learning.

Discussions are important when exploring opinions, beliefs and attitudes and encouraging
learners to appreciate other points of view”.

Advantages:

1. The information acquired through discussion method is meaningful and helps students to
develop critical thinking and problem solving skills.
2. Discussion technique leads students towards attitudinal change through selself-awareness.
3. Discussion technique can help the student to develop a positive self-concept.
4. During discussion, student maintains high degree of mental alertness. Thus, discussion
puts positive effect upon students’ mental activity. This alertness is one reason why
discussion is often praised as being a motivator.
5. Discussion gives the teacher information about the student which can help in a better
understanding of students, individually and collectively.
6. If teacher is carefully observing the discussion session, it can provide him information
about the social, psychological, emotional, and skill development of the student.

Disadvantages:

1. Discussion requires much time. That’s why this technique is usually time-consuming.
2. Discussion often becomes a confused, meaningless activity because of some boring topics
or lack of students’ interests.
3. In discussion, some students may never participate while a few may tend to dominate.
4. Long and/or frequent periods of silence can occur in a discussion. Such silence often leads
the teacher to take over the class in pursuit of the topic.
5. During discussion, there is always a risk of controversial ideas which disturbs the purpose
of discussion.
6. Teachers often become irritated because discussion may fail to lead to a suitable
conclusion or a desirable conclusion.
7. Students usually don’t have sufficient informational background about the topic or
maturity to contribute to a meaningful discussion.
8. Finally, there is the problem of evaluation. Teacher always face problem to device
measures to accurately measure the contribution of students during discussion.

RULES FOR DISCUSSION

If discussion rules are developed in advance, it helps students to make an environment of trust and
mutual respect. Kinne (2000) suggested the following rules for discussion:
• Explain the ground rules for participation.
• Ask students what makes an excellent class discussion.
• Give pointers on how to participate in class discussion.
• Ask students to think of some principles for discussion, which they think everyone should follow.
• Teacher should write all of these suggested principles where every student can see them. If
suggestions are not obtained from students, teacher can suggest some of the following principles
for the students:
• Pay attention to the participant who is speaking;
• Only one participant speaks at a time;
• Before saying something, raise hand;
• When someone is speaking, don’t interrupt;
• In case of disagreement with a response, be careful that there should be criticism on the response,
not on the person;
• Don't mock on the person who is responding during discussion;
• Give confidence to every student to participate.
• Copy the list of rules neatly and hang it where participants can refer, add, or make changes to it
as necessary.
• Set the norms for discussion in the first week of class.
• Conduct think-pair-shares on specific issues.
• Use small group assignments and have a group scribe or reporter from each group share with
whole class.
• Divide class into teams for informal “debates” (teams prepare outside of class or one class period
prior to the debate).
• Use concentric circles to stimulate discussion.
• Have students share their individual concept maps in groups and write a group concept map.
• Give students a complex question to consider. Have each write on this question for 5-15 minutes.
Then discuss in small groups or with the whole class.
• Divide the material among students or groups of students. Require each group to teach their
peers the material they have studied.

Q.2 (a) Explain cooperative learning principles.

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to
maximize their own and each other’s learning.
Many principles have been proposed for cooperative learning. Below is one list of eight such
principles.

1. Heterogeneous Grouping: This principle means that the groups in which students do
cooperative learning tasks are mixed on one or more of a number of variables including sex,
ethnicity, social class, religion, personality, age, language proficiency, and diligence.

2. Collaborative Skills. Collaborative skills such as giving reasons are those needed to work with
others. Students may lack these skills, the language involved in using the skills, or the inclination
to apply the skills. Most books and websites on cooperative learning urge that collaborative skills
be explicitly taught one at a time.

3. Group Autonomy. This principle encourages students to look to themselves for resources rather
than relying solely on the teacher. When student groups are having difficulty, it is very tempting for
teachers to intervene either in a particular group or with the entire class. We may sometimes want
to resist this temptation because as Roger Johnson writes, “Teachers must trust the peer
interaction to do many of the things they have felt responsible for themselves”.

