Evolution

5 june 🛑Evolution 🛑
🔥 Evolution=>simple life to complex life this process is called evolution
Less varrities to many varieties

Product of evolution is specie

🟡
🔸 Lamarckism=>by Lamarck

🔸 Use and disuse of organs

🔸 Lamarck First who explained Evolution 🔸with examples

Inheritance of acquired characters

🟣 Darwinism=>by charles darwin

Beagle voyage (fauna, flora and fossils)
Galapagos island 13 finches
First who explained Evolution with evidence
Adaptation>variation>inheritance

🟡Ancestor of all livings are prokaryotes

🔸
🔸allele frequency change=>Genetic drift
Gene frequency change =>mutation

😳
😳 Organs similar in function and different in Structure organ
Analogous=>Convergent evolution
(A.C)

🔴
🔔Organs different in function and same in Structure=>homologous
Homologous=>Divergent evolution(H.D)

😌
🤭Origin of species:by adaptations
Darwin's conclusions

😳Archeobacteria can survive 120°C

🙄Flagella arrised by ingestion of spirochete
😝
💙 Essay on natural selection 1844=>origin of species by mean of natural selection
Origin of specie:descent with modification
And Natural selection and Adaptations

🤭 Neo-darwinism is the latest form of the darwinism=>1940s Modern Synthesis

By alfred wallace

😝 Hardy Weinberg theorem😝

🟡p+q=1🟡
🙄
(p=dominant allele q =recessive allele)
Example 500 plants 480 pink(320AA
160Aa) 20 white (20 aa recessive)
So gene frequency for A is 320x2=640
And 160(A in heterozygous form)

😳
640+160=800 total of 500 plants are 1000(500x2) 800÷1000=.8 is gene frequency for A

Use
If you want to calculate heterozygous homozygous dominant or recessive

(p+q)²=1 => p²+q²+2pq=1

🙄Genetic drift sudden change, for small population (changing gene frequency)

Genetics

🧬
3 june

🔥 Genetics 🧬
🔥
🔥
Gene:basic unit of inheritance
Locus: position of gene in a chromosome
Allele:alternate form of a gene present on homologous pair of chromosomes/partner gene
pair locus are same on homologous chromosome

Dominance is physiological effect of an allele to its partner allele

Antigen can be found in RBC saliva and body fluid

🟡SRY triggers the maleness in the male

💥
💥Aa=>heterozygous alleles(different gene)
AA,aa=>homozygous alleles(same gene)

🛑
🟢 Character=>Gene=>Tall

🟢
🖤
Trait=>Allele=>homozygous,heterozygous
1gene=2 Allele
Genotype=>TT(homozygous dominant)
                      Tt=>heterzygous dominant

🔥
                       tt=>homozygous recessive
Phenotype=>(TT,Tt)Tall, (tt)Dwarf
Phenotype is physical apperance without mentioning homozygous or heterozygous conditions

⭐
⭐ Pea plant=>pisum sativum

🔴Dwarf plant height=>9-10inches

Tallest plant=>6-7 feet
🔴 Law of segregation:
In a gene, an allele can be independently assort to other during gamete formation

🟡 7 contrasting traits(1st dominant 2nd recessive)

1:flower colour:(purple:white)
2:seed colour:(yellow:green)
3:seed shape:(Round:wrinkled)
4:pod colour:(green:yellow)
5:pod shape:(round:constricted)
6:flower position:(axial:top)
7:(plant height:(6-7foot tall :9-10inches short)

💚 Trait of an individual=>Genotype

🟤
Complete genetic make up of an individual ====>Genome
Gene pool=>all gene/allele in a population
Genetic variations are maximum in a Gene Pool

🟣 Dominant Allele: intragenic dominancy

One gene allel is masking its other allele
Epistatis:intergenic dominancy One gene allele is masking other gene's allele

🔔 Complete dominance:
a gene allele is completely masking other allele
Note;As like all mandelian traits

🤡 Codominance:both the allele are showing their expressions independently in a gene

They don't try to mask their effect
ABO and MN blood group

💙 Incomplete dominance:both the allele are unable to dominant each other they try to mask
their effect that's why an intermediate expression showed

📛 Over-dominance

🔵Eye colour in drosophila

In hetrozygous condition dominanting allele is expressing more by dominanting other allele

🟣Mandelian laws are only obeyed by the complete dominance not by others
🎧 Linkage is the physical relationship b/w the genes
Linked gene have less chances of recombination
Linked gene don't obey mandelian law
Chromosome 11 (linkage11) gene present for albinism,sickle cell anemia, leukemia

🥝
Chromosome no 23(linkage 23) haemophilia, Colour blindness, gout (on x chromosome
Because 23 is a sex chromosome)

🟣 Chromosomes or linkage
1-22th are autosomal and gene are autosomal gene and are same in male and female
🤔
😉 23th pair is a sex chromosome and are sex linked gene.....

😌23Andforformale is hemizygous XY
female is homozygous XX

😌 X-linked is sex linked gene can be transferred both son and daughter ( can be dominant,
recessive)
X-linked dominant trait
Is hypo-phasphatemic rickets

🟩X-linked=HCG=>haemophilia,Colour blindness, Gout

🟦Autosomal=>ALS=>Albinism, Leukemia, Sickle cell anaemia
😊
😊 Haemophilia A deficiency of clotting factor Viii and 80%
Haemophilia B Deficiency of clotting factor ix

😌
20%
Haemophilia C deficiency of clotting factor xi

😏Haemophilia C effects both male and female equally because its gene on Autosomal
Less than 1%

😋
😝 HaemophiliaA ,B effects more Male these are X-Linked
And because female have counter part XX to couter it and can be carrier but male have no

😛
counter part to counter it and male can't be Carrier
X-Linked trait shows zig zag effect because they from effected father to daughter (carrier)
and to his grand child but not to his son directly

😛 Colour vision😛

😛
Vision pigment opsin=>protein RGB
Monochromoacy=>true clour blindness
In which an individual can only see one colour which is blue (Blue chromacy) and Red-,Green

😛
colour blindness

😛 Trichromacy=>Complete vision RGB

😛 Achromacy:No pigment for vision

Dichromacy:only can see 2 colours

🧐
Types of dichromacy

🧐 1protonopia: can't see Red colour

🧐2tritanopia: Can't see Blue colour

3Deutaronopia: Can't see Green colour
X*C X*c
Small letter c showing diseased
Capital letter C showing healthy

🙄Y-linked gene can be only transferred to father to son

🥺 Pseudo-autosomal linked;
Gene can be present on both X and Y chromosome
And behave as autosomal thus called pseudo-autosomal
😳 Crossing over reduces linkage and maximise the chances of genetic recombination and
variation and raw material for evolution

🔔
🤔No crossing over in mitosis🔔
In meiosis crossing over takes place and also genetic variations
Crossing over is the transfer of segment of chromatid b/w two non-sister chromatid
of homologous chromosomes
Crossing over reduces the chances of linkage and maximise the recombination
And is raw material for evolution

😰 Recombination frequency=recombinant type ÷sum of all recombination x100

By the help of recombination frequency we can do gene mapping

🔥Crossing over is during Meiosis (propase I- pachytene)🔥

😉 Linkage group is the no of Homologous chromosome in an individual

😉
In human linkage group=23

😉And 23 homologous chromosomes

In honey bee 16linkage

😛
😛Euploidy is mutation of whole set of chromosome
Like monoploid, diploid, triploid

🟣Aneuploidy is mutation of increasing one chromosome monosomy,trisomy,tetrasomy

😳 Multiple Allele:it is also becuase of gene mutation
More than two alternate form of a gene in a population, allele can be upto 300 form of a gene
Its example ABO blood group IA,IB,i
Note:An individual is always diAllelic
Multiple Allelism is seen in a population

🤭 In blood group co-dominance is shown by

AB group alleles are IAIB (AB)
And homozygous recessive is O group
Alleles are ii

🤭
😳Universal donor=O-ve
Universal recipient=AB+ve

🟢 Gene I of blood group is present on chromosome no 9

Antigen A,B are attached on the surface of RBCs by a gene H present on 19th chromosome
If this gene is not working then A,B are not attached on the surface of RBCs then phenotypically

👺 👺
blood is O but genotypically can be A,B,AB
This is called bombay phenotype

🌾If one of parent blood group is AB then there is no chances of Blood group O for offsprings🔸
🔴 Antibodies of antigen A,B are produced naturally

🟡
But antibodies for Rh ís made after contact with it
And incompatibility bof Rh in child
When female blood is  -Ve
Marrying male is. +ve
Then in chaild incompatibility blood is called erythroblastosis foetalis

😆 Continuous variation(Non mendelian)

Controlled by many gene and environment
Many phenotype b/w two extreme
No distinct categories

💥
Less obvious difference
Are quantitative,polygenic,smoothvand bell shaped 🔔 curve in graph

Wheat grain colour 🌾

Examles;weight,height,length of leaf,finger length, wheat color heart rate

Is a polygenic trait=>7 phenotype

64 genotype
AABBCC=>Dark Red
aabbcc=>White
AaBbCc=>Light Red
Aabbcc=>light pink Any of one allele is dominant
AAbbcc=>pink any of two allele are dom
AaBbCc=>light red any of three allele are dominant
AABBcc=>Red any of 4 allele are dominant
AABBCc=>moderate dark red any of 5 allele are Dominant

