POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

WORKBOOK FOR GRADE 12

SHS.docPOLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE WORKBOOK
FOR
Political studies
135 pag.

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OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY

PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
WORKBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH
SCHOOL

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 Manuel F. Deligente, MAED, A.B., Ph. D (Cand.)
Esmeraldo G. Guillermo, MAED; BPM; A.B.
Leopoldo Cinco-Catchuela, Ll.B; MPA; A.B.

Manuel F. Deligente, MAED, A.B., Ph. D (Cand.)

Esmeraldo G. Guillermo, MAED; BPM; A.B.
Leopoldo Cinco-Catchuela, Ll.B; MPA; A.B.

Disclaimer: All written works that appear in this manual are copyrighted by the respective
authors and/or publishers. The authors of this manual claim no credit for said works

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unless otherwise specified. Those who own the rights to any of the used works and may
not wish them to appear in this manual, kindly notify or contact the authors and said works
will be promptly removed in its succeeding edition. Any copy of this manual without the
signatures of the authors on this page proceeds from an unauthorized source thus has no
authority to hold or dispose the same.

PREFACE

This workbook is designed to be used by the learners in the Grade 12 Social

Science classes. It conforms to the prescribed course content requirements of
the Department of Education (DepEd) course map for Grade 12Philippine Politics
and Governance.

According to the Course Description mandated by the DepEd, this course

introduces the students to the basic concepts and vital elements of politics and
governance from a historical-institutional perspective. In particular, it attempts to
explain how the important features of our country’s political structures/institutions,
processes, and relationships developed across time. In the process, the course
helps the learners gain a better appreciation of their rights and responsibilities as
individuals and as members of the larger sociopolitical community to strengthen
their civic competence.

The lessons were crafted and organized to develop the critical thinking of the
Grade 12 students, equip them with comprehensive understanding of Philippine
Politics and Governance and imbue them with the essential core values
envisioned by the DepEd and prepare them to become responsible and
productive members of the community, in particular and the country, in general.
It is expected that this worktext would stimulate the learner’s appetite for learning
vis a vis with the use of modern technology and other pedagogical media.

The workbook is a product of a collaborative endeavor of the authors in

compliance with the mandate of the University/administration, in coordination
with the University Book Committee, and under the supervision of the
Department of Social Sciences of the College of Arts and Sciences.

The authors are also indebted to the writers/authors of the books and articles
used and therefore express their sincerest appreciation and gratitude.

THE AUTHORS

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE 1
COPYRIGHT PAGE 2
PREFACE 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS 4

MODULE 1 - THE CONCEPTS OF POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

Lesson 1 –Meaning of Politics 6
Lesson 2 – How Politics can be Studied 8
Lesson 3 –Meaning of Governance 11

MODULE 2 – POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

Lesson 1 – Meanings of Ideology 17
Lesson 2 – Anarchism versus Absolutism 20
Lesson 3 – Liberalism versus Conservatism 22
Lesson 4 – Socialism 26

MODULE 3 –POWER
Lesson –Nature, Dimensions, Types and Consequences of Power 29

MODULE 4 – STATES, NATIONS, AND GLOBALIZATION

Lesson 1 –Distinction between State and Nation 39
Lesson 2 - Globalization as a Context of Relations among
Nation-States 43

MODULE 5 – HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PHILIPPINE DEMOCRATIC

POLITICS
Lesson 1 - History of Philippine Politics and Government 46
Lesson 2 - Description of Philippine Government and Politics 55

MODULE 6 - THE EXECUTIVE 60

MODULE 7 - THE LEGISLATIVE 71

MODULE 8 –THE JUDICIARY 79

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MODULE 9 - DECENTRALIZATION AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE 90

MODULE 10 - ELECTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 100

MODULE 11 - CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 111

MODULE 12–CITIZENSHIP 126

MODULE 13 – INTEGRATION 138

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES 145

GLOSSARY 159

REFERENCES 162

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 MODULE I
CONCEPTS OF POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
LESSON 1: THE MEANING OF POLITICS

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Demonstrate understanding about politics and political science,

governance, political ideologies, power, states, nations, and
globalization;
2. Clearly identify a specific political phenomenon and how it can be
studied; and
3. Articulate definitions of politics.
LEARNING CONTENT:

Politics is the way in which we understand and order our social affairs, and
acquire greater control over the situation. (B. Pomton and P. Gill, Politics,
Introduction. (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1982, p.6.)

It is also the strategy for maintaining cooperation among people with different
needs and ideals in life, or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this
is a family, a tribe, a village or a nation-state. (Amable G. Tuibeo, “Politics and
Governance: A Critical Introduction (Makati: Grandwater Publication, 1998),
p.1.

Political Scientist Harold Lasswell, author of a major study of the distributive

consequences of political activity, gave his book the title, Politics--Who Gets
What, When, and How. Lasswell, in effect, defined "politics" as involving
questions as to "who gets what, when, and how." Politics, according to Lasswell,
is concerned with determination, by official governmental decision making and
action, of:

a. Who in political society receives what benefits, rewards, and advantages

and how much of them they receive,

b. when they receive the benefits, rewards, and advantages, and

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 c. the methods by which they receive them.

Conversely, politics is also concerned with determining, by governmental

decision making and action, (1) who in society is denied what benefits, rewards,
and advantages, (2) when and how long they are denied them, and (3) the
methods by which they are subjected to such deprivations.

Politics and Everyday Life

a. Politics is all about the way human beings are governed, which involves
order, power, and justice. It is not just an abstract study;
b. It involves the government’s day-to-day performance;
c. It does not affect only one individual, but is inextricably bound up with the
perpetual quest for what is fair or just in light of the interest of the entire
community;
d. Issue is more or less political based on the extent that the use of political
power affects the lives and well-being of private citizens; and
e. An issue becomes political when the government must render a decision,
which must always be for the common good of the community.

Politics in the Philippines

It takes place in an organized framework of a presidential, representative, and

democratic republic. It revolves around the three separate and sovereign yet
interdependent branches: The Legislative branch (the law-making body, Article
VI, 1987 Philippine Constitution); The Executive branch (the law-enforcing body,
Article VII, 1987 Philippine Constitution); and The Judicial branch (the law-
interpreting body, Article VIII, 1987 Philippine Constitution).

LESSON CHECK UP:

Give the meaning of the following words or phrases:

1. Politics _______________________________________________
2. Political Science________________________________________
3. Government___________________________________________
4. State_________________________________________________
5. Sovereignty____________________________________________

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6. Nation________________________________________________

MODULE I
CONCEPTS OF POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
LESSON 2: HOW POLITICS CAN BE STUDIED

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Differentiate the various views on politics; and

2. Explore the connection between the phenomenon (politics) and the
method of inquiry (Political Science)

LEARNING CONTENT:

How is Politics Studied?

Political Science deals with the systematic study of political structures, political
processes and political behavior. A number of approaches and methods have
been suggested and used by thinkers and scholars of political science for the
scientific investigation of political phenomena and
for the arrival at systematic generalizations and theories. 

But, as Giovanni Sartori has pointed out, “approaches and research methods are

largely decided by the kind of evidence which is available for the units, and the
kind of problems with which one deals" In using the term "approach" we mean a
particular orientation or point of view in looking at and interpreting the world of
politics.

By making use of a particular set of concepts and assumptions about the

salience of certain factors, an approach seeks to provide a framework for
analysis, explanation and prediction. In the criterion of time dimension,
approaches to the study of political science, can be broadly classified into
traditional and modern or behavioral. Philosophical, historical and legal-
institutional modes of analysis are often called traditional while value-free,
empirical and behavioral modes of enquiry come under modern approaches.

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The dichotomy between tradition al and modern approaches need not be
stressed too far for the simple reason that political analysis is characterized by a
degree of continuity from the distant past to the contemporary, both with regard
to substance and approaches and methods of study.

Traditional Approach

Traditional approach to the study of political science is a combination of views on

and orientations to politics in philosophical, ethical and institutional terms. Since
the time of Plato and Aristotle, the great issues of politics have revolved around
the organization and functioning of the state- the political institution par
excellence. Traditional approaches exhibit certain well defined features.

Characteristics of Traditional Approaches:

1. Traditional approaches are largely normative and stresses on the values
of politics
2. Emphasis is on the study of different political structures and institution
3. Traditional approaches made very little attempt to relate theory and
research
4. These approaches believe that since facts and values are closely
interlinked, studies in 6olitical 5cience can never be scientific.

The traditional approach is further divided into various forms:

1. Philosophical-This approach firmly believes that values cannot be

separated from the study of politics and political system. Therefore, its
main concern is to judge what is good or bad in any political society.
2. Historical-As the name of this approach is related to history, it
emphasizes on the study of history of every political reality to analyze
any situation.
3. Institutional-This approach is concerned with the study of formal
structures and institutions like legislature, executive, judiciary, political
parties, etc.
4. Legal- This approach is concerned with the legal process, legal bodies
or institutions, justice and independence of judiciary.

Behavioral Approach

The behavioral approach to political science mainly emphasizes on scientific,

objective and value free study of political phenomenon. This approach stresses
upon the use of empirical as well as scientific methods of study political behavior.

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This approach shifts its emphasis from the study of the state and government to
the day-today problems, activities and behavior of individuals and groups.

Characteristics of Behaviorism:

1. Regularities -believes that there are certain uniformities in political

behavior which can be expressed in generalizations or theories in order
to explain and predict political phenomena.
2. Verification -emphasizes testing and verifying everything. According to
the behaviorists, what cannot be verified is not scientific.
3. Techniques -put emphasis on the use of those research tools and
methods which generate valid, reliable and comparative data.
4. Quantification -After collecting data, the researcher should measure
and quantify those data.
5. Values -believe that to do objective research one has to be value free.
6. Systematization -research in Political Science must be systematic.
Theory and research should go together.
7. Pure Science -believes that the study of Political Science should be
verified by evidence.
8. Integration -Political Science should not be separated from various other
social sciences like history, sociology and economics, etc.

LESSON CHECK UP

Compare and Contrast Traditional Approach from Behavioral Approach

Approach in the Study
Definition Characteristic Features
of Politics

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 MODULE I
CONCEPTS OF POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
LESSON 3: MEANING OF GOVERNANCE

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Recognize the value of politics; and

2. Differentiate governance from government.

LEARNING CONTENT:

GOVERNANCE

Governance has been defined to refer to structures and processes that are
designed to ensure accountability, transparency, responsiveness, rule of law,
stability, equity and inclusiveness, effectiveness and efficiency and broad-based
participation.

Good governance is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics: (1)

Participatory; (2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5)
Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7) Consensus Oriented; and (8)
Accountability.

They are inextricably related to each other. For instance, without active
participation among the various actors in governance, there would be a
concomitant lack of responsiveness. Likewise, if decision-making is not
transparent, then inevitably there would be no participation, accountability, and
decisions are not consensus-oriented.

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Elements of Good Governance

1. Participation -Good governance essentially requires participation of different

sectors of the society. Participation means active involvement of all affected and
interested parties in the decision-making process. It requires an enabling
environment wherein pertinent information is effectively disseminated and people
could respond in an unconstrained and truthful manner. It also means gender
equality, recognizing the vital roles of both men and women in decision-making.
Participation is one of the strengths of Philippine governance. The 1987
Philippine Constitution is replete of provisions dealing with relational and inter-
sectoral governance. The Local Government Code of 1991 was borne out of the
need for decentralization in Philippine governance. As such, these and other
related legislations may be considered as normative standards for good
governance.

2. Rule of Law -Democracy is essentially the rule of law. It is through the law
that people express their will and exercise their sovereignty. That the government
is of law and not of men is an underlying democratic principle which puts no one,
however rich and powerful, above the law. Not even the government can
arbitrarily act in contravention of the law. Thus, good democratic governance is
fundamentally adherence to the rule of law. Rule of law demands that the people
and the civil society render habitual obedience to the law. It also demands that
the government acts within the limits of the powers and functions prescribed by
the law. The absence of rule of law is anarchy. Anarchy happens when people
act in utter disregard of law and when the government act whimsically or
arbitrarily beyond their powers. In more concrete terms, rule of law means “peace
and order,” “absence of corruption,” “impartial and effective justice system,”
“observance and protection of human rights,” and “clear, publicized, and stable
laws.” Rule of law also requires that laws are responsive to the needs of the
society. Archaic or irrelevant laws must be amended or repealed to cater to
modern demands.

3. Effectiveness and Efficiency -Good governance requires that the institutions,

processes, and actors could deliver and meet the necessities of the society in a
way that available resources are utilized well. That the different actors meet the
needs of the society means that there is effective governance. That the valuable
resources are utilized, without wasting or underutilizing any of them, means that
there is efficient governance. Effectiveness (meeting the needs) and efficiency
(proper utilization of resources) must necessarily go together to ensure the best

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possible results for the community. Concretely, effectiveness and efficiency
demands “enhancement and standardization of the quality of public service
delivery consistent with international standards,” “professionalization of
bureaucracy,” “focusing of government efforts on its vital functions, and
elimination of redundancies or overlaps in functions and operations,” “a citizen-
centered government,” and “an improved financial management system of the
government.”

Professionalism in Philippine bureaucracy requires competence and integrity in

civil service. Appointments to civil service must be depoliticized and must be
based solely on merits. Effectiveness and efficiency also demands that the
programs and objectives of the various government agencies are aligned with
individual performance goals. The increases in compensation are likewise
necessary for the economic well-being, sustained competence and boosted
morale of the civil servants. Although still insufficient, efforts were made to attain
effectiveness and efficiency in Philippine governance. The Anti-Red Tape Act of
2007 (ARTA), for instance, was passed to require the setting up of Citizen’s
Charter for a simplified procedure and to facilitate governmental transactions.
Also, many government departments and agencies pursued a rationalization
program to check excessive and redundant staffing.

4. Transparency - As an indicator of good governance, transparency means that

people are open to information regarding decision-making process and the
implementation of the same. In legal terms, it means that information on matters
of public concern is made available to the citizens or those who will be directly
affected. It also means that transactions involving public interests must be fully
disclosed and made accessible to the people. It is anchored on the democratic
right to information and right to access of the same. Transparency is necessary
not just from government transactions but also in those transactions of the civil
society and private sector imbued with public interests.

Reason why there should be transparency - To promote and protect democratic

ideals. When there is transparency, people are placed in a better position to
know and protect their rights as well as denounce corrupt or fraudulent practices
in the public sector and in the private sector.

5. Responsiveness - Means that institutions and processes serve all

stakeholders in a timely and appropriate manner. It also means that actors and
structures of governance easily give genuine expression to the will or desire of
the people. In other words, the interests of all citizens must be well protected in a

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prompt and appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take
part in the process of governance. While responsiveness is also a characteristic
sought from the private sector and civil society, more is demanded from the
government or the public sector.

Gender equality is engrained in the egalitarian principles of democracy. Gender

concerns that respond to the women and their community must always be part of
the agenda of public sector and civil society. Thus, emerging as important areas
in the study of democratic governance are “Gender and Development” and
“Gender Responsiveness.” The participation of women in governance within the
context of “gendered socialization” rests on how responsive the structures and
processes are to their roles and needs.
Some of the important efforts made to attain responsive governance in the
Philippines are decentralization, creation of citizen’s charter in all frontline
agencies and gender sensitivity programs.

First, through decentralization, local governments, which are more proximate to

their constituents, serve more promptly the people, who in turn become more
involved in decision-making. Second, every government agency now has it
Citizen’s Charter, which provides timeframes for every step in attaining frontline
services. Agencies now must also respond to written queries sent by the
stakeholders or interested parties within a period of ten days, otherwise there will
be delayed service. However, this aspect of governance still remains to be one of
the causes for the decline of public’s confidence in the public sector.

6. Equity and Inclusiveness -Equity and inclusiveness means that all the
members of the society, especially the most vulnerable ones or the grassroots
level, must be taken into consideration in policy-making. Everyone has a stake in
the society and no one should feel alienated from it. Particularly, those who
belong to the grassroots level must not only be the subject of legislation but they
must be given the opportunity to participate in decision or policy making. Social
equity refers to a kind of justice that gives more opportunity to the less fortunate
members of the society. It is based on the principle that those who have less in
life should have more in law. Good governance demands that the actors must
give preferential attention to the plight of the poor. Laws must be geared towards
this end and the society must actively participate in the promotion of the same.

The Philippine Government has done extensive efforts in promoting equity and
inclusiveness. The current Constitution makes it as one of its state policies the
promotion of social justice. Pursuant to this, the Congress has enacted social

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legislations like the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law which aims at freeing
the farmer tenants from the bondage of the soil. Also, representation in the
Congress, under the party list system, is constitutionally mandated to have
sectoral representation of the underprivileged. Gender and Development
programs are in the process of being integrated with the various structures and
institutions in the country. But legislation is one thing; implementation is another.

7. Consensus-Oriented -Governance is consensus-oriented when decisions are

made after taking into consideration the different viewpoints of the actors of the
society. Mechanisms for conflict resolution must be in place because inevitably
conflict that will arise from competing interests of the actors. To meet the
consensus, a strong, impartial, and flexible mediation structure must be
established. Without such, compromises and a broad consensus cannot be
reached that serves that best interest of the whole community. Fundamentally,
democratic governance is based on the partnership of the actors of the society in
providing public services. Decision-making must therefore entail recognition of
their respective interests as well as their respective duties. The essential of
governance could never be expressed in a unilateral act of policy making by the
public sector or other dominant sectors. Public hearings or consultations in
arriving at a consensus are therefore inherently necessary in the process of
governance.