4. Simultaneous Interaction. In classrooms in which group activities are not used, the normal
interaction pattern is that of sequential interaction in which one person at a time – usually the
teacher – speaks. In contrast, when group activities are used, one student per group is speaking.
In a class of 40 divided into groups of four, ten students are speaking simultaneously, i.e., 40
students divided into 4 students per group = 10 students (1 per group) speaking at the same time.

5. Equal Participation. A frequent problem in groups is that one or two group members dominate
the group and for whatever reason, impede the participation of others. Cooperative learning offers
many ways of promoting more equal participation among group members.

6. Individual Accountability. When we try to encourage individual accountability in groups, we

hope that everyone will try to learn and to share their knowledge and ideas with others.

7. Positive Interdependence. This principle lies at the heart of CL. When positive interdependence
exists among members of a group, they feel that what helps one member of the group helps the
other members and that what hurts one member of the 179 group hurts the other members. It is
this “All for one, one for all” feeling that leads group members to want to help each other, to see
that they share a common goal.

8. Cooperation as a Value. This principle means that rather than cooperation being only a way to
learn, i.e., the how of learning, cooperation also becomes part of the content to be learned, i.e.,
the what of learning. This flows naturally from the most crucial cooperative learning principle,
positive interdependence. Cooperation as a value involves taking the feeling of “All for one, one for
all” and expanding it beyond the small classroom group to encompass the whole class, the whole
school, on and on, bringing in increasingly greater numbers of people and other beings into
students’ circle of ones with whom to cooperate.

(b) Discuss different strategies of cooperative learning.

Cooperative learning strategies could be used in the planning, translating and reviewing. The
teachers should encourage the students to participate in good discussions. Different cooperative
strategies included:

1. Jigsaw: Groups with five students are set up. The faculty member divides an assignment or topic
to the group. Each student is assigned some material to learn and to teach to his group members.
The representative of the students working on the same topic gets together and discusses the
important concepts and the ways to teach it to the whole class. After the practice in these “expert”
groups the original groups get together and teach each other. Tests and assessments follow.

2. Think-Pair-Share: This is a simple and quick technique; the instructor develops and poses
questions preferable one demanding analysis, gives the students a few minutes to think about a
response, and then asks students to share their ideas with a partner. This “think-time” can be spent
writing, also. Students then turn to a partner and share their responses.

3. Three-Step Interview: Common as an ice-breaker or a team-building exercise, this structure can

also be used also to share information such as hypotheses or reactions to a film or article. In it each
member of a team chooses another member to be a partner. In the first step students form dyads
(pair of individuals); one student interviews the other. Then Students switch roles. And at the third
step the dyad links with a second dyad. This four-member learning team then discusses the
information or insights gleaned from the initial paired interviews.

4. Numbered Heads Together: Members of learning teams usually composed of four individuals,
count off: 1, 2, 3, or 4, the instructor poses a question, usually factual in nature, but requiring some
higher order thinking skills. Students discuss the question, making certain that every group
member knows the agreed upon answer. The instructor calls a specific number and the team
members originally designated that number during the count off respond as group spokespersons.
Because no one knows which number the teacher will call, all team members have a vested interest
in understanding the appropriate response.

5. Round Robin: It is primarily a brainstorming technique in which students generate ideas but do
not elaborate, explain, evaluate, or question the ideas. Group members take turns responding to
a question with words, phrases, or short answers. The order of responses is organized by
proceeding from one student to another until all 181 students have had an opportunity to speak.
This technique helps generating many ideas because all students participate, because it
discourages comments that interrupt or inhibit the flow or ideas. The ideas could be used to
develop a piece of good paragraph on a given topic.

6. Three-minute review: Teacher stops any time during a lecture or discussion on the various
formats of letter writing, report writing, etc and give team members three minutes to review what
has been said, ask clarifying questions or answer questions.

7. Numbered Heads: A team of four is established. Each member is given number 1, 2, 3 and four.
Questions are asked of the group. Groups work together to answer the questions so that all can
verbally answer the questions. Teacher calls out a number (three) and the number three in each
group is asked to give the answer. This could be used for comprehension exercises.
8. Buzz Groups: Buzz groups are teams of four to six students that are formed quickly and
extemporaneously. They discuss on a particular topic or different topics allotted to them. The
discussion is informal and they exchange the ideas. Buzz Groups serve as a warm-up to whole-class
discussion. They are effective for generating information and ideas in a short period of time. This
technique could be used to write essays on current issues.