🤡White(0 dom)>Light pink(1)>Pink(2)>light red(3)>red(4)> moderate dark red(5)>Dark red(6)

🤡
🤡Human height is more complex polygenic trait
Human skin colour is also polygeniccontrolled by 3-6gene pairs

💙 Disontinuous variation(mendelian traits)

Are not modified by environmental changes
Controlled by few gene not by environment
Limited phenotype with no intermediate
Distinct categories, large and obvious difference, tends to be qualitative, assymetric distribution
curve statics like
Examples;tongue rolling,finger print, eye colour, blood groups,4:0 clock plant

🛑 Test Cross:used to determine the genotype of an individual showing phenotype of dominant

because (Dominant form are of two types heterzygous and homozygous so geneotype
determined by test cross and there is no confusions for recessive )

🔥🔥🔥Some mathematics 🔥🔥😳

🔥
🔥Types of gamates=2*n

🔸:;(Gamate type=2*n)
No of springs(gamates type)*n
🔥
🔥No of phenotype =2*n

🎧No of Genotype=3*n
NOTE: n is no of hybrids or heterozygous gene pair

Let's take an example:AaBbCc

As above AaBbCc has three heterozygous gene thus n=3
Types of gametes:2*n=2*3=8
No of off spring =8³ =512
No of phenotype=2³=8
No of genotype=3³=27

And for AABbCc n value is 2

For AAbbCc n value is 1

Human Reproduction

🔴
1 june

📛 Human Reproduction 🔴
Primary sex organ testis
7th month of pregnancy descend from abdomen to scrotum(need 2-3 degree less temp from

If they don't descent in 7th month condition is called

Spermatogenesis takes place here
🟣
body tem for meiosis, spermatogenesis) that's why called extra-abdominal testis
Cryptorchidism

Sperm and testosterone formed here

Then goes to epididymis(paired) which is highly coiled structure around testis (longest duct)

🔴
Decapacitation (on the head of sperm cholestrol deposition takes place) and 🔵sperm also
At here sperm decapacitation takes place

matures here and gain motility

Then sperm goes to vas deferens(paired, where sperm can be stored upto 3 months) from vas
deferens then opens and mixed with seminal vesicles secretion in the ejeculatory
duct(paired),both ejeculatory duct secretion(sperm+seminal vesicles secretion) opens into a
single duct called urethra and also two other glands secretion opens into urethra 1st prostate
gland 2nd Bulbourethral gland=>these all secretions in urethra make Semen(sperm+secretion

🛑
of seminal vesicles+prostate and bulbourethral gland secretion)
Erectile tissue present in urethra (corpus spongiosum+corpora cavernosa) and many blood
vessels

✴️Seminal vesicles (paired)

Largest reproductive accessory gland
✴️
Its secretion consists of fructose,citric acid, prostaglandins and alkaline PH

✴️ Prostrate gland:(Single)
Prostaglandins and calcium

📛 Bulbourethral gland:paired
Also called Cowper's Gland
Lubricates passage of urethra because semen is alkaline and urine is acidic it prevents sperm
to die...

🛑 Passage of sperm
Seminiferous tubules>Rete testis>vasa efferentia>caput epididymis>corpus epididymis>Caudal
epididymis>vas deferens> ampulla of vas deferens>ejeculatory duct>glandular urethra
>membranous utethra>penile urethra> urethral orifice (meatus)

📛 Each testis contains 250-300 lobules

And each lobules contains 1-4 tightly coiled seminiferous tubules
Seminiferous tubule:
3S trick
Sertoli cell/nurse cell,sustancular cell

📛
FSH
Spermatogenesis
(Sertoli cell priduces inhibin which inhibits FSH, also produce ABP(Androgen binding protein)
ABP collects all testosterone inside seminiferous tubules which is outside(by Leydigs cells)
Interstitial cell, Leydigs cells of seminiferous tubules produces  Androgens (testosterone)
By stimulation of LH/ICSH..
Testosterone=>2°Sexual character and spermatogenesis

LH stimulates Leydigs cell to produce testosterone

Fsh stimulates Spermatogenesis by stimulating sertoli cells to complete development of
spermatids

💚
In which 20-150million sperm per ml💚
In one ejeculation 2-5ml of semen released

🖤 Insemination:process of transferring the sperm form male reproductive organ to female

reproductive organ

👿 Sperm tail is the longest part

Movement is whiplash movement 9+2 arrangement of microtubules

🍉 Head region is the acrosome

Acrosome is modified form of golgi
Having fertilizing enzymes;
Acrosin
Hyaluronidase
Corona penetrating enzyme
Disintegrin peptide

🔸
22+X pappa ki Queen👸
Nucleus diploid(n)

22+Y mamma ka ladla🤷

🥝 Neck:having two Centrioles

Proximal Centriole: help in first clevage after fertilization
Distal Centriole:Axial filament (tail of sperm)

🟢 Mitochondira(Neberkern)
Gets energy from fructose
Is energy source for swimming

🟢 Spermatogenesis🟡
(Inside seminiferous tubules)(entirely in testis and mature sperm releases from the testis)
(At puberty) spermatogonia(cells of germinal epithelium of seminiferous tubules) undergoes

🟢
mitosis and into two spermatogonia
A and B A are stem cell B shows growth
And now are called primary Spermatocyte which undergoes meiosis-I and form two haploid
secondary Spermatocytes these 2°spermatocytes further undergoes mitosis and form 4
spermatids=>these spermatids by the process of spermiogenesis converts into
Spermatoza(mature sperm)

🔴Spermiogenesis=Soermatid to Spermatoza
Spermatogonia,1°SC, 2°SC, Spermatid
    2n.                    2n.     n.          n
   100%Dna.       100%. 50%.     25%DNA

🟢 FSH(from anterior pituitary)

(Follicular stimulating hormone)
Stimulates development of germinal epithelium of testis and sperm production

🔥FSH stimulates development of primary follicles

🔥Testosterone is produced by interstitial cells🟡
🔥
FSH)🔥
Estrogen has two targest 1st Uterus(to vascularize it) and 2nd Anterior pituitary(inhibit

💙 ICSH(from anterior pituitary)

(Interstitial cells stimulating hormone)
(LH in female and ICSH in male are same)
Stimulates interstitial cells(or Leydigs cell in b/w seminiferous tubules) to secrete testosterone

🌚 Testosterone:(is secreted by interstitial cells)

In feotus reproductive organ development
And in puberty spermatogenesis, sperm production,2°sex characters

💥 Spermiation:when sperms move out from seminiferous tubules is called spermiation

Ejeculation:when sperm comes out from meatus(urethral orifice)

🔥 Ovaries:(primary sex organ in ♀️)

Formation of Ova and many hormones
Like Estrogen, progesterone,Relaxin,Inhibin
🔥 If an Ovary is ovulating in one month then 2nd Ovary will ovilates in 2nd month
If one of an Ovary damages then one ovary ovulates every month...

🔥 After ovulation ova releases from ovary and goes to abdominal cavity from where fimbrae like
projections suks up the ova(secondary oocyte arrested at meiosis-II metaphase II) and enters to
Oviduct, Fallopian tube and then enters to infundibulum which is funnel like structureand then
Ampulla where feritilization of Secondary oocyte takes place then zygotes moves to Isthmus
and then womb,uterus,hystera

🔥Fertilization takes place at proximal part of uterine tube🔥

🔥Fallopian tube, Oviduct (infundibulum+ Ampulla+Isthmus)
👽Fallopian tube epithelium is Ciliated Columnar epithelium
👽 Hysteractomy👽 is the removal of uterus,womb
Uterine layers are
Perimetrium:outer layer which is made up of simple squamous epithelium and Areolar
connective tissue
Myometrium:middle layer made up of Smooth muscles(Oxytocin acts on it)

🔥
Endometrium:inner layer which is glandular and support embryonic development
Cervix+Vagina=Birth Canal

🔥 Oogenesis:(starts in Ovaries and completed in Oviduct, Fallopian tube)

it starts even before birth
2n Oogonia undergoes mitosis and form 2(1 polar body) oogonia (2n) form primary Oocyte=>It
undergoes meiosis and arrested at here Prophase I diplotene
After birth then at puberty primary Oocyte complete meiosis I and form 1 polar body and 1

🔥
secondary Oocyte=>this 2°Oocyte undergoes meiosis II and arrested at Metaphase II
And this undergoes ovulation and at ampulla region secondary Oocyte will wait for
Fertilization (meiosis II starts and complete after fertilization) and a polar body is formed and
One Ootid
One Ovum from 2°Oocyte and 3polar body after fertilization or completion of meiosis 2
At isthmus f Fallopian tube or Oviduct

🔥 (Note after birth no new formation of oogoni they are fixed at development and differentiated)
(After birth no more Oogonia)

🔥
🔥Spermatogenesis gamates ratio 1:2:4
Oogenesis has a periodic ratio 1:1

🔥 (In a fertile female there are only 400/life Oogenesis, Oogenesis, ovulation
And in male it is more than 1million per  /day,ejeculation...)
Semen 10%sperm 90%seminal plasma

🔥 One germ cell=>4 gametes male(continuous)