Among the things done by the Philippines in promoting a consensus-oriented

governance are: (1) creation of a wide-based of representation in the Congress;
(2) a two-tiered legislature or bicameralism which subject legislation to the
evaluation of national and district legislators; and (3) necessity of public hearings
or consultations of various governmental policies and actions.

8. Accountability -Accountability means answerability or responsibility for one’s

action. It is based on the principle that every person or group is responsible for
their actions most especially when their acts affect public interest. The actors
have an obligation to explain and be answerable for the consequences of
decisions and actions they have made on behalf of the community it serves.

Accountability comes in various forms: political, hierarchical, and managerial

accountability. Political accountability refers to the accountability of public
officials to the people they represent. Hierarchical accountability refers to the
ordered accountability of the various agencies and their respective officers and
personnel in relation to their program objectives. Managerial accountability
refers to employee accountability based on organization and individual

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performance. A system of rewards and punishment must be in place to
strengthen the processes and institutions of governance.

The Philippines in the recent years had endeavored to comply with the
requirements of accountability. It had put in action the concept of political
accountability as it held answerable erring public officials involved in graft and
corruption and for acts contrary to the mandate of the constitution. It had also
strengthened parliamentary scrutiny through legislative investigations and
creation of special committees exercising oversight functions. The Office of the
Ombudsman, considered as the public watchdog, has become ever so active in
investigating and prosecuting graft and plunders cases. Citizen’s Charter, as
required by ARTA, was also an important tool in promoting professional public
service values. In this area, Philippine governance has done relatively well.

Importance of Studying Governance

From the information learned in the discussion of governance, the people, most
especially the citizens, will be aware of the need for good governance.
Consequently, such awareness should move them to action. For their continued
empowerment and sustainable development, they have to know how to fight for
their rights by knowing what to expect from Philippine governance. Thus, what
will follow is an exposition of the basic concepts of governance, the ideal type of
governance, and the status of the Philippines vis-à-vis the indicators of good
governance.

LESSON CHECK UP

Identify Which Characteristic of Good Governance Is Being Defined

1. active involvement of 2. information on matters
all affected and of public concern is
interested parties in made available to the
the decision-making citizens or those who
process will be directly
affected

3. institutions and 4. answerability or 5. decisions are made

processes serve all responsibility for one’s after taking into
stakeholders in a action consideration the
timely and appropriate
different viewpoints of
manner

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 the actors of the
society
6. demands that the 7. requires that the 8. all the members of the
people and the civil institutions, processes, society must be taken
society render habitual and actors could into consideration in
obedience to the law deliver and meet the
policy-making
necessities of the
society in a way that
available resources are
utilized well
MODULE 2
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
LESSON1: BASIC TENETS OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Demonstrate understanding about political ideologies;

2. Examine the various definitions of ideologies; and
3. Analyze how political ideologies impact on the social and political life of
Filipino

LEARNING CONTENT:

MEANING OF IDEOLOGY

Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative beliefs, conscious and

unconscious ideas, that an individual, group or society has.

An ideology is less encompassing than the ideas expressed in concepts such as

worldview, imaginary and ontology.

Political ideologies can be proposed by the dominant class of society such as

the elite to all members of society as suggested in some Marxist and critical-
theory accounts. In societies that distinguish between public and private life,
every political or economic tendency entails ideology, whether or not it is
propounded as an explicit system of thought.

Louis Althusser’s Ideological State Apparatuses (2010) in essence define

ideology as “the imaginary relation to the real conditions of existence”.

Ideological Analyses

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There has been considerable analysis of different ideological patterns. This kind
of analysis has been described by some as meta-ideology – the study of the
structure, form, and manifestation of ideologies. Recent analysis tends to posit
that ideology is a coherent system of ideas, relying upon a few basic
assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Ideas
become ideologies (that are, become coherent, repeated patterns) through the
subjective ongoing choices that people make, serving as the seed around which
further thought grows. According to most recent analysis, ideologies are neither
necessarily right nor wrong. Believers in ideology range from passive acceptance
through fervent advocacy to true belief. An excessive need for certitude lurks at
fundamentalist levels in politics and religions.

The works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, done under the heading of
systematic ideology, are attempts to explore the relationships between ideology
and social systems. Charles Blattberg has offered an account which
distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies.

David W. Minar describes six different ways in which the word “ideology” has
been used:

 As a collection of certain ideas with certain kinds of content, usually

normative;
 As the form or internal logical structure that ideas have within a set;
 By the role in which ideas play in human-social interaction;
 By the role that ideas play in the structure of an organization;
 As meaning, whose purpose is persuasion; and
 As the locus (a central or main place)of social interaction.

For Willard A. Mullins an ideology should be contrasted with the related (but
different) issues of utopia and historical myth. An ideology is composed of four
basic characteristics:

 it must have power over cognition

 it must be capable of guiding one’s evaluations;
 it must provide guidance towards action; and
 it must be logically coherent.

Terry Eagleton outlines (more or less in no particular order) some definitions of

ideology:

 the process of production of meanings, signs and values in social life;

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  a body of ideas characteristic of a particular social group or class;
 ideas which help to legitimate a dominant political power;
 false ideas which help to legitimate a dominant political power;
 systematically distorted communication;
 that which offers a position for a subject;
 forms of thought motivated by social interests;
 identity thinking;
 socially necessary illusion;
 the conjuncture of discourse and power;
 the medium in which conscious social actors make sense of their world;
 action-oriented sets of beliefs;
 the confusion of linguistic and phenomenal reality;
 semiotic closure;
 the indispensable medium in which individuals live out their relations to a
social structure;
 the process whereby social life is converted to a natural reality.

The German philosopher Christian Duncker called for a “critical reflection of the
ideology concept” (2006). In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology
into the foreground, as well as the closely connected concerns of epistemology
and history. In this work, the term ideology is defined in terms of a system of
presentations that explicitly or implicitly claim to absolute truth.

Though the word “ideology” is most often found in political discourse, there are
many different kinds of ideology: political, social, epistemological, ethical, etc.

LESSON CHECK UP

Why is Ideology a Significant Element in a Political System?

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 MODULE 2
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
LESSON 2: ANARCHISM VERSUS ABSOLUTISM

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Identify the basic tenets of Anarchism and Absolutism, and

2. Differentiate the political ideologies.

LEARNING CONTENT:

MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

Major Political Ideologies: Over the millennia, political philosophers have

expounded on a variety of political ideologies, or ways governments and
societies can be organized. Today, scholars generally talk about five major
political ideologies – (1) Anarchism; (2) Absolutism; (3) Liberalism; (4)
Conservatism; and (5) Socialism.

These political ideologies are, for the most part, mutually exclusive. So, a liberal
government does not usually practice socialism, nor does an absolute ruler follow
liberalism. The five major political ideologies have played a key role in world
history by shaping governments and political movements.

Anarchism

The belief that the best government is absolutely no government is known as

anarchism. This ideology argues that everything about governments is
repressive and therefore must be abolished entirely. A related ideology known as
nihilism emphasizes that everything—both government and society—must be
periodically destroyed in order to start anew. Nihilists often categorically reject

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traditional concepts of morality in favor of violence and terror. Anarchism and
nihilism were once associated with socialism because many anarchists and
nihilists supported the socialists’ call for revolution and the complete overhaul of
government and society in the early to mid-twentieth century.
Example: Although neither violent nor strictly anarchist, members of the
American Libertarian Party believe that government should be so small that it
hardly ever interferes in citizens’ lives, thereby best preserving individual liberty.
Russia has had a long association with anarchism and nihilism. Many prominent
members of both movements were Russian, including Mikhail Bakunin,
considered the father of anarchism. Russian nihilists engaged in a number of
terrorist attacks in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including the
assassination of Czar Alexander II in 1881.

2. Absolutism

Traditionally, much of Western civilization’s history was dominated by absolutism,

the belief that a single ruler should have control over every aspect of the
government and of the people’s lives. Absolute rulers had a variety of titles,
including chieftain, king, shah, pharaoh, emperor, sultan, and prince. In some
cultures, the absolute ruler was seen as a god in human form. Other peoples
believed that their ruler had the divine right of kings, meaning that God had
chosen the ruler to govern the rest. As a result, many cultures with absolute
rulers practiced some form of caesaropapism, the belief that the ruler is head of
both the governmental authority and the religious authority.

Advocates of Absolutism -A number of political philosophers have advocated

absolutism. The Greek philosopher Plato, for example, firmly believed that the
best government would be run by a benevolent absolute ruler who would have
the people’s best interests at heart. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes,
meanwhile, was perhaps the most persuasive proponent of absolutism. In his
book Leviathan (1651), he argued that life without governments was “nasty,
brutish, and short” and that people must willingly submit to absolute rulers—even
tyrannical ones—in order to live longer, more stable lives.

Absolutism emphasizes:
 A strong sense of order: Everything should be carefully structured,
including society. Disorder and chaos are generally considered to be
dangerous.
 A clear-cut law of nature (or law of God): This law must be obeyed.
According to this law, some people are inherently better than others.

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  A natural hierarchy: a power structure in which some people have
authority over others exists. Therefore, the superior should rule the
inferior. This general view is called elitism, or elite theory.

LESSON CHECK UP

A. Compare and Contrast Anarchism and Absolutism

Political Ideology Advantages Disadvantages

B. Make a biographical sketch of an absolute monarch and a notorious

anarchist of the current dispensation.

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 MODULE 2
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
LESSON 3: LIBERALISM VERSUS CONSERVATISM

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

A. Identify the basic tenets Liberalism and Conservatism; and

B. Differentiate the political ideologies.

LEARNING CONTENT:

LIBERALISM

In the early modern age of the Western world (beginning roughly in the early
1500s and running for about 200 years), a number of changes occurred that led
to new ideologies: The European discovery of the Americas, the rise of
Protestantism, the beginnings of the free-market economy, and the early stages
of the scientific revolution fundamentally altered Europe. People began
developing different ways of thinking to take account of these changes.

Perhaps the most important of the new ideas is liberalism (also known as
classical liberalism). This type of liberalism, which began in England in the
1600s, differs from American liberalism. Classical liberalism developed when
such thinkers as John Locke (in his Second Treatise of Government in 1690)
rethought the relationship between the individual and society, as well theorized
about the rights and responsibilities of the individual. These ideas formed the
foundation for many political systems still operating today.

Liberalism in Action - During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the

monarchy and much of the church were destroyed, as were traditional laws and
habits in different parts of the country. The revolutionaries exalted reason, to the
point of literally creating a temple to it (the revolutionaries renamed the Church of

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Notre Dame in Paris “the Temple of Reason”) in 1793. But as a result of the
revolution, France plunged into years of civil war and violence. Only the
emergence of Napoleon—an authoritarian ruler—brought stability back to the
country.

Liberalism emphasizes:
 Individualism - The individual takes priority over society;
 Freedom -Individuals have the right to make choices for themselves.
This freedom is not absolute, and some behaviors, such as murder, are
prohibited. Freedom of religion is a particularly important freedom to
come out of liberalism because so many governments at the time were
very closely tied to a particular religious creed;
 Equality- No person is morally or politically superior to others.
Hierarchies are rejected;
 Rationalism - Humans are capable of thinking logically and rationally.
Logic and reason help us solve problems;
 Progress- Traditions should not be kept unless they have value. New
ideas are helpful because they can lead to progress in the sciences, the
economy, and society;
 The free market - Liberalism and capitalism go hand in hand. Liberals
like the free market because it more easily creates wealth, as opposed to
traditional economies, which often have extensive regulations and limits
on which occupations people can hold.

These basic characteristics of liberalism have led liberals to argue in favor of a

limited government, which draws its power from the people. In practice, this has
meant favoring a democratic government.

Mill’s Good Government - In his books On Liberty (1859) and Considerations of

Representative Government (1861), English philosopher J. S. Mill argued that
good governments should be unrestricting enough to allow people—both men
and women—to pursue their own interests and achieve their own potential as
they see fit. Fostering individuality would, in turn, benefit society as a whole,
because fewer people would feel restricted or marginalized. Mill also believed
that representative democracy was the best form of government because it
allowed people to express their individuality and provided them the opportunity to
take a more active role in the political process. The more active the people are,
Mill thought, the more satisfied they are with their government.

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Classical liberalism has profoundly influenced the modern world, so much so that
we do not even realize how controversial its ideas were in early modern Europe.
Back then, liberal ideas were considered dangerous and inflammatory by
traditional European governments, and liberals were frequently persecuted. Even
after liberalism took hold in England, the rest of Europe was hostile to liberal
ideas for another century (and even longer in some cases).

Example: For centuries, Eastern Europe suffered greatly from authoritarian rule,
in which one person or a small group holds all the political power and oppresses
everybody else. As recently as 1989, open discussion of liberal ideas (such as
the free market) or publicly complaining that the communist governments did not
speak for the people could get a person arrested. The writer Vaclav Havel, for
example, was jailed by the Czechoslovakian government. But after the 1989 end
of the communist government in Czechoslovakia, Havel served as the newly
democratic government’s first president.

CONSERVATISM

Conservatism (also known as classical conservatism) began as a reaction

against the liberal ideas taking hold of Europe during the French Revolution in
the late eighteenth century. This type of conservatism differs from American
conservatism. Edmund Burke, a British Member of Parliament, observed the
early stages of the French Revolution with great distress and predicted the
violence and terror that would ensue. His book, Reflections on the Revolution in
France (1790), is one of the founding texts of classical conservatism.

Burke and other conservatives attacked liberalism for many reasons. They
argued that liberalism destroyed tradition. In its rush to overturn the old and bring
in the new, liberalism and capitalism ruthlessly attacked traditional institutions
and beliefs.

Conservatism emphasizes:
 Stability - Stability is a precious thing, and change must be made
gradually in order to preserve it. Undermining stability is very dangerous
because societies can easily fall into chaos and violence. Classical
liberals frequently called for revolution, which opens the door to great
turbulence, according to the classical conservative view;
 Concreteness - Liberalism is too abstract. It focuses on freedom and
equality, not on the concrete way people live every day;

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  Human fallibility - Liberalism overestimates human beings. Humans are
frequently ignorant, prejudiced, and irrational. By ignoring these defects,
liberalism becomes unrealistic;
 Unique circumstances - There is no universal answer to the problems
of society; the circumstances are unique in each country.

Classical Conservatism and Democracy

Many early conservatives favored authoritarian government. In the aftermath of

the Napoleonic Wars (roughly 1792–1815), for example, most European
governments actively worked to stop the spread of liberalism and democracy.
Nevertheless, conservatives were not necessarily hostile to democracy.
Generally, these conservatives argued that some sort of monarchy was
necessary, but some were more open to popular government. Burke, in
particular, thought that limited democracy was a good form of government for
England, as long as it maintained the customs and mores it inherited from its
predecessors.

Classical Conservatism Today

For the most part, classical conservatism has faded. Most people who label
themselves conservatives are more like American conservatives than classical
ones. But there are still some classical conservatives. Many of them in Europe
have ties to old noble families, and some advocate monarchism. Classical
conservatives can also be found in other parts of the world.

LESSON CHECK UP

A. Compare and Contrast Liberalism and Conservatism

Political Ideology Definition Characteristic Features

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 B. Can Liberalism and Conservatism Co-Exist? Why?
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MODULE 2
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
LESSON 4: BASIC TENETS OF SOCIALISM

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Identify the basic tenets of Socialism

2. Differentiate the political ideologies; and
3. Examine the relationship between political ideologies and configurations
of political communities

LEARNING CONTENT:

SOCIALISM

Socialism arose as a response to the Industrial Revolution, which was the

emergence of technologies such as the steam engine and mass production. The
Industrial Revolution started in England in the last years of the eighteenth century
and had spread too much of Europe and America by the end of the nineteenth
century. It caused major upheavals: In a very short time, many people were
forced to abandon agricultural ways of life for the modern mechanized world of
factories.

Early versions of socialism were put forward in Europe in the first part of the
nineteenth century (these versions are often dubbed “utopian socialism”), but
truly influential socialist theories did not emerge until industrialization expanded
in the mid-nineteenth century. Karl Marx is the best-known theorist of socialism.
Along with Friedrich Engels, Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) as a
call to revolution. Other prominent socialist-thinkers included Karl Kautsky,
Vladimir Lenin, and Antonio Gramsci.

Socialist Beliefs

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Socialism emphasizes:
 Collectivism -Human beings are social by nature, and society should
respect this. Individualism is poisonous;
 Public ownership - Society, not individuals, should own the property;
 Central economic planning - The government plans the economy;
there is no free market;
 Economic equality - All citizens have roughly the same level of
prosperity.

Class Warfare

According to socialists, liberalism fails to live up to its promises of freedom and

equality. Socialists blame the free market for liberalism’s failings. Under a
capitalist system, money and means of production are the measures of power.
The haves (the bourgeoisie, in Marx’s terms) and the have-nots (whom Marx
calls the proletariat) are locked into a fight that Marx called class warfare.
Because they control the money and means of production, the bourgeoisie have
the power and thus are winning the fight. The rich use the government to further
their control and to increase their power over the lower, poorer classes, so
people are neither free nor equal.

The Evolution of Socialism

Socialism evolved in a variety of ways. Communism and democratic socialism

are the two most prominent evolutions of socialism.