9. Talking Chips: In talking chips, students participate in a group discussion, surrendering a token
each time they speak. This technique ensures equitable participation by regulating how often each
group member is allowed to participate. This technique encourages silent students to participate
and solve communication or process problems, such as dominating or clashing group members.

10. Critical Debate: This activity could be used while drafting argumentative essays. In this
individual students select their side of an issue in contrary to their own views. They form teams
and discuss, present, and argue the issue against the opposing team. It exposes the class to a
focused, in-depth, multiple-perspective analysis of issues. It can move students beyond simple
dualistic thinking, deepen their understanding of an issue, and help them to recognize the range
of perspectives inherent in complex topics. This technique is suitable for tertiary level students.

11. Write Around: For creative writing or summarizing, teachers could give a sentence starter (for
e.g. If there were no plants on the earth. A man met an alien on the sea shore) then all students in
each team have to finish the sentence. Then, they pass the paper to the right, read the one they
receive, and add sentence to than one. After a few round, four summaries or stories emerge.
Students should be given time to add a conclusion and/or edit their favorite one to share with the
class.

12. Praise-Question-Polish: In this technique the group members take turns to read aloud their
papers as their other group members follow along with copies. First, the respondents are asked to
react to the piece of writing by asking them to identify what they liked about the work (Praise),
then identify what portion of the writing they did not understand (Question), finally offering
specific suggestions for improvement of the writing (Polish). The students would be able to
improve their own writing by critically evaluating the writing of their peers.

Q.3 (a) Explain the importance and different types of set induction.

“Set induction is about preparation of lessons. When the students are set, they are ready to
learn. Set induction is thus about getting them ready, inducing them into the right mind set.
Sets are used before any new activity, from introduction of a new concept to giving
homework”.

Importance of Set Induction:

Alliss (2011) says that many teachers spend outrageously little time preparing their students for
classroom activities. Often this preparation consists only of telling their students to read some story
by the next class session or to watch some demonstration carefully. With such a limited
introduction, could any teacher truly expect students to be attentive and eager to learn the
material?
Several psychological experiments have demonstrated the importance of set induction in learning.
Research indicates that activities preceding a learning task influence the performance of the task.
The research also indicates that the effectiveness of a set depends somewhat on the situation to
which it is applied. Hence, teachers must find those kinds of sets most appropriate to their
purposes and must modify these sets to fit the specific classroom situation.

In most cases, the initial instructional move of the teacher should be to establish a set. The set
focuses students' attention on some familiar person, object, event, condition, or idea. The
established set functions as a point of reference around which the students and the teacher
communicate. The teacher uses this point of reference as a link between familiar and new or
difficult material. Furthermore, an effective set encourages student interest and involvement in
the main body of the lesson.

The establishment of a set usually occurs at the beginning of a class period, but it may occur during
the session. Set induction is appropriate whenever the activity, the goal of the content of the lesson
is changed so that a new or modified frame of reference is needed. Set induction is also used to
build continuity from lesson to lesson and from unit to unit. Thus, a new set may be linked to an
established set to a series of sets.

The teacher might have said, "For tomorrow, I want you to read Chapter Six in the text and come
to class prepared for a discussion." This set is an improvement. It gives the students more
information about eh instructional goal; they are to prepare for a discussion. But the students need
a good deal more information before they will be able, or disposed, to prepare themselves for an
interesting, stimulating discussion. Exactly what will be discussed? What points should they
consider as they read? What should be the focus while they read? How should they use previously
learned material? Should they study facts or principles? Should they compare? Should they
contrast? Both? Neither?

Types of Set Induction:

Set induction can be used by a teacher by variety of ways. Some of the set induction types include
facilitating sets, motivating sets, and summary.

• Facilitating Sets: Facilitating set is used to summarize information presented in previous lessons.
It is also used to summarize information that will occur. In short, teacher can use facilitating set to
emphasize the cognitive aspects of a new lesson by reviewing or summarizing.