One=>only one (after meiosisI,II are formed 3 polar body)(monthly)
👹 Spermatogenesis starts at puberty
Oogenesis starts during foetal development (before birth)
Spermatogenesis after puberty any time
Spermatogenesis life long
Oogenesis one time in a month and stops at menupause

👹 Testosterone in males starts releasing for development of reproductive organ and in puberty
its role for 2ndary sex character and spermatogenesis

👺 Estrogen is responsible for stimulation or innitiation of thickening and vascularization of

👺Progesterone helps in maintenance of uterine wall to be vascualrized and thick

uterine wall

🖤 Less progesterone cause uterine wall to rupture if no fertilization than menstruation take
place

💥 Estrogen and progesterone are 🔸responsible for thickening and 🔸vascularization of uterine
wall🛑🛑

🤡Surge of LH induces ovulation, release of 2° oocyte from graffian follicle

🌟(Ovum layers outer most corona radiata> Zonda pellucida=>Cell membrane)
⭐ In ovaries two regions are there Outer Cortex where are blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
and nerves
And inner part Medulla where graffian follicles are there inside stroma

👿 Menstrual cycle👿
Occurs in mammals primates (females)  ( Apes, monkies humans)
Starting is Menarche
And stopage is Menupause

💥 In ovaries:7-13th follicular phase, proliferative phase(Formation of uterine membrane) 

(preovulatory phase) 14th ovulation
14-28th Luteal phase(Secretory phase, or post ovulatory phase)
Uterus:1-7th day menstruation phase 5-1314 ovulation 15-28 Secretory phase(for support of
embryonic development)

💢 (Post ovulatory,luteal, Secretory phase is constant)

Note after ovulation 14 days are constant they can't be changed
But 1-14 day can be changed like if ovulation is taking place at 20th day then menstrual cycle
will be of 20+14=34(14 are fixed after ovulation)
One menstrual cycle is 28 day

If Menstrual cycle is of 45 days then ovulation in which day will happen

Ans :14 days are fixed after ovulation thus at 31th day ovulation takes place
💢 FSH stimulates follicular cells to development
FSH=>increases Estrogen level
Estrogen=>decrease FSH, increase LH
LH induces ovulation
FSH +ve feedback to estrogen

💢
Estrogen -ve feedback to FSH +ve LH feedback
After ovulation graffian follicle rapture and becomes a yellowish glandular structure called
Corpus Luteum which secretes Progesterone (Corpus Luteum is a temporary endocrine gland
and placenta also which secretes progesterone as well but primary source of progesterone is
Corpus luteum)

🟢Ovulation is suppressed by progesterone by inhibiting LH only🟢

👿Note release of FSH and development of primary follicles dtarts at puberty
🔥 Placental hormone lactogen prepares mammary glands for lactation
Breast during pregnancy are developed by the estrogen (secondary sex character)

💚Estrogen is dominant in proliferative phase

🔴Estrogen and LH shows +Ve feedback in menstrual cycle🔴
FSH stimulates follicles development and Estrogen secretion

👻💩 Myometrium is thickes layer, perimetrium is thinnest and endometrium is variable layer of

uterus
Endometrium is also called spongy layer because it is highly vascularized, glandular,Nutritive
layer

🔥 If fertilization takes place then corpus luteum will remain till pregnancy (and keeps on
secreting the progesterone)
If no fertilization this will degenerate

🔥 Sertoli cells,Spermatoblast(sperm forming)

Which are nurse cell,procide nutrition and protection to the sperm and are present in germinal

🔥
layer of epithelium of seminiferous tubule...

⭐ Orsterous cycle is the just same menstrual cycle in all female of mammals except primates
It is a seasonal reproductive cycle

⭐But in menstrual cycle it helps in conception fully.⭐⭐⭐

In which Estrogen produces prepare uterine wall for conception partly

🔥 Zygote=>morulla(4th days 16-32 cells)=>

Blastocyst (7th day mass of cell)

Structure common in male and female

Female.                         =Male
Bulbo Vestibular=>>>Bulbourethra
  (Bartholins gland) is like (Cowper's Gland)
  Clitoris in female is like     Penis in men
  Labia majora. Is like Scrotum

🔥 🔥
#Disorder of reproductive system

🟡 Causes of male infertility

🟡
🟡
Azoospermia:state having no sperm causes of duct blockage,or injury
Oligospermia:sperm count below                20million/ml

🟡 Sperm deformities:changes in sperm shapes

Autoimmune disorder: sperm count less   due to body immune attack to sperm

🔥
🔸 Causes of female infertility 🔥

🔥
🔥
Failure to ovulation: Hypothalamus unables to produce hormones Fsh,LH etc...
Blocked Oviduct:somtimes Fallopian tube blocks due to infection
Uterous damage: Fibroid are benign (non cancerous) tumours grow from the wall of uterus

🔥
causes infertility
Cervical muscous defect:during ovulation mucous in the cervix become thinner so that sperm

🔥
can easily flow but if there is problem so infertility chances are there
Endometriosis:condition in which a piece of endometrium grows another place like Ovary so
it makes harder to zygote implanted

🔥 Miscarriage: spontaneous giving birth to premature foetus before 28th weak which is unable

🔥Abortion: is the induced miscarriage

to survive

🟡 STDs(sexually transmitted diseases)

These are contagious disease transferred one human to other by sexual contact
These are caused by Virus and bacteria

🟡 Gonorrhea and syphilis are caused by bacteria

🟡
Which attacks to immune system of human by destroying the Helper T-Lymphocytes🟡
AIDS is also an sexually transmitted disease

Chemical coordination

✴️
30may

🍒 Chemical coordination ✴️
🔸 Hormones are organic and varying complex structure
Hormones are non nutrient
Produce in trace amount
Are intercellular messenger

🔶
Hormone transpoting pathway
Secretory cell>extracellular fluid>blood plasm>target cell
(Hormones are transported via blood)
Hormones regulate the enzymatic reaction

🔶
It can inhibit or stimulate the enzymatic activities
Note hormone can regulate enzymatic activities but cannot innitiate the reaction
🔶 Proteinaceous hormones:insulin, glucagon somatotrophic, thyrotrophic, Gonadotrophic

🔶
released from anterior pituitary
Amino acid:thyroxine, epinephrine, nor epinephrine(adrenaline,nor adrenaline are modified

🔶
by tyrosine secreted from adrenal medulla)
Histamine by histidine modification

🔶Trptophan Modified to melatonin and seritonin,Auxin..

(vasodilator،allergic reaction)

🟢 Catecholamine are (adrenaline,noradrenaline

Epinephrine, norepinephrine)

🖤 Simple polypeptide:Adh, Oxytocin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), calcitonin,

🟢
parathormone
Steroid hormone=Sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone), Cortisol(cortisone),

🟤
aldosterone
Steroid (fat soluble) hormones don't need the secondary messenger for their working their
receptors are inside the cell and these receptors are called intracellular receptors
Note (T3,T4 are also fat solubel thus have intracellular receptors)

📀
Slow working
Effect For long duration

(Steroid and Thyroid hormone don't need 2ndary messenger )

💙 And other hormones which can't cross plasma membrane have secondary
messenger(cAMP)  and recpetors are membrane bounded recpetors on the plasma membrane

🛑Effect for short duration

Fast working

🟢 Glands origin🟢
Brain, hypothalamus,pineal gland, pituitary

👿
Are ectodermal
Thyroid, parathyroid, thymus are endodermal
Pancreas endodermal
Testis,ovaries are mesodermal
Adrenal gland both Cortex mesodermal
Medulla ectodermal

💡 Pituitary gland has a portal system to hypothalamus called hypophyseal portal vein through

🔴
which secretions are transported from Hypothalamus to the Pituitary

✴️ And attached to hypothalamus by a stalk like called infundibulum

🔴
🟡
Deficiency of Growth hormone dwarfism
Hypersecretion of GH is gigantism
Hypersecretion GH in adults leads to          
acromegaly in which bones not capable of increasing length just thickness of bone
Enlargement of skull,head,jawbone,feet,hand

Pituitary gland is also called hypophysis cerebrei

🔵 This portal system is connected via Vein which carries deoxygenated blood
Pituitary gland anterior part is called

🔵
Adenohypophysis (pars distalis, pars intermedia)
And Posterior part is Pars Nervosa (Neurohypophysis)
Posterior pituitary is not glandular itself It doesn't synthesize any hormone and it is made up of
axons and neurosecretory cells of Hypothalamus

😝 Adh is formed in hypothalamus by Supra optic nuclei

Oxytocin is formed By para ventricular nuclei
(Supra and para are types of neuron)
Pars intermedia secretes the melatonin

🔵 Islets of langerhan endocrine part of pancreas

👿
Pancreas, Islets of langerhan

👿 Alpha cell secretes glucagon

Beta cell secretes insulin

👿
(Beta cells are more in number as compared to alpha)

👿Gamma cell are base cell (precursor)

Delta cell inhibits alpha and beta  produces Somatostatin

👿 Hypothalamus secretes somatostatin (growth inhibitor)or (somatocritin(growth promoter)

which stimulates the pituitary gland to release growth hormone
Just same from Hypothalamus thyroid releasing hormone secreted to pituitary and pituitary
releases thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which stimulates thyroid to release the thyroid
hormone T3، T4 which contrrols BMR....