Communism: An authoritarian and revolutionary approach to achieving

socialism. As an ideology, communism emphasizes a classless society in which
all members jointly share the means and output of production. The regimes of the
Soviet Union and communist China embody this ideology. Communists such as
Vladimir Lenin, who became the first premier of the Soviet Union in 1917, argued
that people can and must make the transition to socialism quickly rather than
waiting for it to evolve. Authoritarian and violent measures are often required
because the defenders of capitalism will fight ferociously to stop socialism from
coming into being.

Communism Today

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With the fall of communist regimes in Russia and Eastern Europe, communism
has been in retreat for most of the 1990s and 2000s. There are, for example,
fewer communist movements around the world than during the Cold War. But
there are still several major communist regimes, including the governments of
North Korea and Cuba.

Democratic socialism: A peaceful and democratic approach to achieving

socialism. As an ideology, democratic socialism also emphasizes a classless
society in which all members jointly share the means and output of production.
But unlike communism, democratic socialism attempts to achieve its goals
peacefully via the democratic processes. Democratic socialists reject the need
for immediate transition to socialism in favor of a gradualist approach, achieved
by working within a democratic government. Economic inequalities should be
remedied through a welfare state, a system that provides aid to the poor and help
to the unemployed.

Democratic Socialism Today

Democratic socialism has been quite successful in Western Europe and

Scandinavia. Many governments there have extensive welfare systems that have
remained largely intact even when democratic socialists are voted out of office.
Democratic socialist parties exist in many democracies around the world.
Germany’s Social Democratic Party and Britain’s Labor Party are contemporary
examples of successful political parties heavily influenced by democratic
socialism.

LESSON CHECK UP

Differentiate Socialism from Communism

Political Ideology Definition Characteristic Features

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 MODULE 3
POWER
LESSON: POWER: MEANING, NATURE, DIMENSIONS AND METHODS

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Define power;
2. Recognize the nature, dimensions, types, and consequences of power;
3. Analyze the nature, dimensions, types, deployments, and consequences
of power; and
4. Assess how power is exercised in different situations

LEARNING CONTENT:

POWER: MEANING, NATURE, DIMENSIONS AND METHODS

What is Power?

Power may be explained in different ways because its meaning is within the
context of human relations. We are encountered with many different explanations
in various disciplines. Even within a single social discipline, power is defined in
several different ways.

Some social scientists define it as the use of force whereas many others explain
it as the capacity to secure the desired goals through the use of force or threat of
use of force or even by exercising influence.

According to Morgenthau “Power is the power of man on others” and as a “man’s

control over the minds and actions of other men.”

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Another definition is from Schwarzenberger who view power as “the capacity of
one to impose his will on others by reliance on effective sanctions in case of non-
compliance.”

Charles P. Schleicher defines power as “the ability to exercise such control as to

make others do what they otherwise would not do by rewarding or promising to
reward them, or by depriving or threatening to deprive them of something they
value.”

Based on these definitions we can say that power in the context of human
relations is the capacity and ability to secure a desired and intended effect or
gain through the use of force, influence and sanctions.

In Social Science and Politics, Poweris the ability to influence or outright control

the behavior of people. It is authority when the power is perceived
as legitimate by the social structure. Power may also be seen as evil or unjust,
but the exercise of power is accepted as reserved only to humans as social
beings. 

What is National Power then? “National Power is that combination of power and
capability of a state which the state uses for fulfilling its national interests and
goals” according to Padelford and Lincoln. To Hartman, it denotes the ability of a
nation to fulfil national goals, how much powerful or weak a particular nation in
securing them.

National Power is simply the ability or capability of a nation to secure the goals
and objectives of its national interests in relation with other nations. It involves
the capacity to use force or threat of use of force or influence over others for
securing the goals of national interest. In this way, we can define National Power
as “the ability to control the behaviour of other states in accordance with one’s
own will.” National Power is the currency of international relations.

Nation in political science a union of a society of inhabitants of the same country,

speaking the same language, coming from a common racial ancestry, obeying
the same laws and a community of interests and sentiments formed over the
lapse of years.

Nature of National Power

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For understanding the nature of National Power let us know the meaning of the
terms ‘National’ and ‘Power’:

National

National means pertaining to the nation making national power the power of a
nation. However, in the context of national power the term ‘nation’ does not mean
the same as in Political Science. In the context of national powers, nation stands
for the power of the group of decision makers and authorities who exercise
power on behalf of the nation. It is the power of the decision-makers who
formulate and implement the foreign policy of the nation and thereby attempt to
secure national goals.

National Power does not mean the power of the entire population of the state. It
is only a psychological link that makes the people regard the power of the
decision-makers as their own power.

Power:

For understanding the nature of power in the context of National Power, it is

necessary to distinguish between Power and Force, and Power and Influence.

Power and Force: Force means physical force, violence in the form of police
action, imprisonment, punishment or war. Power means a psychological
relationship of control which is backed by the use of force, or threat of use of
force. When physical force, war and other means involving the use of military
power or police power are actually used to secure certain objectives, power
stands replaced by force.

Power and Influence: Both involve the ability to produce an intended change or
effect in the behavior of others. However, the two are not the same. Power
involves a use of force or threat of use of force. Political Power or Legal Power is
backed by authority or sovereignty of the state.

Influence involves the attempt to change the behavior of others through

persuasion and not by threats or force. The scope of influence is wider than the
scope of power and it is more democratic than power.

8 Main Features of National Power:

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National Power has a non-stable, dynamic character and as such it has to be
continuously or at least periodically and regularly evaluated for understanding the
role of the nation in international relations. National power is always dynamic. A
powerful nation can become less powerful or more powerful in future.

The Most Important Features of National Power in Politics:

1. Is both a Means as well as an End in International Relations:

National Power is the means to control the behavior of other states with a view to
accomplish certain ends. It is recognized as the currency with which a nation can
secure the desired values—peace, security, progress, development, status, and
more power. Nations use power to secure their interests in international relations.
This makes power a means in relations among nations.

However, in actual practice power is pursued as an objective or as an end.

Nations want power not only for their immediate but also for their future needs.
They, therefore, always try to build up a reserve of power and hence pursue
power as an end. Thus, power like money is a means but it is mostly pursued as
an end.

2. National Power is the Ability to Secure Goals of National Interest:

National Power is the ability or capacity of a nation to influence or change the

behavior of other nations with a view to secure the goals of its national interest. It
is a relationship in which a powerful nation is in a position to achieve its desired
goals of national interest in international relations. National Power is measured in
terms of a nation’s ability to secure its goals and objectives in international
relations.

3. National Power is Dynamic and Relative in Character:

National power is always relative to time and resources. The power of a nation
has to be analyzed both through an analysis of the capabilities and ability of the
nation as well as by a comparison of its national power with other nations..

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National Power has a non-stable, dynamic character and as such it has to be
continuously or at least periodically and regularly evaluated for understanding the
role of the nation in international relations. National power is always dynamic. A
powerful nation can become less powerful or more powerful in future.

This depends upon the changes in the power potential of other nations as well as
upon the various components of national power. The power of a nation is always
relative to the powers of other nations, particularly the power of its adversaries. In
1990, the collapse of the USSR and decline in the Russian power acted as a
source of increase in the US power in international relations.

4. No Two Nations Have Equal Power:

Further, it must be noted that no two nations have or can have absolutely equal
power. There can be only a rough equality between two equally powerful super
powers or great powers or major powers. The power of a nation is always more
or less than the power of every other nation.

5. There Are Several Elements of National Power:

National power is often analyzed and evaluated in terms of the capabilities of a

nation which are determined on the basis of several factors, like Geography,
Population, Industrial Capacity, Diplomacy, Military Preparedness, Quality of
Leadership and Government etc. All these factors have to be analyzed both
quantitatively and qualitatively for evaluating the national power of a nation.

6. Actual Power and Potential Power:

Moreover, the attempt to analyze the power of a nation must focus both on the
analysis of actual power as well as potential power of a nation. Actual power is
the power which is immediately available, whereas potential power is the power
that can be generated in situations of crisis and times of need. It refers to the
crisis- management ability as well as the possible availability of power in the
years to come.

7. National Power is the Currency of International Relations:

Each nation seeks to use its power for securing its national interests in
international relations. It is this feature which makes international relations

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regarded as a process of struggle for power. The nature of this struggle for power
can be analyzed only through an analysis of the national powers of various
nations. The role a nation is playing or can play in international relations can be
judged by evaluating its national power.
In fact, the greatest of all the national interests of a nation is to maintain and
increase its national power. It is the means for the fulfillment of the needs and
aspirations of a nation.

8. National Power is the Basis as Well as a Means of Foreign Policy:

National Power is the very basis of the foreign policy of a nation, and foreign
policy can be effective in securing the goals of national interest when there is
adequate national power. The ability of the statesmen and diplomats to act and
react with others is again determined by their respective national power

Dimensions of National Power:

The three forms of national power are inseparable from each other. Without
economic power no nation can develop her military power, and without the latter
no nation can play an active role in international relations. Psychological power
can be enduringly and really effective only when it is backed by economic and
military power.

Some of the major dimensions of national power in international politics are as

follows:

A. Military Power:

Military power is an important dimension of national power. It is regarded as

absolutely essential for achieving the objective of security of the nation. For every
nation, security is the most vital element of its national interest. It is the primary
concern of every nation to work for her security.

The possibility of violation of security of a nation through war and aggression by

other nations is always considered as a distinct possibility and hence every
nation gives first priority to her security. For keeping her security against possible
violations, each nation maintains an army. Military power is regarded as the key
means for securing the security and territorial integrity of each nation.

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Military power is as such a vital part of national power. The role and importance
of a state in international relations depends upon its military power. No state can
get recognition as a super power without being militarily superior.

While evaluating military power of a nation we have to take into account the other
two forms (Economic Power and Psychological Power) of national power, the
elements of military power and the military power of other nations. USA is a
super power and is a formidable military power. Japan and Germany are big
economic powers but are not recognized even as great powers because they are
weak military powers. Russia, the successor state of former USSR is a nuclear
power but not a super power because of its economic weakness. China is a big
military power but is not recognized as a super power.

B. Economic Power:

Economic power is the second important dimension of national power. It is

constituted by the ability of a nation to satisfy its own needs and to control the
behavior of other states by affording or denying access to economic goods and
services. The economic means of foreign policy are today the most vital means
which a state can use for influencing the actions and behaviour of other states.
No state can become a military power without having adequate economic power.

According to Palmer and Perkins, economic power is inseparable from military

power, for it is one of its basic components, but even under conditions of modern
warfare, economic power and military power are not the same.

Economic power is used by rich and developed nations to influence other states
by granting them economic aid and loans, and try to secure their interests in
international relations. It is used as a means to induce as well as to coerce a
desired change in the behavior of other states.

In present times, it has come to be recognized as even more important form of

national power than military power as in the case of Japan. Lack of economic
power is a basic factor behind the weak power positions of the Third World
countries.

While evaluating the economic power of a nation one has to take into account
such factors as raw materials, natural resources, food stocks, industrial and
technological capacity, G.N.P., trade surplus, means of transport and
communication, GDP, GDP per capita etc. However, economic power of a nation

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when not backed by military power and psychological power is not very effective
in international relations.

C. Psychological Power:

Psychological power means the power of opinion and image of the nation. The
role of propaganda and persuasive negotiations in international relations have
been used by the states for securing an intended change in the behavior of other
states.
The improvement in the means of communications, increased influence of mass
media, social media and public opinion on foreign policy, the emergence of open
and conference diplomacy, the popularity of alternative ideologies, the role of
NGOs and social movements, and the increased role of propaganda and
publicity in international relations, have all increased the role of this dimension of
National Power.

By the use of psychological and cultural means a nation always tries to influence
the people and leaders of other nations. The ability to influence others through
systematic publicity and educational and cultural relations constitutes the
psychological part of the national power of a nation.

The Interdependence of the Three Dimensions of National Power:

The three forms of national power are inseparable. Without economic power no
nation can develop her military power, and without the latter no nation can play
an active role in international relations. Psychological power can be enduring and
really effective with economic and military power. Thus, psychological power is a
valuable and important part of national power. The nature and scope National
Power of nation can be evaluated only by evaluating all these three highly related
and interdependent dimensions of National Power.

Methods of Exercising National Power:

Each nation uses its national power for securing its national interests, and goals
of foreign policy. It is used by the nation through four basic means Persuasion,
Rewards, Punishment and Force.

1. Persuasion:

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The art of persuasion consists in defining and logically explaining a particular
problem or issue or dispute to other nations or any other nation. An attempt is
made to persuade other nations to adopt a particular and desired view or
perception of the nature of issues involved in any bilateral or multilateral problem
or dispute or issue. The attempt is to convince others about goodness of the
policies of the nation. Diplomacy basically uses persuasion to secure support for
the foreign policy that it represents.

Persuasion is widely used by diplomats and statesmen for securing the desired
and defined objectives of the foreign policy. But success in persuasion can be
achieved only when it is supplemented by other methods and when it is
supported by a strong national power and effective foreign policy.

2. Rewards:

The offering of rewards can be material or economic or psychological. A nation

can give material help to another nation in times of crisis or in other ways. The
practice of giving economic aid and easy loans or grants-in-aid is another method
of winning support and inducing a change in the behavior of other states.

The token support or grant of certain honors to the statesmen, philosophers,

artists, scientists and scholars of other nations also serve as psychological
rewards intended to keep the other states friendly and cooperative.

The lease of territories or a military bases or equipment—industrial or military,

transit and trade facilities and grant of right to allow passage of ships are some of
the other forms of rewards which a state can offer to other states for securing a
desired change in their behaviors.

3. Punishment:

A powerful nation can inflict punishment on an offending or unhelpful state by

imposing economic sanctions or norms or policies or placing trade restrictions or
ensuring a denial of a possible reward. Denial or reduction in foreign aid or loan
or refusal to export certain items or technology can be used by a powerful nation
for inflicting a punishment or pressure on other nations.

Thus punishment can be used by a powerful nation for exercising its power over
other states. In actual practice the powerful nations use threat of punishment as
a method and refrain from actual imposition of punishment. The recourse to

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punishment can cause a reaction and thus harm the interest of the state resorting
to punishment as a method of exercising its power.

The most effective punishment is the one which secures the desired objective of
a state without the actual infliction of punishment on other states. Threat of
punishment is a better method of exercise of national power than its actual
infliction.

4. Force or Physical Violence:

By the use of military power or physical force, a powerful nation can compel a
desired behavior of another nation. As a method of exercising power, force is
related to punishment.
When punitive action is taken against another nation, it becomes a case of use of
force. However, when only threat of punitive action is given without the actual
use of physical violence against the other state, it becomes a case of exercise of
power through the use of punishment. As such the difference between force and
punishment is in the actual use of force versus the threat of use of force.

Physical force or violence can be used by resorting to war or acts of reprisals by

a powerful state. Resort to war is the extreme form of exercise of force in
international relation. It is a risky and dangerous method, which can damage the
national power of the state which resorts to war. This consideration makes the
resort to war as a method of last resort.

LESSON CHECK UP

A. Compare and Contrast the Three Classes of National Power

Classification of Power Definition and Basic Features

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 MODULE 4
STATE, NATION, and GLOBALIZATION
LESSON 1: DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE STATE AND THE NATION AS A
POLITICAL CONCEPT

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Define nation and state; and

2. Differentiate nation from state.

LEARNING CONTENT:

STATE

A State is a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently

occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external control, and
possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants
render habitual obedience.

A State is composed of four elements which must all be present for a State to
exist.

1. People: refers to the inhabitants or population of a particular territory.

There is no specific number required in terms of the population. It is only
given emphasis that the population must be sufficient. That it is enough
to ensure a permanence of existence but not too much that it is difficult to
govern. The people that make up a state are usually called as the nation
or nations.

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 Nation: a union of a society of inhabitants of the same country, speaking
the same language, governed by the same laws, connected by identity of
origin, physical characteristics and moral dispositions, by a community of
interests and sentiments and a fusion of existences formed over the
lapse of centuries (Pradier-Fodere).

2. Territory: a definite portion of the surface of the earth which is the

subject of the jurisdiction and sovereign rights of a state in accordance
with the international law.

The territorial domains are: a. terrestrial (land) b. fluvial (water) which

includes maritime and c. aerial (air). It consists the land within its
boundaries, the air space above the land, the inland waters and all the
natural resources therein, and the sea beyond the state’s coastlines,
including its seabed and subsoil. In the case of archipelagic states this
territorial sea stretches to 12 miles (19kms) from the coastlines to the
open sea.

3. Sovereignty: the supreme power to command and enforce obedience,

the power to which, legally speaking, all interests subdue and all wills
subordinate.

There are two aspects of sovereignty, (a) Internal sovereignty is the supreme
or absolute power of a state to enforce its will on the people within its
territory; and (b) External sovereignty refers to the independence of a state
from control by any other state.

4. Government: an institution or aggregate of institutions by which an

independent society makes and carries out those rules of action
necessary to enable men to live in a social state, or that which are
imposed upon the people by those who possess the power or authority of
prescribing them

Recognition: A community may have all the requisites for a state to exist. It
may already have its people, a territory, a government and sovereignty,
however, until it is recognized, it shall remain to be only a de facto state. It
has to be a member of the family of nations, that is, nations that recognize
each other. To become a member of this family or circle of nations the de
facto must be recognized. Recognition then refers to the act, made by the
family of nations that renders a state its international status.