• Motivating Sets: By using this type of set, teacher can catch the students’ attention and arouse
curiosity. In motivating set, teacher poses interesting questions and uses dramatic appeal. It also
creates a need or interest among students and induces an affective or emotional response.

• Summary: It is best to provide both motivating and facilitating sets. Teacher can monitor behavior
by involving students in overt behavior.

Set Induction Example: Here is one example of set induction. If a teacher is teaching hypertension
topic to 10th grade biology class, set induction may be used as following: “How many of you have
a friend or a family member that has a heart problem or blood condition? (After posing the
question, teacher waits for the students’ answers and proceeds towards the topic). Well, today we
are going to learn about hypertension and its causes. Making healthy lifestyle choices and starting
those habits now can help you in preventing this disease in your future”.

(b) Discuss the process of identifying learning difficulties of students.

Every student has a unique identity, mind, learning styles and learning needs. During instruction
students face different learning difficulties. Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support
Consortium (INTASC) has presented some standards for teachers to identify learning difficulties of
students.

Standard # l: The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
discipline(s) he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of
subject matter meaningful for students.

To accomplish this standard, the teacher should understand major concepts, assumptions, debates,
processes of inquiry, and ways of knowing that are central to the discipline(s) s/he teaches. The
teacher should also understand how students 'conceptual frameworks and their misconceptions
for an area of knowledge can influence their learning. In this regard, the teacher relates his/her
disciplinary knowledge to other subject areas.

The teacher can do following performances:

• The teacher effectively uses multiple representations and explanations of disciplinary concepts
that capture key ideas and links them to students' prior understandings.
• The teacher can represent and use differing viewpoints, theories, "ways of knowing," and
methods of inquiry in his/her teaching of subject matter concepts.
• The teacher can evaluate teaching resources and curriculum materials for their
comprehensiveness, accuracy, and usefulness in representing particular ideas and concepts.

Standard #2: The teacher understands how children learn and develop, and can provide learning
opportunities that support their intellectual, social, and personal development.

To accomplish this standard, the teacher should understand how learning occurs-how students
construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind-and knows how to use
instructional strategies that promote student learning for a wide range of student abilities. The
teacher should also understand that students 'physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive
development influence learning and knows how to address these factors when making
instructional decisions.

The teacher can do following performances:

• The teacher assesses individual and group performance in order to design instruction that meets
learners 'current needs in each domain (cognitive, social, emotional, moral, and physical)and that
leads to the next level of development.
• The teacher stimulates student reflection on prior knowledge and links new ideas to already
familiar ideas, making connections to students 'experiences, providing opportunities for active
engagement, manipulation, and testing of ideas and materials, and encouraging students to
assume responsibility for shaping their learning tasks.
• The teacher accesses students 'thinking and experiences as a basis for instructional activities by,
for example, encouraging discussion, listening and responding to group interaction, and eliciting
samples of student thinking orally and in writing.

Standard #3: The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and
creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.

To achieve this standard, the teacher should understand and identify differences in approaches to
learning and performance, including different learning styles, multiple intelligences, and
performance modes, and may design instruction that helps use students' strengths as the basis for
growth. The teacher should also understand and provide adaptations for areas of exceptionality in
learning, including learning disabilities, visual and perceptual difficulties, and special physical or
mental challenges. The teacher should have knowledge about the process of second language
acquisition and about strategies to support the learning of students whose first language is not
English.

The teacher can do following performances:

• The teacher believes that all children can learn at high levels and persists in helping all children
achieve success.
• The teacher appreciates and values human diversity, shows respect for students' varied talents
and perspectives, and is committed to the pursuit of "individually configured excellence.
• The teacher respects students as individuals with differing personal and family backgrounds and
various skills, talents, and interests.

Q.4 Critically discuss different techniques of students' evaluation.

There are different techniques for students’ evaluation. Davis (1993) has highlighted following tools
for students’ evaluation:

• Questioning: A very simple tool for checking effective teaching is to incorporate specific
questions within a lesson to gauge student understanding of the material. For example, an
instructor may ask students to verbally answer a question similar to one that will be asked on an
exam. This tool is more useful than simply asking if students have any questions because students
who are confused may not be able to articulate their questions. Moreover, some students may
falsely believe they understand the lesson and not ask questions. Checking for understanding
within a lesson helps the instructor discover students’ level of learning and to make adjustments
during the lesson itself.