🟡 Hyperthyroidism oversecretion of T3,T4 which causes grave's disease increase in body

metabolic rate blood pressure ,heartbeat, breathing rate, sweating, increase in body temp...

🛑 Hypothyroidism in adults causes myxedema

Low BMR,low BP, body chillingzpuffy eyes dry skin,lost hair, oedema,tongue swelling,
constipation,enlarged thyroid gland

🔴
(Goiter)
Due to Deficiency of Iodine..
Paidaishi low secretion or Hypothyroidism leads to cretinism=>mental retardation and poor
physical growth, disproportionate body size, Bone maturation and puberty..

🟣 𝕋𝕙𝕪𝕣𝕠𝕚𝕕 𝕘𝕝𝕒𝕟𝕕(𝕝𝕒𝕣𝕘𝕖𝕤𝕥 𝕖𝕟𝕕𝕠𝕔𝕣𝕚𝕟𝕖 𝕘𝕝𝕒𝕟𝕕)

𝕋𝕙𝕖 𝕆𝕟𝕝𝕪 𝕘𝕝𝕒𝕟𝕕 𝕨𝕙𝕚𝕔𝕙 𝕤𝕥𝕠𝕣𝕖𝕤 𝕚𝕥𝕤 𝕤𝕖𝕔𝕣𝕖𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟
On the ventral side
Having two lobes are connected by isthmus (isthmus made up of connective tissue)
Lobes have the thyroid follicules which secretes the T3 and T4
T3,T4 jncrease Atp production, increase cellular metabolism,by utilising and consumption of
energy,increase body temp
Growth and development of skeletal,musclar and nervous system of foetus
Cells between the follicles are called para follicular cells(also called C cells) which secretes
Calcitonin which is a hypocalcemic ....
🟢 (Calcitonin decreases blood calcium level)
Which decrease chances of Osteoporosis
By inhibiting osteoclast (bone deforming cells) function and activating the osteoblast cell(bone

🔵
forming cells)
Parathyroid hormone works antagonistic to thyroid which by rasing parathyroxin.. increase
blood calcium level
(Hypercalcemic), which increases Osteoporosis chances...and kidney stone
And can also lead to Tetany muscle remain contracted..

It activates osteoclast and deactivates the osteoblast to increase blood blood calcium level thus

🟡
more chances kidney stone and osteoporosis
And from kidney parathyroxin stimulates kidney to secrete the Calcitriol(active form of vit-D)
which acts on small intestine and absorbs more calcium from the food

✊ Insulin increase metabolism of glucose and converts excess glucose into glycogen
(Decrease level of glucose in blood)
Insulin promotes glycogenesis

🥰
Hyposecretion of insulin leads to diabetes mellitus
Hyposecretion of ADH leads to diabetes inspidus
Glucagon converts glycogen to glucose
And increase blood flucose level
Glucagon and insulin works antagonistically
Glycogen promotes glycogenolysis

💡Master gland is called to anterior pituitary

🤞 Adrenal gland/supra renal gland /Emergency gland 🚑😝
Outer part is Cortex(adrenal cortex)

🔴 (Adrenal cortex parts are zona glomerulosa,Zona fasciculata,zona reticularis)🔴

Which is mesodermal

🤞
🤞 Zona glomerulosa which produce mineralocorticoid (Aldosterone)
Zona fsciculata which produces glucocorticoid(Cortisol=>Stress hormone)
Glucocorticoid hormones regulate essential body functions in mammals, control cell metabolism,
growth, differentiation, and apoptosis

🤞
✴️ Zona reticularis produces Androgens

🔸 Medulla is ectodermal

🔸Which
Adrenaline, noradrenaline (epinephrine, 🔸norepinephrine)
produces emergency hormones

🟧 Under secrtion of Corticol hormone leads to Addison's disease (weakening of muscles loss of
salt metabolic distrubance)

🟧 Oversecretion leads to Cushing syndrome

(Excessive protein break down leads to weaking of muscles and bones)

🟧Androgens are also secreted by Adrenal cortex in small amounts

🟧Prostaglandins are group of hormones which protects during infection
🥫 Pineal gland/third eye
Sets biological clock
Secretes melatonin

Sleeping,jaaging 😜
Regulates menstrual cycle
activity of 24 hours

🍳
💜 #Disorder
Hyperthyroidism

💜
More T3,T4 More BMR and loss of body weight.
Hypothyroidism
Less T3,T4,less BMR and gain in body weight

📛T4 is also called active thyroxine

💜 Thyroid cancer
Treated by the radiotherapy
Goiter:

💜
Enlargement of thyroid gland due to deficiency of iodine
Nodule:
A lump formed to the throid gland
Thyroiditis inflammation of thyroid
Graves disease: Autoimmune disorder of thyroid more secretion of T3,T4
Hashimotos disease: Autoimmune disorder
Less secretion of T3,T4

🔥Gonads are endocrine which secrete hormones as well as gametes

🟡 Ovaries:Graffian secretes Estrogen under the stimulaation of FSH (Estrogen has -be

🟡
feedback to FSH)

🖤 Estrogen secreted at the time of puberty and responsible for 2°Sex characters in female

🟡Oversecretion of this hormone leads to Fibroid (abnormal growth) in uterus and polycystic
It heals and repairs uterine wall after menstruation, lack of this hormones leads to infertility.

ovaries which causes infertility

🟡 Progesterone🟡
It is produced by corpus luteum in response of LH after this placenta also produces

🟡
Progesterone

🟡 It inhibits FSH to ripening of further follicles

🟡 It causes further thickening and vascularization of uterine wall for maintenance of embryo
Progesterone suppress ovulation.
Less secretion of progesterone during Menstrual cycle decreases chances of pregnancy and
may cause eay menstruation

🟡And less secretion during pregnancy leads to miscarriage

🟡Testes:🟡
⭐ Produce sperm and Secretes sex hormones
, testosterone which is secreted from Interstitial cells amoung seminiferous tubules by the

🔸Less secretion of this hormone leads to 🔸femine characters and male infertile
stimulation of ICSH

💚 Plant hormones
Growth promoting hormones
Gibberellin
Cytokinin
Auxin

🍉 Gibberallin promotes
Promotes germination
Cell division,cell enlargement,bolting
(Bolting: premature flowering)
Bud innitiation,leaf,seed growth,fruit growth
Apical dominancy
Inhibits Dormancy and also effect photoperiodism
Gibberallin promotes flowering in long day plants and inhibit in short day plants
Gibberallin is used in brewary industries
(Malting)

🥝 Auxins promotes
Stem, cambium growth, budd initiation
Apical dominancy,inhibits leaf senescence
Inhibits abscission
Root growth is promoted by low concentration of Auxins
And high concentration inhibits root growth
Root initiation from cutting
Auxin used as parthenocarpy
And selective beed colour
Auxin increases potato storage life

📠 Growth inhibiting hormones

Ethylene/ethene ripening of fruit
Absisic acid

😭 Absisic acid promote flowering in short day plant and inhibit flowering in long day plants
Inhibits stem,root growth
Promotes dormancy
Promotes Leaf senescence, abscission
Gibberellin and absisic are functionally antagonist to each other

😜
Closes stomata
Used for fruit drop...

Nervous coordination
⛔
29may

🤫 Nervous Coordination ⛔
😳 Neuron structural and functional unit of nervous system
Neuron has capacity to generate or conduct the nerve impulse ✴️
❤️
Rod and cone cell convert the light enegy ✴️into impulse(electrochemical energy)
Receptors work as transducer

Afferent nerves sensory

Efferent nerves are motor

🔥 Nervous coordination elements are receptors,neurons, effectors

Mechanoreceptors are also called strtch receptors which can detect touch pressure hearing and

🤗
equilibrium

Aortic and carotid arteries also have 🔥🔥🔥🔥mechanoreceptors for BP regilation

Stomach mechanoreceptors =>for hunger

🔥 Chemoreceptors:smell,taste,blood co2,o2,glucose level...

🔥
Examples hypothalamus receptors
Photoreceptors, electromagnetic receptors

🔥
Are cone and rod cells...

🔥 Thermoreceptors:cold and warm..

🔥 Nociceptors:Pain recptors..

🔥Pacinians corpuscles are pressure recptors

Meissner's corpuscles and markel disks are tocuh receptros

🔥 Pain recptors are 27 times abundant than cold recptors and cold recptors are 10more than
the heat recpetors

🔥 Path of stimulus
Receptors>sensory neurons>relay(inter) neurons>motor neurons>effectors

😨
(Interneurons are found in brain and spinal cord)

😜Nervous system is composed of 50% Neurons and 50%Neuroglial cells

Neuroglial/glial cells suround the neurons and protect them

Associative neurons are abundant in Brain

(Schwan cell is a type of neuroglial cell)

Nissils granules are ribosomes are attached with golgi and Rough E.R involve in protein

😒
synthesis
Dendrites receive msg to soma(cell body) and soma to away from soma is by Axons
Axoplasm(cytoplasm of the axons)contains motochondira, microtubules,RER

😛 Schwan cells secretes the mylein sheath made up of glycolipid(fats) act as an insulator and

😋
prevent leakage of msg
Mylein sheath is not present on the soma cell body of any neurons

👿
Only at Axon...
The axon where is no mylein sheath b/w myleinated axon called node of ranvier which helps
in saltatory/jumping conduction of nerve impulse
👿
there)👿
(Note in CNS mylein sheath is secreted by oligodendrochtes because no schwan cell

🤞 Normal speed of myleinated nerve impulse is 100m/s

❤️Non-myelinated nerve impulse speed is 1-3m/s

Maximum speed is 120m/s

💜
And loss of less energy🔴
Myleinated and saltatory conduction is 50%more faster than non myleinated

🔵Thick the axon fibre faster is the conduction of impulse R is inversly proportional to Area...👿
🥰Motor neurons always attached with effectors (can be a muscle or a gland)
✊Sensory neurons dendrons are attached with receptors
😜Reflex action pathway is called reflex arc
🥯 Ganglion is collection of cell body of neuron

🍒Grey matter is ... Of Cell body

White matter is composed of Axons

🍉 By usage of Atp
3Na out 2k inside(actively)

🥝
Na ions are more at outside and k are inside
Inside the membrane has more negative ions(potential) due to negative proteins
And outside membrane is +ve due to more Na ions

🥫 This membrane is more permable to K

While impermeable to negative proteins and Na sodium..