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 Where did the State originate? The following are the theories on the origin
of the State:

1. Divine Right Theory – It holds that the origin of the state is of divine
creation and the ruler is ordained by God to govern the people

2. Necessity and Force Theory – It maintains that the state must have been
created as a product of the existence of the strong and the weak in society,
and as a result of their struggle against each other wherein those who are
strong are able to dominate and impose their will upon the weak.

3. Patriarchal Theory – It attributes the origin of the states to the enlargement

of the family which remained under the authority of the father or mother. By
natural stages, the family grew into clan, then developed into tribe, which
broadened to a nation, and the nation became a state

4. Social Contract Theory – It asserts that the early states must have been
formed by deliberate and voluntary agreement among the people to form a
society and organize a government for their common good.

5. Instinctive Theory – It holds that the state is founded out of man’s natural
instinct for association.

6. Economic Theory – It believes that the state must have been founded to
take charge of man’s various needs that must be continuously and
consistently satisfied.

7. Historical Theory – It asserts that the state is product of human

development.

It is not known exactly which of the above theories is the correct one. History,
however, has shown that the elements of all the theories have played an
important part in the formation and development of states.

NATION

A nation is society of inhabitants of a specific geographic region united and

bound together by a common racial ancestry, the same language and culture,
historical past, laws and a shared interests and sentiments over the passing of
many years.

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State Distinguished from Nation

Nation should not be confused with state for they are not the same.

1. The state is a political concept, while nation is an ethnic or racial

concept.

2. A state is not subject to external control while a nation may or may not be
independent of external control.

3. A state cannot become a state without a nation or nations that consists

its people. On the other hand, a nation is a nation whether or not a state
exists.

4. A single state may consist of one or more nations or peoples and

conversely, a single nation may be made up of different states. The
United States is a melting pot of several nationalities. On the other hand,
the Arab Nation is divided politically into several foreign states. The
Philippines is a state composed of one nation.

LESSON CHECK UP

A. Identify and Explain the Four Elements of State

Element of State Definition

B. Match the Theories of the Origin of State and their Definitions

a. attributes the origin of the states to the
1 Patriarchal Theory
enlargement of the family
b. founded out of man’s natural instinct for
2 Historical Theory
association
c. formed by deliberate and voluntary
3 Divine Right Theory
agreement among the people
4 Economic Theory d. product of the enlargement of the family

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 Social Contract e. founded to take charge of man’s various
5
Theory needs
Necessity and Force
6 f. state is of divine creation
Theory
7 Instinctive Theory g. state is product of human development

MODULE 4
STATE, NATION, AND GLOBALIZATION
LESSON 2: GLOBALIZATION AS A CONTEXT OF RELATIONS AMONG
NATION-STATES

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Explain meanings of globalization; and

2. Evaluate how globalization influences nation-states.

LEARNING CONTENT:

GLOBALIZATION

What Is Globalization?

 Executive Secretary  Secretary of Labor and

 Secretary of Agrarian Reform Employment
 Secretary of Agriculture  Secretary of National Defense
 Secretary of Budget and  Secretary of Public Works and
Management Highways
 Secretary of Education  Secretary of Science and
 Secretary of Energy Technology
 Secretary of Environment and  Secretary of Social Welfare
Natural Resources and Development
 Secretary of Finance  Secretary of the Interior and
 Secretary of Foreign Affairs Local Government
 Secretary of Health  Secretary of Trade and
 Secretary of Justice Industry

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 Secretary of Transportation  Commission on Higher
and Communications Education
 Secretary of Tourism  Director General of the National
Economic and Development
Authority

Powers of a Cabinet Secretary

As stated above, a cabinet secretary is the alter ego of the President in their
respective departments. Thus, cabinet secretaries possess the power to issue
directives relative to their departments, such as department orders. These
orders only apply to offices under a specific department under the cabinet
secretary’s jurisdiction. Cabinet secretaries also act as advisors to the President
of the Philippines for their areas. Source: www.gov.ph/about/gov/exec/

LESSON CHECK UP:

COMPLETE THE CHART

Supply the needed information in the Chart based on the Lecture
Discussion.
Finished
Term of Former
President’s Name Term/Did not
Office Profession/Job
Finish Term
EMILIO AGUINALDO
MANUEL L. QUEZON
JOSÉ P. LAUREL, JR.
SERGIO OSMEÑA SR.
MANUEL ROXAS
ELPIDIO QUIRINO
RAMON MAGSAYSAY
CARLOS P. GARCIA
DIOSDADO MACAPAGAL
FERDINAND MARCOS, SR.
CORAZON AQUINO
FIDEL V. RAMOS
JOSEPH ESTRADA
GLORIA MACAPAGAL
ARROYO

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 BENIGNO AQUINO III
RODRIGO R. DUTERTE

MODULE 7
THE LEGISLATIVE
LESSON 1: THE ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PHILIPPINE
SENATE AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Discuss the roles and responsibilities of the Philippine Senate and the
House of Representatives;
2. Assess the performance of the Philippine Congress;
3. Appraise the impact of Congress’s performance on Philippine
development; and
4. Articulate a position or advocacy to a Philippine legislator through a
formal correspondence

LEARNING CONTENT:

THE LEGISLASTIVE

According to the 1987 Constitution, legislative power shall be vested in the

Congress of the Philippines, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of
Representatives.

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The Congress of the Philippines is the national legislature of the Philippines. It
is a bicameral body consisting of the Senate (upper chamber), and the House of
Representatives (lower chamber) although commonly in the Philippines the term
congress refers to the latter.
The Senate is composed of 24 Senators half of which are elected every three
years. Each senator, therefore, serves a total of six years. The senators are
elected by the whole electorate and do not represent any geographical district.
The House of Representatives is currently composed of 297 congressmen. Sec.
5 Art. VI of the Constitution states that the House "shall be composed of not more
than 250 members, unless otherwise fixed by law..." There are two types of
congressmen: the district and the sectoral representatives. The district
congressmen represent a particular geographical district of the country.
All provinces in the country are composed of at least one congressional district.
Several cities also have their own congressional districts, with some composed
of two or more representatives.

The sectoral congressmen represent the minority sectors of the population. This
enables these minority groups to be represented in the Congress, when they
would otherwise not be represented properly through district representation.
Also known as party-list representatives, sectoral congressmen represent labor
unions, rights groups, and other organizations.

ARTICLE VI – THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT

Section 1: The legislative power shall be vested in the Congress of the

Philippines which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives,
except to the extent reserved to the people by the provision on initiative and
referendum.

Legislative Power: The authority under the constitution to make laws and to
alter or repeal them.

Sections 2. The Senate shall be composed of twenty-four Senators who shall

be elected at large by the qualified voters of the Philippines, as may be provided
for by law.

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator unless he is a natural-born citizen of

the Philippines, and, on the day of the election, is at least 35 years of age, able

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to read and write, a registered voter, and a resident of the Philippines for not
less than 2 years immediately preceding the day of the election.

Section 4. The term of office of the Senators shall be six years and shall
commence, unless otherwise provided by law, at noon on the 30th day of June
next following their election.

No Senator shall serve for more than two consecutive terms. Voluntary
renunciation of the office for any length of time shall not be considered as an
interruption in the continuity of his service for the full term for which he was
elected.

Qualifications, term of office, etc., of a senator or member of the House of

Representatives.

Section 5. [1] The House of representatives shall be composed of not more

than 250 members, unless otherwise fixed by law, who shall be elected from
legislative districts apportioned among the provinces, cities, and the
Metropolitan Manila area in accordance with the number of their respective
inhabitants, and on the basis of a uniform and progressive ratio, and those who,
as provided by law, shall be elected through a party-list system of registered
national, regional and sectoral parties or organizations.

[2] The party-list representatives shall constitute 20% of the total number of
representatives including those under the party-list. For three (3) consecutive
terms after the ratification of this Constitution, ½ of the seats allocated to party-
list representatives shall be filled, as provided by law, by selection or election
from the labor, peasant, urban poor, indigenous cultural communities, women
youth, and such other sectors, as may be provided by law, except the religious
sector.

[3] Each legislative district shall comprise, as far as practicable, contiguous,

compact and adjacent territory. Each city with a population of at least one
hundred fifty thousand, or each province, shall have at least one representative.

[4] Within 3 years following the return of every census, the Congress shall
make a reapportionment of legislative districts based on standards provided in
this section

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Section 6. No person shall be a member of the House of Representatives
unless he is a natural born citizen of the Philippines and, on the day of the
election, is at least 25 years of age, able to read and write, and except the party-
list representatives, a registered voter in the district in which he shall be elected,
and a resident thereof for a period of not less than 1 year immediately preceding
the day of the election.

Section 7. The members of the House of Representatives shall be elected for a

term of 3 years which shall begin, unless otherwise provided by law, at noon on
the 30th day of June next following their election.

No member of the House of Representative shall serve for a period of more

than 3 consecutive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the office for any length of
time shall not be considered as an interruption in the continuity of his service for
the full term for which he was elected.

Section 8. Unless otherwise provided by law, the regular election of the

Senators and the Members of the House of Representatives shall be held on
the second Monday of May.

Section 12. All members of the Senate and the House of Representatives shall,
upon assumption of office, make a full disclosure of their financial and business
interests. They shall notify the House concerned of a potential conflict of interest
that may arise from the filing of a proposed legislation of which they are authors.

Section 13. No Senator or Member of the House of Representatives may hold

any other office or employment in the government, or any subdivision, agency or
instrumentality thereof, including government-owned and controlled corporations
or their subsidiaries, during his term without forfeiting his seat. Neither shall he
be appointed to any office which may have been created or the emoluments
thereof increased during the term for which he was elected.

POWERS of CONGRESS

The powers of the Congress of the Philippines may be classified as:

A. General Legislative
It consists of the enactment of laws intended as a rule of conduct to govern the
relation between individuals (i.e., civil laws, commercial laws, etc.) or between
individuals and the state (i.e., criminal law, political law, etc.)

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 B. Implied Powers
It is essential to the effective exercise of other powers expressly granted to the
assembly.
C. Inherent Powers
These are the powers which though not expressly given are nevertheless
exercised by the Congress as they are necessary for its existence such as:

 to determine the rules of proceedings;

 to compel attendance of absent members to obtain quorum to do business;
 to keep journal of its proceedings; etc.

D. Specific Legislative Powers

It has reference to powers which the Constitution expressly and specifically
directs to perform or execute.

Powers enjoyed by the Congress classifiable under this category are:

 Power to appropriate;
 Power to act as constituent assembly; (The Senate and the House of
Representatives must convene and vote on joint or separate session to
do this.
 Power to impeach; (to initiate all cases of impeachment is the power of
the House of Representatives; To try all cases of impeachment is the
power of the Senate.)
 Power to confirm treaties;(Only the Senate is authorized to use this
power.)
 Power to declare the existence of war; (The Senate and the House of
Representatives must convene in joint session to do this.)
 Power to concur amnesty; and
 Power to act as board of canvasser for presidential/vice-presidential
votes. (By creating a joint congressional committee to do the
canvassing.)
 Power to contempt
 Blending of power
 Delegation of power
 Budgetary power
 Power to taxation

E. Executive Powers
Powers of the Congress that are executive in nature are:

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  Appointment of its officers;
 Affirming treaties;
 Confirming presidential appointees through the Commission on
Appointments;
 Removal power; etc.

F. Supervisory Powers
The Congress of the Philippines exercises considerable control and supervision
over the administrative branch - e.g.:

 To decide the creation of a department/agency/office;

 To define powers and duties of officers;
 To appropriate funds for governmental operations;
 To prescribe rules and procedure to be followed; etc.

G. Electoral Powers
Considered as electoral power of the Congress of the Philippines is the
Congress’ power to:

 Elect its presiding officer/s and other officers of the House;

 Act as board of canvassers for the canvass of presidential/vice-
presidential votes; and
 Elect the President in case of any electoral tie to the said post.

H. Judicial Powers
Constitutionally, each house has judicial powers:

 To punish its Members for disorderly behavior, and, with the

concurrence of two-thirds of all its Members, suspend or expel a
Member
 To concur and approve amnesty declared by the President of the
Philippines;
 To initiate, prosecute and thereafter decide cases of impeachment; and
 To decide electoral protests of its members through the respective
Electoral Tribunal.

I. Miscellaneous Powers
The other powers of Congress mandated by the Constitution are as follows:

 To authorize the Commission on Audit to audit fund and property;

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  To authorize the President of the Philippines to fix tariff rates, quotas,
and dues;
 To authorize the President of the Philippines to formulate rules and
regulations in times of emergency;
 To reapportion legislative districts based on established constitutional
standards;
 To implement laws on autonomy;
 To establish a national language commission;
 To implement free public secondary education;
 To allow small scale utilization of natural resources;
 To specify the limits of forest lands and national parks;
 To determine the ownerships and extent of ancestral domain; and
 To establish independent economic and planning agency.

LAWMAKING PROCESS

 Preparation of the Bill

The Member or the Bill Drafting Division of the Reference and Research
Bureau prepares and drafts the bill upon the Member's request.
 First Reading
1. The bill is filed with the Bills and Index Service and the same is
numbered and reproduced.
2. Three days after its filing, the same is included in the Order of
Business for First Reading.
3. On First Reading, the Secretary General reads the title and number
of the bill. The Speaker refers the bill to the appropriate Committee/s.
 Committee Consideration / Action
1. The Committee where the bill was referred to evaluates it to
determine the necessity of conducting public hearings.
2. If the Committee finds it necessary to conduct public hearings, it
schedules the time thereof, issues public notices and invites
resource persons from the public and private sectors, the academe,
and experts on the proposed legislation.
3. If the Committee determines that public hearing is not needed, it
schedules the bill for Committee discussion/s.
a. Based on the result of the public hearings or Committee
discussions, the Committee may introduce amendments, consolidate
bills on the same subject matter, or propose a substitute bill. It then
prepares the corresponding committee report.

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 b. The Committee approves the Committee Report and formally
transmits the same to the Plenary Affairs Bureau.
 Second Reading
1. The Committee Report is registered and numbered by the Bills and
Index Service. It is included in the Order of Business and referred to
the Committee on Rules.
2. The Committee on Rules schedules the bill for consideration on
Second Reading.
3. On Second Reading, the Secretary General reads the number, title
and text of the bill and the following takes place:
 Period of Sponsorship and Debate
 Period of Amendments
 Voting, which may be by a viva voce

a. count by tellers
b. division of the House
c. nominal voting
 Third Reading
a. The amendments, if any, are engrossed and printed copies of the bill
are reproduced for Third Reading.
b. The engrossed bill is included in the Calendar of Bills for Third
Reading and copies of the same are distributed to all the Members
three days before its Third Reading.
c. On Third Reading, the Secretary General reads only the number and
title of the bill.
d. A roll call or nominal voting is called and a Member, if he desires, is
given three minutes to explain his vote. No amendment on the bill is
allowed at this stage.
 The bill is approved by an affirmative vote of a majority of the
Members present.
 If the bill is disapproved, the same is transmitted to the Archives.
 Transmittal of the Approved Bill to the Senate
The approved bill is transmitted to the Senate for its concurrence.
 Senate Action on Approved Bill of the House
The bill undergoes the same legislative process in the Senate.
 Conference Committee
A Conference Committee is constituted and is composed of Members
from each House of Congress to settle, reconcile or thresh out

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 differences or disagreements on any provision of the bill. The conferees
are not limited to reconciling the differences in the bill but may introduce
new provisions germane to the subject matter or may report out an
entirely new bill on the subject. The Conference Committee prepares a
report to be signed by all the conferees and the Chairman. The
Conference Committee Report is submitted for consideration/approval of
both Houses. No amendment is allowed.
 Transmittal of the Bill to the President
Copies of the bill, signed by the Senate President and the Speaker of the
House of Representatives and certified by both the Secretary of the
Senate and the Secretary General of the House, are transmitted to the
President.

 Presidential Action On The Bill

If the bill is approved by the President, it is assigned an RA number and
transmitted to the House where it originated.
 Action On Approved Bill
The bill is reproduced and copies are sent to the Official Gazette Office
for publication and distribution to the implementing agencies. It is then
included in the annual compilation of Acts and Resolutions.
 Action On Vetoed Bill
The message is included in the Order of Business. If the Congress
decides to override the veto, the House and the Senate shall proceed
separately to reconsider the bill or the vetoed items of the bill. If the bill or
its vetoed items is passed by a vote of two-thirds of the Members of each
House, such bill or items shall become a law.
Source: www.gov.ph/about/gov /legislature/

LESSON CHECK UP:

A. EXPLAIN

1. Why is there a need for a Bill to pass three readings?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

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 2. Why is there a need for a Bicameral Conference in the Lawmaking
process? Why is the Veto Power of the President important to the
Lawmaking Process?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
3. What action can Congress do on Vetoed Bill by the President?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

MODULE 8
THE JUDICIARY
LESSON 1: THE ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PHILIPPINE
JUDICIARY

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Discuss the roles and responsibilities of the Philippine Judiciary;

2. Discuss how the Judiciary exercises political neutrality and fairness; and
3. Evaluate the performance of the Philippine Judiciary as a dispenser of
justice and a protector of constitutional safeguards to freedom

LEARNING CONTENT:

THE JUDICIARY

Judicial power rests with the Supreme Court and the lower courts, as
established by law (Art. VIII, Sec. 1 of the 1987 Constitution). Its duty is to settle
actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and
enforceable (Art. VIII, Sec.1 (2)).