• Classroom Response Systems: A problem with simple questioning is that an instructor generally
will get a response from only one or two students rather than the entire class. This problem can be
resolved with a few strategies that fall under the Classroom Response umbrella. The first strategy
is the easiest to implement. An instructor asks a multiple choice question or makes an
agree/disagree statement about the material. Students indicate by the position of their thumb
whether they believe the answer is A (upright), B (sideways), or C (downward) or Agree (upright)
or Disagree (downward).The instructor can then quickly look around the room to determine how
many students have the correct answer.

• Open Class Discussion: This technique can be used either during the class session or by
monitoring student online discussion. By asking discussion questions that require critical thought,
instructors are able to gauge students’ understanding of the lesson material and whether they are
making necessary connections to other course material. Many times students believe they know
the material but their misunderstandings are revealed during discussion.

• Minute Paper: This evaluation tool is done at the end of class several times during the quarter. It
derives its name from the fact that students spend no more than one minute answering any
number of questions. The instructor reads the responses before the next class meeting and
responds appropriately. Examples of questions asked are:

 What was the most important thing you learned during class?
 What unanswered questions do you have?
 What was the muddiest point for you?
 At what point this week were you most engaged as a learner?
 Can you summarize today’s lesson in one sentence? If so, please summarize it.
 What has been most helpful to you this week in learning the course material?

• Index Card: A variation on the Minute Paper is for the instructor to write the responses to the
following questions on a 3 x 5” index card following a lesson:“What worked? What didn’t work?
What are some ideas for changing the lesson?”The 3 x 5 card limits the amount of information
than can be written down and serves as a reminder to write down ideas but to only spend a few
minutes writing them down. Attach the card to the lesson notes to serve as a reminder the next
time the lesson is taught.

• Course Exams and Assignments: Student success on course exams and assignments are a
powerful data source on teaching effectiveness. A short questionnaire at the end of exams can ask
students to identify which questions were the most difficult to answer and why they were difficult.
A pattern may develop that can be used to make changes. Additionally, an instructor may ask
students to critique assignments. Questions instructors may ask are:

 Were instructions clear?

 Did the assignment help students learn course material?
 Were the expectations reasonable for the time-frame?
 How many hours were devoted to completing the assignment?

• Mid-quarter evaluation: An effective way of gauging student learning and satisfaction is via
anonymous mid-quarter evaluations. The evaluations can take a variety of forms. A simple survey
asking students to describe what is working, what is not working, and suggestions for change can
be conducted via paper-pencil or online. Many of the course management systems have tools that
allow anonymous feedback. Instructors need to check with their system’s administrator to find out
how to do it. Many instructors provide 15-25 minutes of class time to a neutral party for the
purpose of getting feedback from students. A more formal method is to use the same forms that
are used for course evaluations. One thing to note is that even if course changes cannot be made
during the quarter the evaluation takes place, mid-quarter evaluations allow instructors to engage
in dialogue with their students regarding the teaching-learning process and students will feel more
positive toward the instructor.

Q.5 (a) Discuss the use of different kinds of projected and non-projected aids during lecture.

Classifications of Audio-Visual Aids

1. Projected aids: Projected aids are those which require projection material or any electric power.
A projected aid is a visual aid such as a computer with graphics and television.

 Multimedia: is the exciting combination of computer hardware and software that allows
you to integrate video, animation, audio, graphics, and test resources to develop effective
presentations on an affordable desktop computer.
 Projectors: By projected aids we mean those aids where a bright light is passed through a
transparent picture, and by means of a lens, an enlarged picture is thrown or projected on
the screen.
 Film and film projectors
 Film strips
 Slides
 Television
 LCD projectors
 Computers

2. Non-Projected aids: Non-Projected aids are those which require no projection material or any
electric power. A non-projected aid used in teaching would be a chalkboard, textbook, or audio
with no video capabilities.