💚
And concentration of Na+ is 10 times more outside fluid 💚
Concentration of K+ is 30times more inside fluid

🏮 Resting membrane potential (polarised membrane) is -70mV

📠
K gate are always open

📀 Action potential,spike potential is +50mVolts(depolarisation)

While depolarisation are innitiaion of nerve impulse Na gate also opens which leads to inside

💵
memb +ve and outside -ve

✴️ Repolarization to -70mv

✴️
✴️
Hyperpolarisation -90mVolts
Depolarisation influx of Na and eflux of K+

✴️Hyperpolarisation is high eflux of K+

Repolarization eflux of K

🛑 Refractor period🛑
At this time membrane prepares itself for next stimulus and recovery period is called refactoy
period

💡 Single Neuron can have many synapse

Synapse is cytoplasmic gap b/w Axon ending of one neuron and dendrite of other

💡
Two types of synapse

❤️Electrical synapse have gap junction b/w gap and less gap and need no neurotransimitter
Chemical synapse have more gap and needs neurotransimitter for conduction

🔴 Neurotransmitter are of two types

🟡🟡🟡epinephrine (adrenaline),nor epinephrine which increase heart rate

1st: excitatory which increase permeability of membrane for Na+ ions examples acetylcholine,

Acetylcholine neurotransimitter lies outside the CNS

🔴 Endorphin which work as both 🔸neurotransimitters and hormone by 🔸decreasing

perception of pain

🟡
✊Epinephrine or Adrenaline is produced by 🔸both Brain and adrenal gland
Which acts as both Neurotransimitter and 🔸Hormone

🟣Prostaglandins:are group of localized hormones, provides protection during infection🤞

🔶 Biogenic amines neurotransimitters
Adrenaline noradrenaline (epinephrine, nor epinephrine), Seritonin, Dopamine

🤞Epinephrine (adrenaline) act as messenger in both chemical, nervous coordination

2nd: inhibitory examples glycine, , , GABA (gamma amino butyric acid),Seritonin, Dopamine
effect sleep mood attention and learning

🔵 Endorphins are polypeptides that function as both neurotransimitters and hormones

decreasing perception of pain
Produced by brain which binds with pain Receptors and decreases pain
(Gaba and glycine are amino acids)

🟢 (All are the above neurotransimitters are presnet in CNS except the Acetylcholine,
Acetylcholine found in PNS)

🛑 After rupture of neurotransimitter vesicles these Hormones need to be Broken immediately,

📛And adrenaline(epinephrine) by monoamine oxidase

Acetylcholine is hydrolyzed (broken) by acetylcholinesterase

🔴 Gap in synapse is called synaptic cleft

Receptors are present on the post synaptic membrane for attachment of neurotransimitters

💚 Transmission direction of impulse

From axon of presynaptic neuron to dendrite of post synaptic neuron..
💙Inside synaptic knob(enlarged end of the axon) which contains synaptic vesicles
💜
💜 Cns+pns=nervous system

💜Somatic nervous system controls voluntary actions(skeletal muscles)

Cns=brain+spinal cord

🟣
🟤 Autonomic nervous system controls the involuntary actions (organ glands, smooth muscles)

Controls involuntary actions under stressful conditons) it prepares body for fight or flight  ✴️it
(Sympathetic nervous system

Consists of only spinal nerves arising from 1st thorasic segment to 2nd  lumbar segment of
Spinal cord

✴️(Parasympathetic nervous system

✴️Arising nerves from sacral region and inuding the vagus nerve
Controls involuntary actions under rest and digest conditons)

🖤
🟡31 pairs of spinal nerves all are mixed nerves
Cranial nerves are 12 pairs some are sensory,motor, and mixed

💜 Brain is protected by skull and meninges

(Meninges also protect spinal cord)

🖤
Meninges are DAP
Dura matter -arachnoid matter,pia matter
B/w D,A space called sub dural space
filled by fluid called serous
And B/w A,P space called sub arachnoid space filled with CSF(cerebro spinal fluid)
Composition is similar to blood plasma

🟣 Forebrain consists

And limbic system(amygdala+hippocampus 🔸Hypothalamus)

Cerebrum,two hemispheres are connected by corpus callosum

🔸
✴️ Amygdala controls anger,rages,sexual 🔸behaviors
Amygdala is almond like in either side of Hypothalamus masses of neurons✴️
🔸
🔸 Hippocampus converts short term 🔸memory to long term memory
Hypothalamus, as osmoregulator, 🔸Thermoregulation,thermostat
🔸
🛑 Midbrain🛑
Thalamus is the relay center

Plays main role in vision

(Well developed in birds)

👿
Mid brain have 4 dorsal lobes
4 cavities in brain are called ventricles🏮
Are corpora quadrigemmina
Cavity cerebral equiduct,duct of sylvis📛
🛑 🛑
Duct of Iter filled with CSF
Hind Brain
Pons filters information send to forebrain (pneumotaxic centre)

🔶
Cerebellum:maintains body balance
Medulla oblongata controls many involuntary actions breathing heart rate swallowing,
🛑 🛑
digestion, vomiting, defication
Spinal cord

🔸
Protected by vertebrea column,meninges and CSF

🔸 Composed of grey and white matter

🔸
✊
Grey matter composed of cell body
And white matter is myleinated axons 🔸 ✊ ✴️
(fats colour is white)
Dorsal root of spinal nerve contain Sensory nerve fiber

🔴
While collection of cell body in PNS is Ganglion🔴
Collection of cell body In CNS is called Nuclei

📛Reticular formation is screening of information Before they reach to brain center

👿 Narcotics are group of substances bind with brain blocks the endorphin production
(endorphin => pain perception)
and disables feelings of pain..

🟢
🔸 Relief from pain side effects are nausea, 🔸vomiting, respiratory and circulatory
Heroin:feeling of euphoria(‫)احساس خوش حالی‬

🔸
🟡 with alteration of 🔸vision, judgement
depression and leads to death

🔸Cannabis:euphoria,along
Hallucination, depression, anxieties

❤️ Nicotine:derived from tobacco and 🔸stimulates post synaptic receptors just 🔸like
acetylcholine and leads to increase 🔸activity of skeletal muscles,increase heart 🔸rate,blood

📛
pressure

🔸Inhalants:are volatile chemic and 🔸stimulates euphorbia and nervous 🔸depression

By deep breath t can leads to 🔸hallucination and even death

💙
🔶 Meningitis: inflammation of meninges by 🔸viral,bacterial infection

🔸
🔸
Tumour:

It include paralysis,nerve pain,comma 🔸death

Abnormal mass of neuroglial cell produced as uncontrolled cell division

✴️
🔸 By deposition of aluminum 🔸
Alzheimer's Disease:

🔸
🔸 Slowly progressive disease of brain by impairement of memory, distrubance in

🔸
🔸 Cause:genetic predisposition(runs to 🔸families)
reasoning,pain,perception,planing

🔸No effective cure😶

Loss of short term memory

😜Parkinsonism is medicated by L-Dopa

🏮EEG,CT SCAN,MRI used to detect nervous Disorders
🟢
🔸 Neurons within the cerebral cortex 🔸continuously generates electrical signals 🔸these
Electroencephalography

signals can be recorded by 🔸electrodes by locating in scalp region

🔵
🔸 the help of x-rays many 3d and cross 🔸sectional image of internal organs are
Computed tomography scan (CT scan)

🔸Byrecorded on computer

💡
🔸 A radiology technique using magnetism 🔸and radio waves and a computer produce
Magnetic Resonance Image(MRI)

🔸
🔸 MRI image resolution is quite detailed and 🔸even a tiny change in body can be 🔸detected
images of body

by it..

Human skeleton

⛔
28 may
end part of bone is called epiphysis

🔺
Middle part is shaft or diaphysis and outer covering is called periosteum
Inner region is endosteum
🔺🔺
🔺
Diaphysis,shaft cavity filled with yellow bone marrow
Red bones are also found in spaces of spongy bone..