The judiciary enjoys fiscal autonomy. Its appropriation may not be reduced by
the Legislature below the appropriated amount the previous year (Art. VIII, Sec.
3).
 Manuel L. Quezon  Sergio Osmeña
Jose Abad Santos Manuel V. Moran

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  Elpidio Quirino Claudio Teehankee
Ricardo M. Paras Pedro L. Yap
 Carlos P. Garcia Marcelo B. Fernan
Cesar Bengzon Andres R. Narvasa
 Ferdinand E. Marcos  Joseph Ejercito Estrada
Roberto V. Concepcion Hilario G. Davide
Querube Makalintal  Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
Fred Ruiz Castro Artemio Panganiban
Enrique M. Fernando Reynato Puno
Felix V. Makasiar Renato C. Corona
Ramon C. Aquino  Benigno S. Aquino III
 Corazon C. Aquino Maria Lourdes P.A. Sereno

Notable chief justices

Of the list of chief justices, there are a few individuals that stand out for having
gone above and beyond their duty and tenure as chief justice.

1. Cayetano Arellano: Cayetano Arellano was the first Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court. He was appointed in 1901 when the Supreme Court was
created through Act No. 136, along with three American justices and one
Filipino justice.

2. Ramon Avanceña: Appointed in 1925 by U.S. President Calvin Coolidge,

he is known for ushering in an all-Filipino Supreme Court in 1935. Upon the
establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth in 1935, American justices
were no longer allowed to sit in the Philippine Supreme Court—thus, new
justices were appointed, all of whom were of Filipino citizenship.

3. Jose Abad Santos: As a wartime chief justice, Abad Santos took on two
different roles; he was the chief justice and concurrently the Secretary of
Justice. When President Quezon left the Philippines to evade capture by the
Japanese, Abad Santos chose to stay in the country as a caretaker of the
government. On May 2, 1942, the Japanese military caught Abad Santos in
Cebu and invited him to become one of the members of their puppet
government. Abad Santos refused to collaborate. He died at the hands of
the Japanese on May 2, 1942. His last words to his son were, “Do not cry,
Pepito, show to these people that you are brave. It is an honor to die for
one’s country. Not everybody has that chance.”

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4. Claudio Teehankee: Claudio Teehankee was known for his firm anti-martial
law stance during his tenure in the Supreme Court. Teehankee resisted
multiple attempts by the Marcos administration to garner absolute power by
issuing questionable decrees. In 1973, he was part of the bloc that
dissented from the implementation of the 1973 Constitution. In 1980, he
dissented from the proposed judicial reorganization act of President Marcos.
In 1986, after the EDSA Revolution, he administered the Oath of Office of
President Corazon C. Aquino in Club Filipino. He was appointed Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court in 1986 by President Corazon C. Aquino

5. Hilario G. Davide: Appointed by President Joseph Ejercito Estrada in 1998,

Chief Justice Hilario G. Davide was known as the presiding judge of the first
impeachment proceedings in Asia. During the impeachment of President
Estrada, he conducted proceedings with impartiality. Following EDSA II
uprising, which deposed President Estrada, Davide swore in Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo as the 14th President of the Philippines.

6. Maria Lourdes P.A. Sereno: Appointed by President Benigno S. Aquino III

in 2012, Chief Justice Sereno is the first woman appointed to the position.

Court of Appeals

The Court of Appeals is the second highest tribunal in the country, which was
established on February 1, 1936 by virtue of Commonwealth Act No. 3. The
current form of the Court of Appeals was constituted through Batas Pambansa
Blg. 129, as amended by Executive Order No. 33, s. 1986, Republic Act No.
7902, and Republic Act No. 8246.

The Jurisdiction Of The Court Of Appeals Are As Follows:

 Original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus, prohibition, certiorari,

habeas corpus, and quo warranto, and auxiliary writs or processes, whether
or not in aid of its appellate jurisdiction;
 Exclusive original jurisdiction over actions for annulment of judgements of
Regional Trial Courts; and
 Exclusive appellate jurisdiction over all final judgements, resolutions, orders
or awards of Regional Trial Courts and quasi-judicial agencies,
instrumentalities, boards or commission.

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The Court of Appeals shall also have the power to try cases and conduct
hearings, receive evidence and perform acts necessary to resolve factual issues
raised in cases falling within its original and appellate jurisdiction, including the
power to grant and conduct new trials or proceedings.

The Court of Appeals is composed of one presiding justice and 68 associate

justices, all of which are appointed by the President from a shortlist submitted by
the Judicial and Bar Council. The associate justices shall have precedence
according to the dates (or order, in case of similar appointment dates) of their
respective appointments. The qualifications for the justices of the Supreme
Court also apply to members of the Court of Appeals.

The current presiding justice of the Court of Appeals is Andres Reyes Jr., who is
set to retire on May 11, 2020.

Court of Tax Appeals

The Court of Tax Appeals (CTA), which is of the same level as the Court of
Appeals, was created by virtue of Republic Act No. 1125, which was signed into
law on June 16, 1954. Its present-day form was constituted through RA 1125,
as amended by Republic Act No. 9282 and Republic Act No. 9503.

Sandiganbayan

To attain the highest norms of official conduct among officials and employees in
the government, the creation of a special graft court to be known as the
Sandiganbayan was provided for in Article XIII, Section 5 of the 1973
Constitution. This court was formally established through Presidential Decree
No. 1606, which was signed into law on December 10, 1978.
Through Article XI (Accountability of Public Officers), Section 4 of the 1987
Constitution, the Sandiganbayan was carried over to the post-EDSA Revolution
republic. The current form of the Sandiganbayan was constituted through PD
1606, s. 1978, as amended by Republic Act No. 7975 and Republic Act No.
8245.

The Sandiganbayan has jurisdiction over violations of Republic Act No. 3019 or
the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act, as amended, and Chapter II, Section
2, Title VII, Book II of the Revised Penal Code, where the accused are officials
occupying the positions in the government whether in a permanent, acting or
interim capacity, at the time of the commission of the offense:

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In addition, the Sandiganbayan exercises exclusive appellate jurisdiction over
final judgments, resolutions or orders or regional trial courts whether in the
exercise of their own original jurisdiction or of their appellate jurisdiction as
herein provided.

The Sandiganbayan comprises of one presiding justice and 14 associate

justices, all of which are appointed by the President from a shortlist submitted by
the Judicial and Bar Council. The associate justices shall have precedence
according to the dates (or order, in case of similar appointment dates) of their
respective appointments.

The qualifications to become a member of the Sandiganbayan are as follows: a

natural-born citizen of the Philippines; at least 40 years of age; has been a
judge of a court for at least ten years, or been engaged in the practice of law in
the Philippines or has held office requiring admission to the bar as a prerequisite
for at least ten years.

Source: www.gov.ph/about/gov/judiciary/

LESSON CHECK UP:

Answer the following questions:

1. What is Judicial Power? Give a specific example.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
______________________________________
2. What are the characteristics and scope of Judicial Power?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

3. What is the Supreme Court and what are its powers?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

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4. What is the Judicial and Bar Council?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

5. What happens when a court decision is reached?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

6. Why is a judicial branch so essential to a government?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

MODULE 9
DECENTRALIZATION AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE

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LESSON 1: LOCAL GOVERNANCE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE 1991 LOCAL
GOVERNMENT CODE (LGC) OF THE PHILIPPINES AND NATIONAL-LOCAL
GOVERNMENT DYNAMICS

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Demonstrate understanding of decentralization and governance;

2. Identify the different levels of the Philippine Local Government;
3. Explain the roles and functions of Local Government Unit;
4. Examine how decentralization affects governance;
5. Conduct an interview with barangay officials on community programs;
and
6. Evaluate the performance of a local government unit.

LEARNING CONTENT:

DECENTRALIZATION AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE

Local Governance in the context of the 1991 Local Government Code (LGC)
of the Philippines and National-Local Government dynamics

1991 Local Government Code of the Philippines: An Overview

One of the fundamental state policies enshrined in the 1987 Philippine

Constitution is the autonomy of local government units. (Art. II, Sec. 25). In this
regard, the Constitution mandated Congress to “enact a local government code
which shall provide for a more responsive and accountable local government
structure instituted through a system of decentralization with effective
mechanisms of recall, initiative, and referendum, allocate among the different
local government units their powers, responsibilities, and resources, and provide
for the qualifications, election, appointment and removal, term, salaries, powers
and functions and duties of local officials, and all other matters relating to the
organization and operation of the local units.” (Art. X, sec. 1)

Pursuant to the mandate given by the Constitution, Congress enacted Republic

Act No. 7160, otherwise known as the Local Government Code of 1991. The
Code is divided into four books and covers the following:

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Book I – basic principles governing the attributes of local government units and
the exercise of powers; intergovernmental relations as well as relations with
people’s and nongovernmental organizations; the qualifications and election of
elective officials and the process for disciplinary action and recall; the creation
and composition of local school boards, local health boards, local development
councils and local peace and order councils;

Book II – local taxation and fiscal matters (which include the imposition of local
business taxes as well as real property taxes);

Book III – the creation, organization, and powers of local government units and
the officials for each local government unit; and

Book IV – penal provisions for violation of the Code, provisions for

implementation and transitory provisions.

The Code replaced Batas Pambansa Blg. 337, which is the old local government
code.

The Local Government Code of 1991 has given impetus not only to the local
government itself, but the rest of the stakeholders in governance.
Decentralization as a framework of governance serves as a tool in building the
capacities of both government and non-government actors in engaging each in
managing societal affairs. Decentralization has provided a democratized space
where Local Government Units (LGU’s - Provinces, Cities, Municipalities and
Barangays) are able to transform themselves into self-reliant communities and be
more independent in managing their own affairs.

In the name of democratic governance, national government may guide local

governments and provide policies and technical expertise but they must
recognize that in the principle of subsidiarity, the decentralized entity - the LGU,
is the nearest to the people
.
LGU’s, in order to work smoothly with the national government, should align their
development plans along with the national government’s policies but focus more
on what development needs are to be met in their community. Thus, the
central/national government and the LGUs should not look at each other as
competitors in service delivery but as active partners in governing.

Decentralization

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Decentralization refers to the transfer of powers from central government to
local levels in a political-administrative and territorial hierarchy. This process
allows the participation of the people and the local government.

Decentralization hands over political, financial and administrative authority from

central to local governments, so that the government can facilitate and guarantee
better public services for the people.

Components of Decentralization:

1.Political Decentralization
2.Fiscal Decentralization
3.Institutional Decentralization

Indicators of Political Decentralization:

1.Accountability – local committees consisting of men and women work in

selected LGUs according to the guidelines of the Local Government Code of
1991 to implement result-oriented & target-relevant decisions and measures.

2.Transparency – selected LGUs and national organizations/departments

publish their annual budgets in media accessible to citizens such as
newspapers, bulletin boards at the town hall and churches; and report semi-
annually on the implementation status of programs in citizen’s assemblies.

3.Responsibility and Participation – The portion of programs and projects

realized by LGUs through active and quantifiable participation, such as job
performance & financial contributions of citizens.

Political Decentralization focuses among others on improved planning and

monitoring of development measures, formulating strategies for the active
integration of civil society and the economic sector, and the promotion of
information exchange and management.

Impact of Political Decentralization: It empowered Local Leaders to take

greater control over their region’s destinies. Local Leaders, citizens and other
stakeholders are given more freedom in determining their development paths.
Political Decentralization delegated some powers from the central authority to the
local authorities, who are much familiar with the cultural, social and economic

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aspects of their respective regions. The main objective is for the provinces, cities
and municipalities to use their financial resources more efficiently, generate
additional resources and tap alternative resources.

The Medium Term Philippine Development Plan 2004-2010 (MTPDP) – specifies

the need to maintain fiscal discipline in government spending. It outlines several
measures to ensure that fiscal strength is achieved. It calls for a strengthening of
the revenue generation effort of the LGUs.

Indicators of Fiscal Decentralization:

4. The dependency of the cooperating LGUs on national funds is reduced by

generating additional funds

5. Improved fiscal systems, especially just taxation for a measurable and

transparent improvement of tax revenues; and

6. The participating institutions (LGUs, selected government departments) on

national, regional and municipal level present coordinated, harmonized and
gender-sensitive development plans and budgets are properly implemented.

Impact of Fiscal Decentralization:

Fiscal Decentralization improved financial management including qualification

of participants in areas of financial management, strengthening cooperation on
different levels, promoting exchange of experiences, formulating strategies for an
improved integration of the business sector and civil society in social and
economic programs. A large part of the operations of the fiscal decentralization
focused on the optimization of administrative processes and the standardization
of the application of the law for local taxes with the help of information
technology. Also known as the Debureaucratization - Involves the harnessing of
the private sector and non-governmental organizations in the delivery of services
through various modalities including contracting out, private-public partnership
and joint ventures.

Focus: Training staff members of partner organizations - promoting collaboration

among the participating Institutions- monitoring the development of the programs
and projects being implemented - clarify roles and responsibilities of government
institutions - national and local - enable efficient and effective interaction among
government, private sector and civil society

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Impact of Institutional Decentralization: Better service delivery is a matter of
coordination and collaboration. - Bridging and empowering the public and private
sectors of different regions in the country through forums, seminars, workshops,
studies and researches. Working within networks is a strategic element in
achieving sustainability, reliability and a broad effect, especially for the forging of
“strategic alliances”. - Exchange of ideas and mutual understanding among local
chief executives, police and military is crucial in achieving sustainable peace and
development.

Major Features of the Local Government Code of 1991

Sec. 17 of LGC of 1991: Basic Services and Facilities

Local government units shall endeavor to be self-reliant and shall continue

exercising the powers and discharging the duties and functions currently
vested upon them. They shall also discharge the functions and responsibilities of
national agencies and offices devolved to them pursuant to this Code. Local
government units shall likewise exercise such other powers and discharge such
other functions and responsibilities as are necessary, appropriate, or
incidental to efficient and effective provision of the basic services and facilities
enumerated herein.

Devolved Basic Services

On Health and Social Services Include the Implementation of:

2. Programs and projects on primary health care, maternal and child care,
and communicable and non-communicable disease control services;
3. Health services which access to secondary and tertiary health services;
4. Purchase of medicines, medical supplies, and equipment needed to carry
out the services;
5. Social welfare services which include programs and projects on child
and youth welfare, family and community welfare, women’s welfare,
welfare of the elderly and disabled persons;

On Environmental Management:
1. Solid waste disposal system;

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 2. Services or facilities related to general hygiene and sanitation;
3. Implementation of community-based forestry projects which include
integrated social forestry programs and similar projects;
4. Management and control of communal forests;

On Agriculture:

a. Inter -Barangay irrigation system;

b. Water and soil resource utilization and conservation projects;
c. Enforcement of fishery laws in municipal waters including the
conservation of mangroves;

On Infrastructure:

f. Maintenance and Rehabilitation of the following:

a. roads and bridges
b. school buildings and other facilities for public elementary and
secondary schools
c. clinics, health centers and other health facilities
d. small water impounding projects
e. fish ports; artesian wells, spring development, rainwater collectors
and water supply systems
f. seawalls, dikes, drainage and sewerage, and flood control
g. traffic signals and road signs and similar facilities.

On Tourism:

1. Tourism facilities and other tourist attractions,

2. Acquisition of equipment
3. Regulation and supervision of business concessions,
4. Security services for such facilities

Devolved Regulatory Functions:

A. Inspection of food products such as meat, fruits, poultry, milk, fish,

vegetables and other foodstuffs;
B. Adoption of quarantine regulations;

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 C. Enforcement of the National Building Code;
D. Regulations of tricycle operations;
E. Regulation of the real estate trade;
F. Licensing of cockpits;

Section 76 of LGC of 1991, granted the local government units the power to
develop their own organizational structure staffing pattern and appoint officials
wholly paid by the local governments;

Organizational Structure and Staffing Pattern

Every local government unit shall design and implement its own
organizational structure and staffing pattern taking into consideration
its service requirements and financial capability, subject to the minimum
standards and guidelines prescribed by the Civil Service Commission.

Powers, Duties, Functions and Compensation (Sec. 447. of LGC of 1991)

a. The Sangguniang Bayan, as the legislative body of the municipality, shall

enact ordinances, approve resolutions and appropriate funds for the general
welfare of the municipality and its inhabitants pursuant to section 16 of this Code
and in the proper exercise of the corporate powers of the municipality as
provided for under section 22 of this Code, and shall: (i) Review all ordinances
approved by the Sangguniang Barangay and executive orders issued by the
Punong Barangay to determine whether these are within the scope of the
prescribed powers of the sanggunian and of the Punong Barangay; (ii) Subject to
the provisions of this Code and pertinent laws, determine the powers and duties
of officials and employees of the municipality; (iii) Determine the positions and
the salaries, wages, allowances and other emoluments and benefits of officials
and employees paid wholly or mainly from municipal funds and provide for
expenditures necessary for the proper conduct of programs, projects, services,
and activities of the municipal government;

b. It increased the share of the local government units in the share in the internal
revenue taxes as well as taxes in the utilization and development of national
wealth; Article X, Section 6 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution Local government
units shall have a just share, as determined by law, in the national taxes which
shall be automatically released to them.

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Allotment of Internal Revenue Taxes (Section 284 of the LGC of 1991)
Local government units shall have a share in the national internal
revenue taxes based on the collection of the third fiscal year preceding the
current fiscal year as follows:
a. On the first year of the effectivity of this Code, thirty percent (30%);
b. On the second year, thirty-five percent (35%); and
c. On the third year and thereafter, forty percent (40%).