 Charts, posters, maps, graphs and models: There are many non-projected teaching aids
such as Charts, posters, maps, graphs and models.
 Whiteboard/marker: Whiteboards have a smooth, shiny surface on which coloured felt
tip pens can be used. Some are designed for use with water-soluble ink; more modern
ones ("dry-marker" boards) must be used with special dry marker, solvent-based pens.
Using the wrong kind of pen can damage the board.
 Text books: Textbooks are books containing information about a particular subject,
organized in a manner calculated to make presenting the information easier. Teachers can
read a textbook to confirm or expand their personal knowledge and/or assign readings
from a textbook for students to complete.
 Handouts: Handouts are sometimes used as visual aids. This is a mistake. Avoid handouts
during your presentation if at all possible. You, the presenter, are the most important thing
to focus on, and handouts are distractions from you. People look at it, flip through it,
waiting for their copy, hand a friend a copy, point out some item to their neighbor, doodle
on it, fold it, and wonder why it is taking you so long to cover so little information.
(b) Write down the advantages and disadvantages of multimedia.

Advantages of MULTIMEDIA

No one can ignore the role that technology and multimedia applications play in the academic and
personal life of students. Technology started to be part of everyday life; in school, at home, with
family, with friends and colleagues, etc. This technological revolution will have a great impact on
the students‟ learning. In the new vision of challenging learning activities, the curriculum for all
students would emphasize the integration of higher order thinking skills, authentic tasks, and
mixed-ability groupings. Instead of students practicing discrete, isolated skills (such as spelling and
punctuation done on worksheets), the curriculum would stress composition, comprehension, and
applications of skills.

1. Through participation in multimedia activities, students can learn real-world skills related to
technology. They will know the value of teamwork and the importance of effective collaboration
techniques. It helps the learners to express and represent their prior knowledge and provides them
with many learning opportunities.

2. Through participation in multimedia activities, students can learn real-world skills related to
technology. They will know the value of teamwork and the importance of effective collaboration
techniques. It helps the learners to express and represent their prior knowledge and provides them
with many learning opportunities.
3. it provides a non-threatening environment for a learner to study at their own pace The teacher
is no longer the center of attention as the source of information, but rather plays the role of
facilitator, setting project goals and providing guidelines and resources, moving from student to
student or group to group, providing suggestions and support for student activity.

4. It facilitates the teaching-learning process. The combination of text, sound, and graphics holds
the attention of students and makes students innovative by making their studies more meaningful.
most learners enjoy working with multimedia • It brings forth students‟ talent in various ways. It
empowers students to work as a designer while designing their slides, browsing and interpreting
the information and then representing their knowledge to others.

5. it involves interaction between the learner and the various elements on the screen.

Disadvantages of MULTIMEDIA

6. Lack of IT knowledge certain students may not be as computer literate as others • Most schools
may not have technological resources, both hardware and software, that are required for using
multimedia in learning.

7. Some teachers depend on the traditional way of teaching because they do not know how to
integrate multimedia into their teaching.
• Most teachers need much time to prepare lessons, evaluate students and create tasks and
activities, so they will not get into more trouble by developing multimedia activities.

8. video files can be large and a long download time may leave some students with nothing to do
• sometimes, diverts students‟ attention to the pictures, sounds or relevant material presented in
multimedia.
• Sometimes, excessive information about a certain topic leads to cognitive overload and it
becomes difficult for the students to understand all the information presented to them.

9. It can be incredibly difficult for teachers to monitor all the students, and some may play games
or search the web instead of focusing on the work at hand.
• One concern with computers is that they can reduce learning demands on students. With access
to the web comes millions of pieces of information, many of which contain answers to common
problems from school. Students can use computers to do less work or even to cheat.

10. multimedia formats and the devices that play or store them require a constant supply of power
and frequent updating, a fact that can be problematic in more remote areas.
• As technology rapidly evolves, compatibility between different devices can also be a problem
when trying to move or play multimedia content. Even a simple malfunction, server error or
changes between formats, as anyone who frantically struggled to connect a computer to an
incompatible projector before a presentation knows all too well, can delay a presentation or
permanently damage the information contained in the format.