⛔Three types of bone cells derived from osteogenic cell

🔥
🔥 Osteoblasts:bone forming cells
Osteocytes:bone cells maintian healthy bone tissue secreates enzymes and regulates ca

🔥
level in blodd
Osteoclasts:bone destroying cells, and deposit ca and phosphate in blood and Play important
role in repair and growth of bones

✊ Matrix of cartilages cavity is lucanae

Chondrocytes are living cartilage cells
It heals very slowly Because of no blood supply blood supplied by diffusion

⛔
Three types of cartilages
Hyalin found at end of long bone, nose,lyranx,trachea⛔
😨
😛 Fibrocartilage contain wide rows of thick collagenous fibres
Found in disk located b/w vertebrea

🔺Elastic cartilage is found in ears flaps and Epiglottis🔺

Cartilage of Knee

🤳
😋 Joints
Fibrous joints: adjacent bones connected by collagenous fibre are not movalbe joint
Found in skull,sutures
Forearm,shaft,legs
Cartilagenous joints are bone connected By cartilages but slightly movable
Are joint by hyalin, fibrocartilage
Examples coastal cartilages ribs to sternum
Pubic symphysis and b/w intervertebral disc
🤞 Synovial joints are freely movable joints
Examples are : Hinge,pivot,ball socket,gliding joints

😤 #Disorders
Slipped disc
A painful rupture of the fibrocartilage of the disc between spinal vertebrae; occurs most often in

😳
the lumbar region.
Spondolysis
Immobility and fusion of vertebral joint
Sciatica:
Pain,numbnessweakness,tingling in the leg due to injury or the pressure on the sciatic nerve

😒
Common causes are Slipped disc pelvic injury,fracture or tumor
Arthritis

😒
Inflammation of joints, difficulty in walking
Osteoarthritis:articular cartilages gradually disintegrate and softens

😒
It affects knee,hip,intervertebral joints
Rheumatoid arthritis is autoimmune disorder synovial membrane become inflammed due to

😒
faulty immune
Gouty arthritis is the more Uric acid is retained in blood and sodium urates are  in deposited
in joints most common joint is of  big toe

🔥
human skeleton 😨🦴 206 bones

🚫 Axial skeleton
Total axial bones are 80 🚫
Are present in axis,middle part...
Skull,Ribs,Vertebral column, Sternum

💀
🔺 Skull bones 29 bones but actually 22 hote hein.....
Cranium 8

⛔
Cranium=8 bones 6 unpaired 2 paired
Trick (PEST OF CRANIUM)(TP are paired)
Parietal paired
Ethmoid
Sphenoid
Temporal paired
Occipetal
Frontal

🔺
....
Hyoid 1
1 U shaped bone called hyoid
Present at the base of tongue supports tongue muscles
(Hyoid is the only bone which is not articulated to other bone)

🔺 Facial bones 14
Trick for it

A:🚫
(AVNI MAM PLZ note both A are not counted in trick)
V:Vomer
N:Nasal
I: inferior nasal chonchae

A🚫
M:Mandible

M: Maxillary
P:Palantine
L:Lacrimal
Z: Zygomatic

⛔
🚩(All bones are paired except Vomer and mandible)⛔
(Mandible is the only movable bone)🚩

🔺
🔺 Ears(paired)😜 6 Bones

🔺
🔺
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Skull bones are completed

⛔ Ribs 12 pairs
1 to 7th are true ribs called vertebro-sternal
Ribs
8-10th are the false rubs called vertebro-chondral ribs
11-12th are floating ribs are called vertebro ribs
(They protect the kidneys)

🔺 Vertebral column 26 bones

Cervical:7 bones
Thorasic vertebrea:12 bones
Lumbar vertebrea:5 bones
Sacral vertebrea :1(5fused bone)
5 bones collectively called sacrum
Cocxygeal verterea:1 (4 fused bone)
4 bone together called pelvic vertebrea

Remember Atlas 1st vertebrea which is also called Yes bone

And Axis is 3nd vertebrea called No bone
Yes and No due to their allowance movement

🔺 Sternum single bone1

All 80 Axial bones are finished

🚫🚫
⛔ Appendicular bones 126 bones🚫🚫
Girdles;6 bones⛔
🔺 Pectoral girdles 4 bones
Clavicles(2) beauty bones
Scapula(2) triangular shaped
🔺 Pelvic girdles;2 bones🔺
Pelvic girdles 2 coxal bones
(2coxal bones are formed by fusion of illium ischium and pubis)

🔺
🔺 Limbs 126 Bones🔺
Fore limbs(2x30bones)
Humerus
Radius+ulna
Carpals 8
Metacarpals 5 forming palm

🔺
Phalanges 14
Hind limbs (2x30 bones)
Femur(longest bone)
Tibia+fibula
Patella
Tarsal 7
Metatarsal 5
Phalanges 14

Muscles and movement

♨️
27may
muscle and movement 📛
Covering of fsciculi/muscle bundle is perimysium and after it is epimysium(dense fiberous

😍
connective tissue/outer covering of muscle)
covering many fasciculi/muscle bundle

❤️
Endomysium covering to myocytes/muscle fibers(plasma mem of myocytes are sarcolemma)
Collagenous fiber connecting the fasciculi/muscle fiber is called Fascia(are dense
collagenous fiber)

😳Atp required for cross bridge formation as well as breakage

🤭 Muscles are the tissue..

⭕
Types are:
Cardiac muscle: found in heart having more mitochondria,are involuntary and branched

⭕
having intercalated disc.. are striated/striped
But striation is irregular in cardiac
Many nuclei per cell
Chain of cell
Contraction intermediate

😨 Smooth muscle: (most primitive form of muscles)found in viscera(internal organs) are

involuntary are not striated
Spindle shaped one nuclei per cell
Contraction slow
Are controlled as spontaneous nervous sytem,hormonal,strteched..
📛
branched as heart.. 💜
Skeletal muscles are attached to skeleton(bones) are voluntary and striated/striped but not

💪
Striation is regular
Skeletal muscles are attached with bone by the connective tissue called (Tendon)
(Which is immovable) tendons are inelastic
Contraction of smooth muscle slow to rapid
Conrolled ....Neuronal control

🤭Note tongue is also a skeletal muscle..

👁️Smooth muscles are most abundant in animalis while skeletal muscles are most abundant in
human, vertebreta..

☝️A muscle has three region origin which is fixed immobile

Belly contracts and relaxes
Insertion which can be stationary or mobile

🤲 Total 650muscles their arrangements are antagonistic movement

Usually in pairs bicep,tricep...

🤧 Bone to bone are attached by ligament  which hold bone together and stable it (are elastic in
nature)
Muscles have insersion side and origin both are attached to bone by the tendons
Muscle cells are muscle fibre not the myofibril

😭 Thin/Actin filament have two fiber of actin,two tropomyosin fiber,and troponin three
polypeptide

binding with actin,2nd for tropomyosin and 3rd for Ca receptor.🤣

Tropomyosin deactivates the site of active site of actin and troponin have 3 portion one for

🌝Total kinds of polypeptides are 7 in thin filament

Actin and tropomyosin are fibrous protein in nature while the troponin are globular.

🌝
And have 6 kinds of polypeptides in thick filaments 👊
Thick/Myosin filament have two fiber in tail and 4 heads are globular protein

😅 (Note! Sarcomere is not a Cell it is the region b/w two successive Z line of myofibrils
Which termed as smallest contractile unit)

🌻 Sarcomere is the contractile unit of muscle

Sarcomere is the smallest unit of myofibril and also the myocyte or muscle cell

😅
and is the region b/w two successive Z lines

😨 A band where is thick filament and also overlapping thin filament

I band which is only the thin filament

😳
M line bisects the thick filament or Myosin or  bisecting the A band , the H zone
H zone is the where thick line is present....

🔥1 sarcomere(region b/w two successive Z line) is 1 A band and 1 I band

(H zone is region b/w two Z line minus I band)
😍 Muscle fiber/cells are long cylindrical 10-100 micro diameter..
Oval like and multinucleated nucleus(and just beneath the cell membrane

🤩 Sarcoplasm/cytoplasm of muscle fiber has abundant glycogen, phosphocreatine,and

myoglobulin

🤪1 Sarcomere is composed of one dark(A band) and one light band(I band)
😝Anisotropic mean which can polarise the visible light and isotropic can't polarise
🤫 (A band,dark band,anisotropic contains myosin+actin),thick and thin filament

🤫H zine is purely thick filament(overlapping thin filament are not considered in account)
Some part of thin filament overlapped in A band

🤗 (1 thick,dark,myosin band is surrounded by 6 light,actin,thin band on each end while 1 thin

band is surrounded by 3 thick band)

🤔 I band,light band,contain only actin(but not contain completely the thin filament ,some part of

😜
thin filament overlapped with thick filament and counted as part of A band

😜 H zone (hele which mean bright)

H zone is A band-I band removed overlapping I band with A band...
(Contain A band,dark,thick filament,myosin)

😌 M line (middle of sarcomere)bisects the sarcomere,A band, dark,thick band,H zone,Myosin

🤩
fiber..
Z line is the middle of the I,light,thin,band
Bisects the I,light,thin,isotropic band

😛[(Muscle bundle>muscle fibre> myofibril>myofilaments (thin,thick)]😛

😉 Muscle contraction(length upto 1/3)

😌
Thin filament will slide over the thick filament
Thin,thick filaments come closer
H zone disappers

🤩
I band shortens

🥰Length of A band remain Unchanged

Overlapping of myosin and actin will increase

Z line come closer to each other

Cross bridge binds to active site of actin

🥳
Cross bridge pull thin filament....