Allocation to Local Government Units (Section 285 of the LGC of 1991)

The share of local government units in the internal revenue allotment shall be
allocated in the following manner:
a. Provinces - Twenty-three percent (23%);
b. Cities - Twenty-three percent (23%);
c. Municipalities - Thirty-four percent (34%); and
d. Barangays - Twenty percent (20%)

Provided, however, that the share of each province, city, and municipality shall
be determined on the basis of the following formula:
a. Population - Fifty percent (50%);
b. Land Area - Twenty-five percent (25%); and
c. Equal sharing - Twenty-five percent (25%)

Provided, further, that the share of each Barangay with a population of not less
than one hundred (100) inhabitants shall not be less than Eighty
thousand pesos (P=80,000.00) per annum chargeable against the
twenty percent (20%) share of the Barangay from the internal revenue allotment,
and the balance to be allocated on the basis of the following formula:
a. On the first year of the effectivity of this Code: 1. Population - Forty
percent (40%); and 2. Equal Sharing - Sixty percent (60%);
b. On the second year: 1. Population - Fifty percent (50%); and 2. Equal
Sharing - Fifty percent (50%);
c. On the third year and thereafter: 1. Population - Sixty percent (60%); and
2. Equal Sharing - Forty percent (40%)
Provided, finally, that the fiscal requirements of barangays created by
local government units after the effectivity of this Code shall
be the responsibility of the local government unit concerned.

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Amount of Share of Local Government Units (Section 290 of the LGC of
1991)
Local government units shall, in addition to the internal revenue allotment, have a
share of forty percent (40%) of the gross collection derived by the national
government from the preceding fiscal year from mining taxes, royalties, forestry
and fishery charges, and such other taxes, fees, or charges, including related
surcharges, interests, or fines, and from its share in any co-production, joint
venture or production sharing agreement in the utilization and development of the
national wealth within their territorial jurisdiction.

Sources of Revenue

1. National Government
2. Internal Revenue Allotment
3. Share from taxes, fees and charges collected from the development and
utilization of national wealth
4. Other grants and Subsidies
5. Debt Relief Program Locally Generated
6. Real Property Taxes
7. Business Taxes
8. Other Local Taxes
9. Regulatory Fees
10. Operation of Local Economic Enterprises
11. Tolls and Users Charges.

Other Sources

1. Sales/Lease of Assets
2. Credits
3. BOT-BT Scheme Legal B as is Section 18, Power to Generate and
Apply Resources.

Local government units shall have the power and authority to

establish an organization that shall be responsible for the efficient and
effective implementation of their development plans, program objectives and

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 priorities; to create their own sources of revenue and to levy taxes, fees, and
charges.

The Code encouraged active and direct participation of civil society,

non-governmental organizations and the private sector in the process of local
governance by making them formal members of several local special bodies
such as local development councils;

Role of People's and Nongovernmental Organizations (Section 34 of

the LGC of 1991)

Local government units shall promote the establishment and operation of

people's and nongovernmental organizations to become active partners in the
pursuit of local autonomy. The Local Government Code of 1991 provided the
policy context for the emergence of entrepreneurial local governments by
encouraging LGUs to enter into joint ventures and partnerships with the private
sector such as build-operate-transfer arrangement and bond flotation

Linkages with People's and Non-Governmental Organizations (Section 35

of the LGC of 1991)

Local government units may enter into joint ventures and such other cooperative
arrangements with people's and nongovernmental organizations to engage in the
delivery of certain basic services, capability-building and livelihood
projects, and to develop local enterprises designed to improve productivity and
income, diversify agriculture, spur rural industrialization, promote ecological
balance, and enhance the economic and social well-being of the people.

Credit Financing: The Issues/ Concerns

a. The inadequacy of the internal revenue shares of the local government units to
meet the budgetary requirements of the devolved function, programs and projects
b. The continued lack of budgetary support from the national government for the
full implementation of devolved tertiary health services
c. The interference of national government in personnel and fiscal management of
eth local government units
d. The need to further broaden the tax base of the local government
units
e. The need to devolve more power functions and programs.
Source: www.gov.ph/about/gov/lgu/

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LESSON CHECK UP:

Answer the following questions:

1. In what ways can citizen participation contribute to good governance?

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________
2. What is the structure of local government units in the Philippines?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
3. How have you strengthened citizen participation in local governance?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
4. How do you measure the impact of stronger citizen participation?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
5. What does it mean to strengthen our LGU’S in local governance and why is
it important?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________

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 MODULE 10
ELECTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES
LESSON 1: THE NATURE OF ELECTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE
CONTEXT OF THE PHILIPPINES

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of elections and political parties and civil

society and social movements;
2. Analyze the interactions between state and society;
3. Describe the nature of elections and political parties in the Philippines;
4. Identify the types of electoral systems;
5. Assess the implications of the type of electoral systems on politics and
governance; and
6. Analyze the nature of elections and political parties in the Philippines

LEARNING CONTENT:

ELECTIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Political parties and elections play an important role in the analysis of politics in
developing countries, particularly in the analysis of democratization, and
specifically the consolidation of democratic political regimes.

The Nature of Elections and Political Parties in the Context of the

Philippines

An election is a formal decision-making process by which a population chooses

an individual to hold public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by
which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th century.
Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and
judiciary, and for regional and local government. This process is also used in

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many other private and business organizations, from clubs to voluntary
associations and corporations.

The universal use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern

representative democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic
archetype, ancient Athens, where the Elections were considered an oligarchic
institution and most political offices were filled using sortition, also known as
allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.

Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems

where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing
systems. Psephology is the study of results and other statistics relating to
elections (especially with a view to predicting future results).

To elect means "to choose or make a decision", and so sometimes other forms of
ballot such as referendums are referred to as elections, especially in the United
States.(Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election)

History of Political Parties in the Philippines

The first Philippine political party, established in 1900, was the Federal Party,
which advocated peace and eventual statehood. Later, the Nationalist Party (NP)
and the Democratic Party were established. They did not produce an actual two-
party system, since the Nationalists retained exclusive control and the Democrats
functioned as a "loyal opposition."

However, following Japanese occupation and the granting of independence, an

effective two-party system developed between the Liberal Party (LP) and the NP.
The Progressive Party, formed in 1957 by adherents of Ramon Magsaysay,
polled more than one million votes in the presidential election of 1958.

In the elections of November 1965, Senator Ferdinand Marcos, the NP

candidate, received 55% of the vote. In the 1969 election, he was elected to an
unprecedented second term. All political activity was banned in 1972, following
the imposition of martial law, and was not allowed to resume until a few months
before the April 1978 elections for an interim National Assembly.

The Marcos government's New Society Movement (Kilusan Bagong Lipunan-

KBL) won that election and the 1980 and 1982 balloting for local officials, amid
charges of electoral fraud and attempts by opposition groups to boycott the

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voting. The principal opposition party was the People's Power Movement-Fight
(Lakas Ng Bayan- Laban), led by Benigno S. Aquino, Jr., until his assassination
in 1983.

This party joined with 11 other opposition parties in 1982 to form a coalition
known as the United Nationalist Democratic Organization (UNIDO). Following
Aquino's murder, some 50 opposition groups, including the members of the
UNIDO coalition, agreed to coordinate their anti-Marcos efforts. This coalition of
opposition parties enabled Corazon Aquino to campaign against Marcos in 1986.
In September 1986 the revolutionary left formed a legal political party to contest
congressional elections. The Partido ng Bayan (Party of the Nation) allied with
other left-leaning groups in an Alliance for New Politics. This unsuccessful
attempt for electoral representation resulted in a return to guerrilla warfare on the
part of the Communists.

After assuming the presidency, Aquino formally organized the People's Power
Movement (Lakas Ng Bayan), the successor to her late husband's party. In the
congressional elections of May 1987, Aquino's popularity gave her party a sweep
in the polls, making it the major party in the country. Marcos's KBL was reduced
to a minor party.

Some of its members formed their own splinter groups, such as the Grand
Alliance for Democracy (GAD), a coalition of parties seeking distance from
Marcos. Others revived the LP and the NP, seeking renewed leadership. The
left-wing People's Party (Partido Ng Bayan), which supports the political
objectives of the NPA, was a minor party in the elections. In May 1989 Juan
Ponce Enrile reestablished the Nacionalista Party.

A new opposition party, the Filipino Party (Partido Pilipino), organized in 1991 as
a vehicle for Aquino's estranged cousin Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco's
presidential campaign. He ran third in the election, taking 18.1% of the vote,
behind Miriam Defensor Santiago with 19.8% of the vote. On 30 June 1992 Fidel
Ramos succeeded Corazon Aquino as president of the Philippines with a plurality
of 23.6%. In September 1992 Ramos signed the Anti-Subversion Law signaling a
peaceful resolution to more than 20 years of Communist insurgency, with the
repeal of the anti-subversion legislation in place since 1957.

On 26 August 1994 Ramos announced a new political coalition that would

produce the most powerful political group in the Philippines. Ramos' Lakas-
National Union of Christian Democrats (Lakas/NUCD) teamed with the

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Democratic Filipino Struggle (Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino, Laban).
Following the 1995 elections, the LDP controlled the Senate with 14 of the 24
members. The elections in 1998 changed the political landscape once more. In
the Senate the newly created Laban Ng Masang Pilipino, led by presidential
candidate, Joseph Estrada, captured 12 seats to the Lakas 5, PRP 2, LP 1,
independents 3. The LAMP party also dominated the House of Representatives
with 135 seats to the Lakas 37, LP 13, Aksyon Demokratiko 1, and 35
independents.
Political parties and their leaders in 2002 included: Kilusang Bagong Lipunan
(New Society Movement), led by Imelda Marcos; Laban Ng Demokratikong
Pilipino (Struggle of Filipino Democrats) or LDP, led by Eduardo Angara; Lakas,
led by Jose De Venecia; Liberal Party or LP, led by Florencio Abad; Nacionalista
Party, led by Jose Oliveros; National People's Coalition or NPC, led by Eduardo
Cojuangco; PDP-Laban, led by Aquilino Pimentel; and the People's Reform Party
or PRP, led by Miriam Defensor-Santiago.

The Philippine presidential and vice presidential elections of 2016 was held on
Monday, May 9, 2016, as part of the 2016 general election. This was the 16 th
Presidential election in the Philippines since 1935 and the 6 th Presidential
election since 1986. Congress had met in late May to canvass the results, issued
an official result with Davao Mayor, Rodrigo Duterte and Bicol Representative,
Leni Robredo emerging as the winners of the presidential and vice presidential
races, respectively. They were proclaimed on May 30, in the House of
Representatives.

The plurality voting system is used to determine the winner - the candidate
with the highest number of votes, whether or not one has a majority, wins the
presidency. The vice presidential election is a separate election, is held on the
same rules, and voters may split their ticket. Both winners will serve six-year
terms commencing on the noon of June 30, 2016 and ending on the same day
six years later. Congress, Senate and local elections are held in the years of
presidential elections and three years before and after them.

According to the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines, the election is held every
six years after 1992, on the second Monday of May. The incumbent president is
term limited. The incumbent vice president may run for two consecutive terms.

Voter participation is typically around 70 percent to 85 percent. There were 54.4

million registered voters in 2016; 50.6 million voters in 2010; 43 million eligible
voters in 2004; 36.1 million in 2001; and 34 million in 1998. Overseas Filipinos

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were allowed to vote in presidential elections for the first time in 2004. Voting
rates are high in national elections despite obstacles such as difficult
transportation, the need to write out the names of all candidates in longhand,
and, occasionally, the threat of violence. Filipinos enjoy and expect elections so
much that even Ferdinand Marcos dared not completely deny them this outlet.
Instead, he changed the rules to rig the elections in his favor.
Electoral System in the Philippines

The Philippines has universal direct suffrage at age 18 and older to elect the
president, vice president (who runs independently), and most of the seats in the
bicameral legislature, consisting of the House of Representatives and the
Senate; a minority of House members known as sectoral representatives are
appointed by the president. Elections are held not just for national leadership but
also for representation at the provincial and local levels. In the last elections in
May 2004, some 74 percent of eligible voters participated, but the process was
marred by violence and numerous irregularities, which the political opposition
continues to protest, even calling for the president’s impeachment. (Source:
Library of Congress)

Elections in the Philippines are the arena in which the country's elite families
compete for political power. The wealthiest clans contest national and provincial
offices. Families of lesser wealth compete for municipal offices. In the barangays,
where most people are equally poor, election confers social prestige but no real
power or money.

The 1987 Philippine Constitution also empowers the commission to "accredit

citizens' arms of the Commission on Elections." This refers to the National
Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL), a private group established in the
1950s, with advice and assistance from the United States, to keep elections
honest. NAMFREL recruited public-spirited citizens (320,000 volunteers in
104,000 precincts in the 1987 congressional elections) to watch the voting and
monitor ballot-counting, and it prepared a "quick count," based mostly on urban
returns, to publicize the results immediately. Because the Commission on
Elections can take weeks or even months to certify official returns, the National
Movement for Free Elections makes it harder for unscrupulous politicians to
distort the results. NAMFREL itself has sometimes been denounced by election
losers as being a tool of United States intervention and has not always been
impartial. In 1986 it favored Aquino, and its chairman, Jose Concepcion, was
subsequently named Aquino's minister of trade and industry.

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The 1987 constitution establishes a new system of elections. The terms of
representatives are reduced from four years to three, and the presidential term is
lengthened from four years to six. Senators also serve a six-year term. The
Constitution's transitory provisions are scheduled to expire in 1992, after which
there is to be a three-year election cycle. Suffrage is universal at age eighteen.
The constitution established a Commission on Elections that is empowered to
supervise every aspect of campaigns and elections. It is composed of a
chairperson and six commissioners, who cannot have been candidates for any
position in the immediately preceding elections. A majority of the commissioners
must be lawyers, and all must be college-educated. They are appointed by the
president with the consent of the Commission on Appointments and serve a
single seven-year term. The Commission on Elections enforces and administers
all election laws and regulations and has original jurisdiction over all legal
disputes arising from disputed results. To counter the unwholesome influence
occasionally exercised by soldiers and other armed groups, the commission may
depute law enforcement agencies, including the Armed Forces of the Philippines.
In dire situations, the commission can take entire municipalities and provinces
under its control, or order new elections.

The final decision on all legislative elections rests with the electoral tribunals of
the Senate and House of Representatives. Each electoral tribunal is composed
of nine members, three of whom are members of the Supreme Court designated
by the chief justice. The remaining six are members of the Senate or the House,
chosen on the basis of proportional representation from parties in the chamber. *

History of Elections in the Philippines

Until 1972 Philippine elections were comparable to those in United States cities
during early industrialization: flawed, perhaps, by instances of vote-buying, ballot-
box stuffing, or miscounts, but generally transmitting the will of the people. A
certain amount of election-related violence was considered normal. Marcos
overturned this system with innovations such as asking voters to indicate by a
show of hands if they wanted him to remain in office. In the snap election of
1986, Marcos supporters tried every trick they knew but lost anyway. The
heroism of the democratic forces at that time inspired many Filipinos. (Source:
Library of Congress)

The commission to "accredit citizens' arms of the Commission on Elections” is

known as the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL). A private
NAMFREL was instrumental in the election of President Ramon Magsaysay in

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1953, and played a minor role in subsequent presidential elections. It lapsed into
inactivity during the martial law years, then played an important role in Aquino's
1986 victory. (Source: Library of Congress)

The first congressional elections under the 1987 constitution were held on May
11, 1987. Political parties had not really coalesced. Seventy-nine separate
parties registered with the Commission on Elections, and voters had a wide
range of candidates to choose from: 84 candidates ran for 24 Senate seats, and
1,899 candidates ran for 200 House seats. The elections were considered
relatively clean, even though the secretary of local government ordered all
governors and mayors to campaign for Aquino-endorsed candidates. There were
sixty-three election related killings. Some of these deaths were attributable to
small-town family vendettas, whereas others may have had ideological motives.
The armed forces charged that communists used strong-arm tactics in areas they
controlled, and the communists in turn claimed that nineteen of their election
workers had been murdered. Election results showed a virtual clean sweep for
candidates endorsed by Aquino. *

The next step in redemocratization was to hold local elections for the first time
since 1980. When Aquino took office, she dismissed all previously elected
officials and replaced them with people she believed to be loyal to her. Local
elections were originally scheduled for August 1987, but because many May
1987 congressional results were disputed and defeated candidates wanted a
chance to run for local positions, the Commission on Elections postponed local
elections first to November 1987 and then to January 18, 1988. More than
150,000 candidates ran for 16,000 positions as governor, vice governor,
provincial board member, mayor, vice mayor, and town council member,
nationwide. *

The final step in redemocratization was the thrice-postponed March 1989

election for barangay officials. Some 42,000 barangay captains were elected. At
this level of neighborhood politics, no real money or power was involved, the
stakes were small, and election violence was rare. The Commission on Elections
prohibited political parties from becoming involved.