😋
At rest tropomyosin deactive the active sites of actin and when ca++ released to
(sarcoplasmic reticulum stores ca++) sarcoplasmic reticulum(smooth E.R), troponin have
high tendency to attach with ca++ they bind it and active sites of actin exposed and now the
cross bridge formation takes place

😤Note at relaxation troponyosin binds active site of actin not the troponin
⭕Rigor mortis(Atp deficiency after death) is the condition when after death there is no oxygen
and no energy to
breakage of the cross bridge formation..

📛(Atp deficiency in living individual causes muscle fatigue)❗

😔
breakage)😒
Only one molecule of Atp is required for one cycle of cross bridge(formation and

😚(Note!Atp is required at the time of muscle contraction but not the at relaxation time)☺️
😔T(transverse)-Tubule is an elongated hollow, penetration of sarcolemma
😨
🤔T-tubule is present in Z line in cardiac muscles😔
While present b/w A I junction in the Skeletal muscles🤔

😍
Triad is the structure when T -tubule is surrounded by Sarcoplasmic reticulum by both end🥳
T System is the thousands of the T tubules are present in a muscle cell..

☝️ All the muscle fibers are innervated by the single motor neuron

(😜Neurotransmitter filled in the synaptic vesicles are the Acetylcholine)

(Motor neuron innervate the muscle Fibre/cell ,Not the myofibril)

💪 Energy for the muscle contraction

🤞 phosphocreatine(stored in Sarcoplasm of muscle) are used   and glucose🤞 anaerobically

While normal conditions aerobically glucose break down , and in the stressful conditons

broken down(lactic acid) and energy is utilised

These lactic acid 20% is used aerobically for energy and 80% is converted to glucose

🦻When more enrgy required to muscles creatine phosphate is the secondary source of energy
🦵 Lactic acid accumulation vcauses fatigue to the muscles
Whixh causes PH to drop and muscle to ache

Effect of excercise in muscles

Increase in strength
Increase in size of muscle
Efficiency and resistant to fatigue
Increase capillaries to muscle,mitochondira ✊and the Myogloin
🤳Complete immovement of muscle can lead to weakness and atropy to muscle
⛔
😜 Over production of calcitonin causes muscular tetany
Cramp:tetanic contration of entire muscle
For few seconds to several hour..
Common in thigh and hip muscle
Occurs at night or after excercise
It reflects low body sugar level,electrolyte depletion, dehydration, irritability of spinal cord and
neurons
😋 Tetany: body shakes continuous muscle contraction and convsion due to calcium imbalance
result excitibility of neurons and loss of sensation
Symptims spasm of Larynx,paralysis, even death can occur

Homeostasis

25 may 🤒#Homeostatis🔥🔥🔥
Stimuli=>receptors=>Brain(control center)=>effectors=>Response

🔥🔥
In environment changes occur in broader range while in a body it changes in a narrow range

🎵 Thermoregulation

😍 Ectotherm changes their body temp according to environment

Endotherm their body temp nearly constant and doesn't change

🔥 Most of fresh water animals and marine verterbrea are osmoregulators♨️(which can maintain
their body osmotic concentration according to the situations)♨️

🥱 Marine animals and some fresh water invertebrea and marine verterbrea are

♨️ They are isotonic to environment.♨️

osmoconformers(changes body solute concentration according to the surrounding)

Elasmobranches(shark,rays)and myxine(hag fish) are the osmoconformers (isotonic to

😁
environment)

By Urea and 😳TMAO(trimethylamine oxide)

Marine habitat other than vertebrea regulates their high osmotic concentration

These are osmolytes which increases the Osmotic solute concentration

📛(Fresh living amphibians and fishes have ionocytes in their gills to active uptake of salts)📛
♨️Marine living animals have the rectal glands for the excretion of salts
🛑(TMAO helps against adverse effect of Urea)🛑
🐟 Bonyfishes(Teleost)🤭 are hypotonic to sea water they loose water across gills and
epithelium

🌻
🥱Bats and humming birds are heterotherms🏵️
Amphibains are ectotherms🥱

🧠 Hypothalamus(part of forebrain) is thermostat of mammals 🐄 which has set point of tem

Pyrexia or fever 🤒
36.1-37.8C°

🩺 In which a pathogen enters into body and releases pyrogens which distrub the set point of
hypothalamus and causes it

Panadol bhi chalega yaar.🤓

Antipyretic drugs Aspirin and paracetamol
🐥 Baby mammals have brown fats for heat production while marine mammals have blabber for
🕊️Birds and mammals are adopted better for environemnt and also for Thermoregulation
🐟Marine mammals like whale and seals have insulating layer of thick fat called blabber
💦 Shivering thermiogenesis by muscles
And non shivering by thyroid hormones

😶Skin is thermoregulatory organ of mammals

Some mammals have brown fat for heat production

😳 Porifera,ceolentrata, ctenophorea have general surface body for excretion

Platyhelminthes have flame cells(solenocytes or protonephredia)
Aschehelminthes have rennet  cells

🦂♨️
Annelida have nephredia
Arthropods crustacheans have green glands or attenary glands
Arthropods insects have malpighian tubule
Arthropods arachnids(scirpians,spiders) have coxal glands

😩
Echinodermsta absent
Cephalochordata have solenocytes flame cells or protonephredia)
Hemichordates have probscis glands

🔥 Ammonotelic(aquatic) organisms utilises 500ml water for removal of 1gram of Ammonia

Ureotelic(mammals,shark,elephant,terrestrial and amphibians) utilises 50ml for 1gram of Urea

🤣
Uricotelic(reptiles and birds) 1ml for 1gram of uric acid

😁 Ammonia requires very less atp to be formed for excretion

😭 Urea needs more atp to be formed

Uric acid needs great amount of atp..
(Atp utilization for formation to be excreted
Order is Uric acid>Urea>Ammonia)
Toxicity order
Nh3>urea>uric acid

🐟
Nh3 is lac times more toxic to urea
Pisces(fish) and amphibians have mesonephric kidney (mesonephric mean having all
structure and lack of Loop of henle) are ammonotelic and ureotelic respectively

🕊️ Birds(Aves),reptiles, mammals have metanephric kidneys having loop of henle

🥱
Uricotelic and ureotelic respectively
Earthworms are both ammonotelic and ureotelic if it lives in water it is ammonotelic if on land
is ureotelic

🦈
Insects are uricotelic
Sharks are ureotelic

🌝
Most feedback mechanism in organisms are negative feedback like  conservation of water etc
Positive feed back mechanism are rarely found in organisms like child birth release of
Oxytocin and thrust etc
Hag fish is an osmoconformer
Lungs and skin are not excretory organ but they remove toxic metabolites
As Co2 H20...
🛑♟️ As no nitrogenous waste is present in Carbohydrates and Fats Co2 and H20 are release
through skin and lungs
Proteins,genetic material are nitrogenous waste containing molecules

🌹 Liver and kidneys are excretory organs,

Kidney location last thorasic vertebrea

🕳️
T12-L3

🤭Kidney weight 150grams

Mammalian kidneys conserve water about 99.5%(yaar tune aik jagah to 99% likha tha, hota
hai yaar waise bhi average hai) reabsorption of glumerular filterate

⭕
Weight of kidney is about less than 1%of an individual weight
Nephrons are functional units of kidney
Length 12cm wide 6cm thick 4cm
Floating ribs provide protection to the kidneys

🤯🔺
And also hylum for lungs where bronchi are entering to lungs♨️
Hilus/Hilum is gateway of kidney where arteries and veins are passing through

❤️Kidney takes 20% blood per cardiac Beat

😋
About 1.2L/min  blood passes through kidney
Right kidney se slightely bended downwards because of pressure of liver...
Ureter is 25cm length

🔥
Minor calyx=>major calyx=>Pelvis=>Ureter so on
In each kidney 1million nephrons
70-80% are cortical nephron (cortex =>outer region of kidney while medulla is inner region
which is more concentrated)

🤫
While 20-30% are juxtamedullary nephrons
Loop of henle of juxta-medullar nephrons are deep inside the medulla(and make a structure
is Vasa recta) all other structures are in cortex region just like the cortical nephrons that's why
the juxta-medullary nephrons are responsible for concentrated urine while cortex are less

🔥
concentrated...
Bowman capsule have modified layers of podocytes which helps in filtration
In glumerular filteration(pressure filteration takes place here) are all the substances are filtered
into bowman capsule except blood cells and proteins
(Plasma without proteins)
Renal artery=>afferent arteriole=>glomerulus>efferent arteriole=>peritubular

🔥
arteriole=>Capillaries=>venules=>vein=renal veins
Aminoacids vitamins glucose electrolytes ions urea
Are filtered here(which is called glumerular filtrate) this is ultrafiltration at bowman capsule due
to pressure of blood
And they absorbed at Pct by actively except urea (Passively)(to except bhi likha hai na khair)

😳 Daily 125ml/min glumerular filterate is formed and 180Litres are in one day
Only in 180L 1%is carried out and 99% are reabsorbed

🔥
😨InAndPctallmax absorption takes place about 90% of all the solutes
useful substances are reabsorbed here
Pct cells are modified are brush boardered cubiodal epithelial cells
🤗 PCT is larger in size as compared to DCT
In LOH (loop of henle) the descending limb is thin and is permeable to water and impermeable
to electrolytes

🔥
While ascending limb is thick and impermeable to water and permeable to electrolytes
In LOH minimum reabsorption of water and electrolytes are take place
At DCT reabsorption also takes place by hormones Adh(Aldesterone at Ascending limb of loop

🥳
of henle )
While in collecting duct reabsorption is only by ADH where about 20 DCT opens

🔥☀️☔Adh conserve water by changing permeability of Collecting duct🔥

(About 20 DCT opens in one Collecting duct)

😍
Afferent arteriole are thick in diameter as compared to efferent arteriole
Efferent arteriole sfter leaving bowman makes an peritubular structure which surrounds
whole nephron
Bowman capsule+glumerulus =Renal corpuscle is filteration unit

🏵️Excretion of hypertonic urine is associated best with Loop of Henle☀️

🤫
Urea and Nacl🛑
Osmolytes are

😁 Adh(released from pars nervosa posterior lobe of pituitary) and aldosterone(released from
adrenal cortex,adrenal gland) are vasoconstrictor

❤️⭕Note! Aldesterone is not formed by the kidney it is formed by adrenal gland

💦Renin and erythropoietin are formed by kidney🐥
🤧 Aldosterole is the powerful vasoconstrictor
Adh and aldosterone work while blood pressure is low glumerular filterate and blood vol is also
low

😳
Cause urine to concentrated
Debetes inspidus when lack of adh and very diluted urine is secreted, as a result thrust and
dehydration....

🤫 While Anf is vasodilator🛑

It works when blood pressure is high glumerular filterate and blood vol is high
It inhibits Adh and Aldosterone
Responsible for dilute urine

❣️ Function of nephron🔺
1st ultrafiltration at bowman
2nd selective reabsorption at different areas from Pct to Collecting duct
3rd tubular secretion is the balance of PH
By balancing amonium and hydrogen ion
Normal urine ph is 4.8-7.5
Urine is concentrated at Collecting Duct and Dct at last because of action of Hormones ADH
🔺
and Aldosterone at ascending limb of LOH
Adh reabsorbs water and salts while aldesterone only Na at Ascending limb of LoH(loop of
henle itna nahin aata khair)

⭕Counter current mechanism is from vasa recta for concentrated urine⭕

✂️✂️ Infections📛
Pylonephritis is inflammation of pelvis and ureters
Cystitis is inflammation of Urinary bladder
Urethretis these all are because of infection of bacteria and fungi

🕷️🕷️🕷️
🔥 Kidney stones Causes🛑

🔥
🔥 Hyperoxaluria😜 (eating of potatoes) high level of oxalate
Hypercalcemia high level of Ca

🔥Hyperthyroidism (which maintian ca level in blood if it is in hyper causes increase of Ca in

Hyperuricemia high level of urea

blood thus hypercalcemia)

😨Uremia /end stage of kidney (kidney needs to be transplanted)♨️

🥳 Oxalate stones are 70%
Uric acid stone    5-10%
Stuvile stone.      15-20%
Cystine stone.     2-3%

Respiration and Breathing

24 may:Starting 2nd bio full preparation schedule

#1st chap 😍Respiration and Breathing🌹

🤭 Porifera ceolentrata aschehelminthes And platehelminthes have general body surface for

🥱
gaseous exchange
Annelida through skin
(Arthropods Cockroach Tracheal system

😩
Limulus Book gills,scorpion,spiders book lungs)

🤒 Mollusca have gills

😳 Echinoderm have water vascular system

😁Hemichordates have gills

Chordates have gills and lungs

🐟 .At 115mmhg 19.6ml O2 98% saturation

🌹Function unit of respiration alveolus sac

Trachea divide 5th thorasic vertebrea
Structural is alveolus
Right lungs has two fisher
While left has one oblique fissure

🤓 Inspiration is an active process while expiration is a passive process and forceful expiration is
also active process
While inspiration external coastal muscles and phrenic muscles/diaphragm contracts(and

🌝
becomes flat less dome like) vol of lungs increase and pressure decrease
While expiration phrenic muscles and coastal muscles also relax and no energy need at time
of relaxation thus a passive process in which diaphragm becomes same like domed shape

👊 And cardiac notch is in left side due to heart

Lungs are present in mediastinum cavity

🔥
Surfactants are present in alveolus are lipoproteins prevent collapse reduce surface tention
Tracheal rings are regular arranged 15-20

Bronchioles have Circular smooth muscles 🗝️and have no cilited layers...

Bronchial rings are not completely c shaped and irregular

🔥
Epithelial of alveoli are simple squamous or flattemed epithelial
Lipoproteins are absent in premature birth children disorder is called respiratory distress
syndrome

💍
C shaped rings are made up of hyalin cartilages
Opening of lyranx is glottis
Vocal cards are stretched across lyranx
Two functional vocal cords are there
Trachea is ventral to the esophagus

🐟
And covering of glottis is epiglottis which is hinge like in shape
Oxygen starts disassociate to hb while oxygen partial pressure is 115 to and disassociates at
60mm hg (in tissues)
Oxygen crosses total three structures while crossing alveolus to blood capillaries
1st is alveolar mem mid is basement(non cellular),3rdvis cappilaries memb

🥱
Oxygen crosses 2 cellular and one non cellular alveolus to blood
Bronchi are called terminal bronchioles when its size is about 1mm

🔥
Deoxygenated blood is purple red while oxygenated is bright red
Factors affecting oxygen association
Co2+ h+ hco3+ thus ph-(more acidic due to h+)==>this leads to disassociation of Hbo2

🔥
And when temp+ (increase)Hbo2 disassociation also increase
PH is direct proportional to O2 association with Hb
And H+ is inversly to PH and O2 binding
97% oxygen transported as Hbo2(oxyhemoglobin) and 3%in dissolved plasma
Binding affinity of Co,Co2,O2 with Hb
Co>Co2>O2 (solubility order also)

🔥
200>20>times affinity as compared to oxygen
Co2 concentration regulates the brething
not the O2 but oxygen in shock(emergency)
C02+hb__Zn+² Carbonic anhydrase
Zn+² is cofactor
Transportation of Co2
70% as bicorbonate ions
25% as Blood protein
In 25%(20%carbaminoHaemoglobin and 5%plasma protein)
(And corpuscle with potassium less than 5%
Co2 transport)
In arterial blood 50ml Co2 per 100ml blood
(except pulmonary artery)
In venous blood 54ml Co2 per 100ml blood
(Except pulmonary vein)

🔥
So net exchange from venous blood to arterial is 4% or 4ml per 100ml
Haemoglobin 4polypeptide chain 4 irons are cental in ferris form
1polypeptide chain of Hb combines with 1molecule of O2 thus 4peptide chain 2alpha two beta

❣️
are combined with 4molecules of O2
There is one peptide chain in myoglobin thus carries 1molecule of O2
Co,O2, binds with iron Fe of Haemoglobin
H+ binds with Haemoglobin
CO2 binds with amino group of Haemoglobin
But Hco3 doesn't bind with haem group of hb
While muscle Hb (myoglobin) one polypeptide chain and 1 iron as central

🔥
Both Haemoglobin and myoglobin are globular protein

🤔 H+Hb=haemoglobunic acid which acts as a buffer

But Haemoglobin are quarternary(hydrophobic interactions) while Myogloin are teritary (self
coiling single polypeptide chain)
Affinity of Oxygen binding in Myoglobin is more as compared to Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin carries 75%more O2 as compared to Myogloin

🥱 Haemocyanin containing pig and

invertebrates
🔥
Myoglobin stores and transport O2 while Hb only transports the O2
haemoerythrin are also respiratory pigments in

Respiratory centre is in medulla oblongata(involuntary)

Pneumotaxic centre is present in Pons(increase or decrease rate of respiration)

❣️Myoglobin diassosiates/rrlease O2 when partial pressure is less than 20mmhg

During excrecise brething rate goes around 30per min
In tissues pO2 is less than 60mmhg
115 alveolar partial pressure
Fresh air 200mlhg O2 partial pressure
In 115mmhg 98%saturation 19.6ml per 100ml of blood
115mmhg pO2 at lungs and less than 60mmhg of O2 at tissue level
1gram Hb can bind with 1.34ml of blood
So 10 gram hb with 13.4ml of blood so on..
100ml arterial blood 19.4ml O2
15gramHb per 100ml of blood

♟️
H+Hb=Haemoglobunic acid act as buffer
Volumes
Tidal volume=500ml
Inspiratory reserved vol=2.5l-3l
Residual vol= 1400ml 1600ml
Vital capacity=4l-5l
Total Lung capacity=5l-6l
These all vol are find out by spirometer
Dust cell in alveolus are phagocytic cells

🔥
Emphysema😍
#Disorders

is because of cigarette smoking polutions and different irritants

In it destruction(thickening) of walls of alveolus takes place
Bronchioles abstructed less surface area for gaseous exchange and exhausting, breathless

🤔 😍
conditions  alveolus and air sac are effected most
Tuberculosis
is contagious and is because of the mycobacterium tuberculae

😁 😍
And also because of poor living conditions and malnutrition lungs are effected most
Lungs Caner
Is because of smoking and tar of ciggerate
Alveolus tumour are gonna distruct while lungs
And effect most the respiratory tract especially lungs