Election Campaigns in the Philippines

Before elections in May 2010, Blaine Harden wrote in the Washington Post:
“Elections in the Philippines are personality-driven, a kind of national soap opera
in which distinctions between infamy and celebrity tend to blur over time. In the

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chaotic run-up to national elections on May 10, about 85,000 candidates are
clamoring after 17,000 positions, from town council member to president. Political
violence has claimed at least 80 lives, including 57 in one incident. And families
that have long called the shots in the Philippines are angling for advantage.
(Source: Blaine Harden, Washington Post, April 22, 2010)

Campaigns in the Philippines have been called charades and compared to con
games. They are generally long on impossible-to-fulfill promises and
entertainment and short on policy statements, positions on issues and
substantive debate. There are rules that limit campaign spending, advertising
and television air time but these rules are often broken. The campaign period for
presidential and legislative elections is theoretically about 60 days but is often
much longer than that in reality.

Political rallies are entertainment extravaganzas. Candidates uses comic books

to radio jingles to reach the voters. In a typical campaign rally the crowd wears
caps with the names of the candidates they support and chant their names. It is
not unusual for many of the members of the crowd to be paid to show up. In
some cases candidates have been accused of using taxpayer money for their
campaigns.

In the early 2000s it became fashionable for politicians to appear in

advertisements and commercials, peddling everything from milk to detergents, to
make money and get their names and faces recognized. Politicians have
appeared on television, radio, billboards and posters. One presidential candidate
plugged a Philippine-made brandy. President Arroyo appeared in ads endorsing
low-price medicines, cheap rice and a commuter train service. Government -
owned mobile stores that sold rice and other basic foodstuffs were called Gloria’s
Stores.

Describing the scene six months before presidential in 2004, Ellen Nakashima
wrote in the Washington Post, “In just one week in the Philippine capital, a former
air transportation official was shot dead in a control tower at the international
airport, lawmakers clashed over whether to impeach the nation's top judge and
police dispersed thousands of protesters with tear gas and water cannons. And
that, many Filipinos fear, was just another typical week as the May 2004
presidential election season opens and opposition forces sense that President
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is vulnerable. (Source: Ellen Nakashima,
Washington Post, November 23, 2003)

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Election Irregularities and Problems with Philippine Electoral System

Philippine elections are often marred by violence, fraud and irregularities. Polling
stations run out of ballots; ballot boxes go missing; names of legitimate voters
aren’t not on voting lists; dead people remain on lists that have not been
updated; stations run out of ink that keeps voters from voting twice. There have
also been allegations that computers have been manipulated to change results.

"Politicians routinely" employ "election techniques that would embarrass a

Chicago ward heeler," William Branigin wrote in the Washington Post. "Vote
buying and dirty tricks are run-of-the-mill. Political groups here have resorted to
such methods as moving polling stations at the last minute, kidnapping
opposition voters, switching ballot boxes and tally sheets, voting not only
involving the dead but entire ghost precincts and, when all else fails, blowing
away rival candidates or local organizers."

Vote buying is common. "Election in the Philippines function something like a

national welfare system," Mimi Swartz wrote in New Yorker, "In a country where
the minimum wage is five dollars a day, an undecided vote is one who has not
yet received gifts of food and cash from a candidate." The Marcos's spent an
estimated $1 billion to win one election and that was when they were in power.

Carlos H. Conde wrote in the New York Times, “Here, politicians have no qualms
about using what critics call "guns, gold and goons." Votes are still being counted
by hand, while vote-counters are appointed by politicians who are also
candidates. Vote-buying is said to be rampant - a charge frequently leveled by
defeated candidates - and it is widely reported that many ordinary voters have
come to expect bribes from politicians. The padding and shaving of votes - the
practice of which Arroyo is now accused - is also apparently prevalent. (Source:
Carlos H. Conde, New York Times, July 1, 2005)

The electoral infrastructure “is the Commission on Elections, which had been a
credible institution until Marcos politicized it and used it to lend legitimacy to his
regime. Among other things, he packed it with his own appointees. When Marcos
was ousted in 1986, his successor, Corazon Aquino, wanted to rebuild and
strengthen the democratic institutions that Marcos destroyed, among them the
commission. She appointed people with acknowledged credibility to run these
institutions.

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“One of them is Christian Monsod, whom Aquino appointed as chairman of the
commission in 1992, her last year in office. But, according to Monsod, who left
the commission in 1995, "the three presidents after Aquino did more to weaken
than to strengthen the commission." Monsod said the succeeding regimes "did
not appoint good commissioners because they were more interested in their
political agenda." This had the effect of restoring what Marcos had done - to pack
the commission with the politically connected to control the outcome of votes. As
a result, a "creeping rot" threatens the foundation of Philippine democracy,
Monsod said. "The commission has zero credibility and is part of the problem."

“In 1993, Monsod modernized the commission, overseeing the drafting of a new
election code and improving its systems, most especially procedures for the
counting of votes. More than a decade later and after spending close to 2 billion
pesos, or about $36 million, on equipment and projects that never got off the
ground, the commission still uses hand-counted votes and final results are not
known until weeks after an election. Under the present setup, fraud apparently
remains prevalent.

“Every election since Marcos has brought complaints of cheating. Sulay Alipa, a
former mayor of Bongao town in the southern Philippines, says he was cheated
in the 2004 elections. The cheating took on many forms, he said by telephone.
Some towns in his province had 98 percent voter turnout rates, which, he said,
was statistically improbable. In one town, 10,000 were listed as voters when
there were only 6,000 people of voting age. The teachers who did the counting,
Alipa said, were appointed by officials who were also candidates, opening the
way to fraud. And because elections here are often accompanied by violence,
the police and military are usually put under the commission's control during the
voting, which also raises the likelihood of fraud. In past elections, state security
forces were involved in snatching ballot boxes or preventing people from voting.

Need to Reform the Philippine Elections

In 2005, after Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, went on national

television to apologize for election-related improprieties, Carlos H. Conde wrote
in the New York Times, “Election experts say that Filipinos must have honest
elections before they have even a chance of becoming prosperous and politically
stable. Electoral reforms are crucial in a country whose politics are still
dominated by decades-old political dynasties. “The current political crisis is the
result of our faulty and corrupt electoral system," said José Concepción,
chairman of the National Movement for Free Elections, an election monitoring

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group. "Either we reform this system or this is not going to be the last of these
crises. It's now or never." (Source: Carlos H. Conde, New York Times, July 1,
2005)

If shady election “practices are eliminated, according to the experts, the

Philippines may finally see an end to the political upheavals that roil it with
worrisome frequency - upheavals that are often caused by the questionable
mandates that election fraud often creates. Only then, they say, can the country
attain political maturity and the full flowering of its democracy. “The current
political crisis is the result of our faulty and corrupt electoral system," said José
Concepción, chairman of the National Movement for Free Elections, an election
monitoring group. "Either we reform this system or this is not going to be the last
of these crises. It's now or never." "The electoral process is at the very center of
this crisis," said Ronald Meinardus, country representative for the Friedrich
Naumann Foundation of Germany, which has been funding programs here for
election reforms. "Had it not been for the flawed electoral process, this wouldn't
have happened."

“Alipa says his experience is all too common in many parts of the country. "We
should really change our electoral process," he said. But change can only
happen if Filipino leaders have the political will to do it, according to Meinardus of
the Friedrich Naumann Foundation. "The political class is happy with the status
quo because they could have their privileges, no matter that it does not allow for
true democracy, that it only allows for manipulation of the process," he said.
"Looking around, I don't see anybody among them calling for electoral reforms."

In Isabela Province, the Catholic Church deployed 3,000 parishioners to help

guard ballot boxes after a powerful local family unplugged a radio station and
took other actions when it appeared there was a good chance they might lose the
governorship.

In the mid-2000s there was a trend to contest elections in the courts. One the
eve of the 2004 election more than half a dozen disqualification cases were
heard in the courts. They involved allegations of excessive campaign spending,
breaking limits on political advertising, vote-buying and illegal use of tax payer
money for elections. (Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los
Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of
Congress, Philippines Department of Tourism, Compton’s Encyclopedia,
The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New
Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Wall Street Journal, The

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Atlantic Monthly, The Economist, Foreign Policy, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN, and
various books, websites and other publications.)
Source:http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Philippines-
POLITICAL-PARTIES.html#ixzz4Zo0kfP1f

LESSON HECK UP:

What are the common strategies of Politician-Candidates, Political

Parties, Partylist and Other Interest Groups during elections? Write
them down inside the hexagons.

DYNAMICS
OF
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS

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 MODULE II
CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
LESSON 1: POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OUTSIDE FORMAL INSTITUTIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of elections and political parties and civil

society and social movements;
2. Analyze the interactions between state and society;
3. Discuss the concepts of civil society and social movements;
4. Explain the contributions of civil society organizations and social
movements to Philippine democracy; and
5. Evaluate the role of civil society organizations and social movements

LEARNING CONTENT:

WHAT DEFINES A CIVIL SOCIETY?

Think about the country that you live in - what does it take to make that country
operate smoothly? The government takes care of law and order and businesses
offer goods and services in exchange for money, which both help to keep a
society moving. But what about other groups, like churches or the PTA, how do
they contribute to your society? These other groups actually play a very big part
in how your country operates, and they fall into a category known as civil society.

Meanings and Definitions:

What Is Civil Society?

Initially, Civil Society used to be defined as a political community i.e. a society

governed by the government, law and authority. In contemporary times, however,
Civil Society is distinguished from the state and political community. It means

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nongovernmental, private, voluntarily organized associations or institutions of the
people, through which they try to secure their needs, desires and objectives.

Such associations and organizations work independently of the government. Civil

Society even opposes the wrong politics, decisions and projects of the
government. In doing so the civil society depends upon constitutional, peaceful
and legal method of action.
The term Civil Society is used to collectively refer to the voluntary organizations
corporate bodies, socially active groups, and firms working in each society.
Civil Society is the set of intermediate associations which is neither the state nor
the family, but which plays an active and positive role in social, economic, and
cultural activities.

According to Andrew Heywood, "Civil society refers to "a realm of associations,

business, interest groups, classes’ families and so on."

Civil Society includes all private organizations of the people. Press, professional
associations of the people, Human Right groups and organizations, voluntary
social service organizations, and in fact, all NGOs working in society.

In other words, Civil Society refers to the effective presence of non-

governmental autonomous groups and associations, business groups, interest
groups, trade unions, voluntary social service organizations, in fact, all non-
governmental organizations, and groups working for securing public interests and
welfare by their self-efforts.

A civil society is comprised of groups or organizations working in the interest of

the citizens but operating outside of the governmental and for-profit sectors.
Organizations and institutions that make up civil society include labor unions,
non-profit organizations, churches, and other service agencies that provide an
important service to society but generally ask for very little in return.

Civil society is sometimes referred to as the civil sector, a term that is used to
differentiate it from other sectors that comprise a functioning society. For
example, the United States is made up of three sectors: the public sector, which
is the government and its branches; the private sector, which includes
businesses and corporations; and the civil sector, which includes the
organizations that act in the public's interest but are not motivated by profit or
government.

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Features of Civil Society:

a. Civil Society consists of non-governmental, voluntarily organized

associations, organizations and institutions of the people.
b. Civil Society is different from both the State and Society.
c. Civil Society is, however, neither opposed to state nor to society. On the
contrary it works as a supplementary to each of the two. It, however,
works in an organized and autonomous way.
d. A healthy and efficient democratic system needs and integrates civil
society, society and state.
e. Civil Society is constituted by the well-organized and active presence of a
number of social, economic and cultural associations and groups of the
people.
f. Both Liberalism and Marxism accept and advocate the role of Civil Society
but each conceptualizes it in a different way.

Role of Civil Society:

1. Civil Society as an instrument for securing rights and interests of the

people:

Civil Society works for discharging several economic, social, cultural, moral and
other responsibilities which fall in the domain of private activities. It is not a part
of government and yet it serves the purpose of securing the rights, general
welfare and development of all the people of the state.

2. Growing Strength and Role of Civil Society in our Country:

In our country the Civil Society has been becoming more and more aware, alert
and active. The continuous presence and successful working of Indian liberal
democratic political system, the spread of literacy, the freedom of mass media,
the existence of a very broad based decentralized local self-government system,
the presence of a direct, homogeneous and democratic process of Political
Socialization and people's full commitment to liberal democracy have been
together helping the Civil Society to become increasingly active and strong.

The Right to Information and the implementation of the Right to Information Act
has given an additional strength to the Civil Society. It now uses this Act for
securing its objectives; It has now come to be a powerful actor in the process of
Indian democratic polity, economy and society. Anna Hazare's anti-corruption

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movement and the movement for the creation of a strong Lokpal as the watchdog
against corruption have shown the increasing strength and role Civil Society in
our country.

3. Need of Civil Society in Undemocratic States:

Civil Society is needed even in an authoritarian system because it can help the
process of overthrow of the authoritarian regime and replace it with a democratic
system. The Civil Society, particularly the Bar Association of Pakistan, played a
key role in 2008 to compel General Parvez Musharraf to accept the demand for
holding democratic and free elections for constituting a democratic government
capable of developing Pakistan as a democratic state and society.

Since March 2008, Pakistan has been living with a democratic government and
this development has been helping the Civil Society in Pakistan to become better
organized and more active and efficient in playing its role in Pakistani society,
economy and polity. It alone can help the Pakistani government in controlling the
menace of terrorism.

In February 2011 several states of Africa, particularly Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen and
some others have experienced the increasing strengths of their civil societies.
Strong opposition to authoritarian and dictatorial regimes was demonstrated by
the civil society in Egypt.

The civil society of Tunisia successfully secured its objective of overthrowing the
forces of authoritarianism in their country and on 11th February 2011, the
Egyptian Civil Society also successfully secured its objective of eliminating the
authoritarian regime of Hosni Mubarak in their country. It is expected that it will
now ensure the installation of a democratic regime in the country.

In fact, the civil society of each state has been trying to become more active and
assertive in its society, polity and economy. It is indeed a very healthy
development which is destined to give more strength to the movements for the
restoration of democratic regimes in all authoritarian states of the world.

The current drive for the protection of Human Rights of all the people living in all
parts of the globe and the environment protection movements will get more and
more support and efforts from the civil society of each member of the
international community.

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Source: www.preservearticles.com/.../civil-society-meaning-features-and-
role-of-civil-society

Social Movements
Concept of Social Movements: Social movements are a type of group action.
They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations
which focus on specific political or social issues. In other words, they carry out,
resist, or undo a social change.

Social Movements: Meaning, Causes, Types, Revolution and Role

The Meaning of Social Movements:

In the society a large number of changes have been brought about by efforts
exerted by people individually and collectively. Such efforts have been called
social movements. A social movement may, therefore, be defined as “a
collectively acting with some continuity to promote or resist a change in the
society or group of which it is a part”.

According to Anderson and Parker, social movement is “a form of dynamic

pluralistic behaviour which progressively develops structure through time and
aims at partial or complete modification of the social order.” Lundberg and others
define social movement as, “a voluntary association of people engaged in
concerted efforts to change attitudes, behaviour and social relationships in a
larger society.”

Thus, social movement is the effort by an association to bring about a change in

the society. A social movement may also be directed to resist a change. Some
movements are directed to modify certain aspects of the existing social order
whereas others may aim to change it completely. The former are called reform
movements and the latter are known as revolutionary movements.

Social movements may be of numerous kinds, such as religious movements,

reform movements, or revolutionary movements.
Social movements may be distinguished from institutions:

Firstly, Social institutions are relatively permanent and stable elements of a

culture, whereas social movements have an uncertain life. Marriage is a

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permanent social institution but the life of family planning movement is not
certain. Secondly, institutions hold institutional status. They are regarded as
necessary and valuable aspects of the culture. A social movement lacks
institutional status. Some people are indifferent or even hostile to it.
Social movements may also be distinguished from association. Firstly, an
association is an organized group, while some social movements may be totally
unorganized. Secondly, an association carries the customary behaviour of the
society, while the social movement is concerned with some change in behaviour
norms.

Features of the Social Movement:

a. It is an effort by a group
b. Its aim is to bring or resist a change in society
c. It may be organized or unorganized
d. It may be peaceful or violent
e. Its life is not certain. It may continue for a long period or it may die out
soon.

Causes of Social Movements:

Social movements do not just happen. It is social unrest which gives rise to a
social movement.

Factors Causing Social Unrest among Societies:

1. Cultural Drifts:
The society is undergoing constant changes. The values and behaviour are
changing in all civilized societies. In the course of cultural drift most of the people
develop new ideas. To get these ideas operative in society they organise a
movement. The development of a democratic society, the emancipation of
women, the spread of mass education, the removal of untouchability, equality of
opportunity for both the sexes, growth of secularism are the examples of cultural
drift.

2. Social Disorganization:

A changing society is to some extent disorganized because changes in different

parts of society do not take place simultaneously. One part changes more rapidly

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than the other producing thereby numerous lags. Industrialization has brought
urbanization which has in its turn caused numerous social problems.

Social disorganization brings confusion and uncertainty because the old

traditions no longer form a dependable guide to behaviour. The individuals
become rootless. They feel isolated from the society. A feeling develops that the
community leaders are indifferent to their needs. The individuals feel insecure,
confused and frustrated. Confusion and frustration produce social movements.

3. Social Injustice:

When a group of people feel that injustice has been done to it they become
frustrated and alienated. Such feeling of injustice provides fertile soil for social
movements. The feeling of social injustice is not limited to the miserable poor.
Any group, at any status level may come to feel itself the victim of social injustice.
A wealthy class may feel a sense of injustice when faced with urban property
ceiling Act or high taxes intended to benefit the poor. Social injustice is a
subjective value judgment. A social system is unjust when it is so perceived by its
members.

Thus, social movements arise wherever social conditions are favorable. It may
be noted that in a stable, well integrated society there are few social movements.
In such a society there are very few social tensions or alienated groups.

The people are contented. But in a changing and continuously disorganized

society the people suffer from tensions. They are not fully contented. In such a
society they perceive social injustice and become dissatisfied. It is the
dissatisfied who build social movements. The modern society is more afflicted by
social movements.

The People More Susceptible to Social Movements:

a. Mobile and have little chance to become integrated into the life of the
community
b. Not fully accepted and integrated into the group and are termed marginal
c. Isolated from the community
d. Threatened by economic insecurity and loss of social status
e. Free from family responsibilities or are estranged from their families
f. Maladjusted.

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Thus, the people who are homeless and misfits of society become the supporters
of mass movements. It may also be noted that some people join the social
movements for reasons unrelated to the movement’s objectives. Some may join
it first to fill their leisure Ume, or they may be personally attracted to some of its
members.
The Sequence Pattern of Social Movements:

1. First, there is unrest and discontent in some part of the population. A

small group of individuals becomes conscious of the need for a change,
voices its feelings and opinions, and sets out to influence the opinions
and emotions of others and prepare them for a reform.
2. Then, thereafter, there is a period of growth in following. A preliminary
organization is effected and the programme is restated in more popular
and appealing terms.
3. Then follows a more systematic effort to gain supporters. There is a
formal campaign. Backed by the enlarged following and increased
propaganda the leaders eventually exert pressure on those in authority.
4. The program is either accepted or rejected, or partly accepted and partly
rejected. If accepted, necessary institutional changes are made; if
rejected the movement either collapses or reorganizes for a new trial of
strength at a later date.
Thus most completed movements pass through four stages of unrest,
excitement, formalization and institutionalization.

Types of Social Movements:

1. Migratory Movement:

Migratory movement takes place when a large number of people leave one
country and settle at some other place. The reason for mass migration may be
discontent with present circumstances or the allurement of a bright future. Mere
migration of people does not mean migratory movement.

There is a migratory social- movement only when there is a common focus of

discontent, a shared purpose or hope for the future and a widely shared decision
to move to a new location. The Zionist movement, the movement of Jews to
Israel was a migratory social movement. Similarly, the movement of people from
East Germany to West Germany can be called migratory social movement.

2. Expressive Movement:

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When people are faced with a social system from which they cannot flee and
which they feel powerless to change, the result is an expressive social
movement. In an expressive social movement the individual comes to terms with
an unpleasant external reality by modifying his reactions to that reality. He
somehow makes life bearable. He tries to ignore the miserable present and fixes
his gaze upon a glorious future. The Hippie movement is an expressive social
movement.

3. Utopian Movement:

A Utopian movement is one which seeks to create an ideal social system or a

perfect society which can be found only in man’s imagination and not in reality.
There have been a number of Utopian socialist in the nineteenth century such as
Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. Such movements are based on a conception
of man as basically good, cooperative and altruistic. The Sarvodaya movement
can be called a Utopian movement.

4. Reform Movement:

The reform movement is an attempt to modify some parts of the society without
completely transforming it. Reform movements can operate only in a democratic
society where people have freedom to criticize the existing institutions and may
secure changes. The movements to abolish untouchability, dowry system,
preserve wild life, control population growth are reform movements. The total
revolution movement led by J. P. Narayan was a reform movement. The
movement led by J. P. Narayan was a reform movement.

5. Revolutionary Movement:

The revolutionary movement seeks to overthrow the existing social system and
replace it with a greatly different one. The reform movement wants to correct
some imperfections in the existing social system but a revolutionary movement
wants to root out the system itself. Revolutionary movement’s flourish where
reform is blocked so that revolution remains the people’s only alternative to their
present misery. The communist movements in Soviet Russia and China were
revolutionary movements.

6. Resistance Movements:

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The resistance movement is an effort to block a proposed change or to uproot a
change already achieved. The revolutionary movement arises because people
are dissatisfied with the slow rate of social change whereas resistance
movement arises because people consider social change too fast. The D. M. K.
movement against Hindi can be termed resistance movement.
7. Revolutionary Movements:

As said above, revolutionary movements or revolutions seek to over throw the

existing social system itself and replace it with a greatly different one. The
communist revolution in Soviet Russia overthrew the Czarist regime and
replaced it with the communist system of production and distribution of goods.

According to MacIver, “at a time when a political regime is overthrown by force in

order to impose a new form of government or a government which proclaims a
new policy on some crucial issue, we may call it a revolution.” He further says,
‘The assassination of a king or President or Premier would not constitute a
revolution if it was inspired by personal motives or were the act of a small group
of desperados who could not hope to establish an alternative government.

A revolution implies a deep schism within the state. It reveals a pathological

condition of the individual which shows by contrast the physical nature of the
political authority.” Revolutions flourish where reform is blocked so that revolution
remains the only alternative left with the people. It is accompanied by violence,
mass-scale killings, use of underground methods and untold sufferings, yet the
people resort to it because they see no hope.

Although an Oligarchy state ruled by an oligarch or a class is most prone to

revolution, however, a democracy also is not free from it. In an oligarchy, the
people have no power, their rights are suppressed, there is coercion and
oppression which take the people to revolution. In a democracy, religious, social
or economic issues may cause revolution. The earlier writers like John of
Salisbury and Mace Gold held that contract with God is superior to contract with
men and hence paramount over the demands of the state.

Religion is a big emotive issue which can flare up in a revolution. Among the
social issues the most important is the feeling by a particular group or race that it
is not getting its just share in the political set up of the country and that the only
alternative is to achieve autonomy or to be separated from the state to which it is
coercively bound.

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If such a group or race occupies a determinate territory, such feeling acquires
greater force. In the economic sphere, the present division between capital and
labor, the owners of the means of production and workers, has fostered much
bitterness and revolutionary feeling. The capitalists control the government and,
therefore, the only way of abolishing the capitalism is to get control over the
government.

However, in contrast to oligarchies, the democracies are less prone to

revolutions, in the words of MacIver, “A truly democratic state is vastly more
secure than an oligarchy against the threat of /evolution. Doubtless, the general
will is still most imperfect and undeveloped, but at least it is sufficiently real to
give it a new character to political authority. The formal basis of this authority is
no more the division of master and servant but the unity of agent and principal.”

MacIver also holds that when authority ceases to exist in its own right and
becomes derivative, when it becomes authority over action as distinct from
authority over thought and opinion, when it becomes authority according to
prescribed norms instead of personal command, when it becomes reciprocal
instead of unilateral and when it learns to appreciate its relation to that inner
control which all personality seeks for itself, the conditions for revolution are
abolished.

Role of Leadership:

Social movements in order to succeed must have effective organization and

strong leader. The members or supporters must be recruited in greater number,
financial support must be procured and various tasks connected with the
movement must be properly allocated. There must also be proper coordination
among personnel assigned to more or less specific roles. In social movements
the role of the leader is very important.

Many a movement fails due to lack of leadership. The leader is the spokesman of
the group. He is the coordinator and the important participator in the decisions as
to the goals and methods. He is an example to others. He enjoys great authority
and power. He also enjoys great prestige. He excels others in personal qualities.
The leader has great responsibilities. He is expected to fulfill them.

He is expected to keep his word, to stick by the members and to uphold the
group norms and values. If he does not live up to the level expected, he suffers a
loss of prestige and even of position in the group. He can be thrown out of

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leadership. If he betrays the confidence reposed in him by the supporters, he
may even be killed. Thus, the leader plays a crucial role in a social movement.
The success or failure of the movement depends largely on him.

The Leadership Functions Are Related To The:

a. goal achievement
b. strengthening of the social movement

Functions of Leadership in Achieving Goals:

1. Make suggestions for action
2. Evaluate the movement towards the goal
3. Prevent activities irrelevant to the goal
4. Offer effective solutions for goal achievement

Functions in the Second Category Maintain and Strengthen the Movement.

1. Encourage the members
2. Release tension that builds up
3. Give everyone a chance to express himself
4. Stimulate coordinated action

The leader has the basic responsibility for seeing that the social movement
achieves its goals. The followers follow the leader because they recognize that
he can lead them to the goal. The leader should select his technique with great
forethought. It should be “reality-oriented.” The leader should know that in case
of failure of the movement he may have to suffer rebuffs, loss of status and
blame. He should, therefore, be very cautious in assuming the leadership, and
having assumed should be careful in handling it successfully. A leader can
channelize the mass enthusiasm into constructive social reforms or he can
eventually destroy the social system. (Source: www.sociologydiscussion.com
› Social Movements)

Common features between Civil Society and Social movement

Social movements and civil society have structures like organizations a well
identified leadership and ideology. Civil society initiatives and social movements
are social processes which undergo several stages of progression from
mobilization to intensive collective action.

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Social movements and civil societies pledge for change in the established order
of society. However, some of them also work to resist change in society. They
both occupy civil space in society. The creation of new collective identity is an
essential part of both social movements and civil society. They are based on
identified ideological choices.
They are initiated by enterprising people for the maximization of specific
interests. Here both processes can be taken over by the state. Social movements
are broader categories or agencies. At times it even looks for radical change by
attacking the existing structure of the society. Civil society looks for gradual
change within the existing arrangement. Civil society at times asks political
questions and political solutions through developmental activities. (Source:
http://www.sociologyguide.com/civil-society/common-features.php)

Political Participation Outside Formal Institutions

Political Participation

Political participation is any activity that shapes, affects, or involves the political
sphere. Political participation ranges from voting to attending a rally to committing
an act of terrorism to sending a letter to a representative. Broadly speaking, there
are three types of participation:

1. Conventional participation: Activities that we expect of good citizens. For

most people, participation occurs every few years at election time. People
strongly committed to politics are more likely to participate on a regular basis.

Example: Conventional political participation includes voting, volunteering for a

political campaign, making a campaign donation, belonging to activist groups,
and serving in public office.

2. Unconventional participation: Activities that are legal but often considered

inappropriate. Young people, students, and those with grave concerns about a
regime’s policies are most likely to engage in unconventional participation.

Example: Unconventional political participation includes signing petitions,

supporting boycotts, and staging demonstrations and protests.
3. Illegal participation: activities that break the law. Most of the time, people
resort to illegal participation only when legal means have failed to create
significant political change.

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Example: Illegal political participation includes political assassination, terrorism,
and sabotaging an opponent’s campaign through theft or vandalism.

Why People Participate

Most democratic citizens feel that some level of political participation, particularly
conventional participation, is admirable and acceptable. But political participation
can be hard: One must find time, and perhaps money, in order to participate. So
why do people do it? People participate in politics out of a sense of the following:

 Idealism: Some participate because they believe strongly in a particular

idea.

 Responsibility: For many, participation is a responsibility of democratic

citizenship.

 Self-interest: A person might work to promote issues and causes that

personally profit that person.

 Enjoyment: Some simply enjoy public activity, either because of the

activity itself or because of the friends they make while politically
engaged.

The Paradox of Participation

Rational choice theorists have argued that participation, particularly voting, is

irrational. In a large country, the probability that one’s vote will decide the
outcome of an election is microscopic. Because participation has costs (time to
vote, effort to learn about the candidates and issues, and so on), the costs of
voting outweigh the benefits. In other words, voting does not make sense for
people as an activity. Another way to think about this issue is to consider the
person who votes because he or she desires to have an impact on the
government. If he or she votes out of a sense that the one vote will make a
difference, then this person will be sorely disappointed. The truth is that one vote
does not make a difference. At the same time, however, if everyone who votes
ceased to believe in the power of voting to effect change, then no one would turn
out for elections and the democratic process would stop functioning. Political
scientists call this phenomenon the paradox of participation.

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Nonparticipation

In some countries, large parts of the population do not participate in politics at all.
In the United States, for example, only about half of all eligible people vote in
presidential elections.

Attitudes for Nonparticipation:

a. Contentment: Lack of participation indicates satisfaction with the status

quo—if they were upset about an issue, people would participate.
b. Freedom: In a democratic society, people have the freedom to not
participate.
c. Apathy: Many people do not know much about politics and do not care.
d. Alienation: People do not participate because they feel that no one in
power listens to their views and that the government is, at best, indifferent
to them.
Source: www.sparknotes.com › ... › Political Culture and Public
Opinion

LESSON CHECK UP:

ARRANGE THE JUMBLED LETTERS TO FORM HIDDEN WORD USING THE GIVEN CLUE.
Jumbled Letters Clue Hidden Word
1. SOMEONEHUGO talk the same language ______________________
2. ITROPICANATIP joining with others ______________________
3. ABOLITIONZIM move people to perform ______________________
4. MONTENTCENT state of satisfaction ______________________
5. TRAINOURVELOY radical change ______________________
6. ULTIMATEMAILERS alliance of countries ______________________
7. NOHOPENMEN an observable fact or event ______________________
8. GECOILLOIDA concerned with ideas ______________________
9. SCARENITES refusal to accept or submit ______________________
10. ASIATICOILZON adapting behavior to norms ______________________

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 MODULE 12
CITIZENSHIP
LESSON 1: THE TRADITIONAL AND MODERN VIEWS OF CITIZENSHIP, i.e.,
THE STATE-CENTRIC vs PARTICIPATORY NOTIONS OF CITIZENSHIP

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of citizenship;

2. Propose a project on political engagement and youth empowerment;
3. Explain citizenship;
4. Assess the various avenues for citizen participation; and
5. Illustrate the value of citizenship.

LEARNING CONTENT:

Citizenship-in-practice

CITIZENSHIP: MEANING, DEFINITION AND OTHER DETAILS

Since the state is organized and the government is established for the welfare of
the citizen, it becomes essential that we should know the meaning of the term
“citizen”. The term ‘citizen’ can be understood in a narrow or in a broad sense. In
a narrow sense, it means the resident of a city or one who enjoys the privilege of
living m a city. While in a broad sense citizen means a person who resides within
the territorial limits of the state.

Speaking in terms of Political Science, citizen means a person who is the

member of the state and who enjoys social and political rights. In our country an
adult of twenty-one years of age enjoys, regardless of the distinction of caste,
color and creed, education, property and residence, etc.

As a matter of fact, the concept of citizenship goes back to the ancient city-
states where the population was divided into two classes —the citizens and the

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slaves. The citizens enjoyed both civil and political rights. They directly or
indirectly participate in all the functions of the civil and political life of the state.

Whereas the slaves enjoyed none of such rights and suffered from all kinds o
political and economic disabilities. In this way in ancient Greece the term ‘citizen’
was used in its narrow sense. Only those who enjoyed the civil and political rights
and who participated in the functions of the civil and political life of people were
regarded as citizens.
Since every individual of the total population privileged to enjoy these rights, the
number of the slaves was far in excess of citizens. The number of the citizens
comprised 20,000 of the total population and the rest were regarded as slaves
who did not enjoy any such rights.

In short, we can say that in ancient Greek states this right to citizenship was
enjoyed by only a selected few persons. Much similar process was followed in
ancient Rome. People belonging to only rich class, known as Patricians, were
privileged to enjoy the civil and political rights.

Only the Patricians participated in the functions of the civil and political life of the
state. The rest of the population was not privileged to enjoy any of such rights.
Much similar process was adopted in the medieval age. But in modern times, the
dawn of democracy has turned the tables in most of the states. In such states
every adult enjoys the right to vote. This process is being adopted in India.
Canada, Sri Lanka, Japan, Belgium, Holland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
England, Lanka, Australia, United States of America, etc. Even in the communist
countries almost all the adults are enjoying the right to vote.

The Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, etc., are some
of the states where the policy of adult suffrage has been adopted. In Switzerland,
women are not privileged to enjoy the right to vote. In Pakistan and in many
backward Afro-Asian countries citizens are not privileged to enjoy a number of
civil and political rights. It is hoped that in due course of time people will enjoy all
the rights in these countries also. The U.N. is trying its best in this respect.

Definition of the Citizen:

According to Aristotle, citizen is he “who has the power to take part in the
deliberative or judicial administration of any state is said by us to be a citizen of
that state”. Vattal has defined citizens as, “the members of a civil society bound
to this society by certain duties, subject to its authority and equal participants in

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its advantages”. “Citizenship”, according to Laski, “is the contribution of one’s
instructed judgment to the public good”.

A Citizen Must Have:

1. The membership of the state.

2. The Social and Political rights.
3. Sentiment of devotion to the state.
Distinction between an Alien and a Citizen:

There is a marked distinction between an alien and a citizen. A citizen enjoys civil
and political rights in his own country. Whereas an alien is not privileged to enjoy
the political rights of the country but sometimes he is privileged to enjoy a few of
the social rights. It depends entirely on the government of the country, in which
he lives, to permit him to enjoy the social rights or not.

Three Types of Aliens:

1. Resident aliens
2. Temporary aliens
3. Ambassadors.
The people who have left their native land and have settled in the foreign
countries are known as resident aliens. For example, a number of Indians have
permanently settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, Canada, South Africa, Australia,
U.S.A., England, etc.

They are no more the citizens of India. But it depends on the government of the
respective states to grant these residents the citizenship of their country or not.
Temporary aliens are those people who visit foreign countries in order to serve
their purposes and when their purposes are served, they go back to their native
land.

For example every year a number of students go to foreign countries in order to

receive higher education. Traders visit foreign countries for the purpose of trade.
When their purposes are served, they come back to their home.

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Ambassadors are those aliens who settle in foreign countries as the
representatives of their governments. For example, the representatives of foreign
countries live in India and the representatives of Indian government live in foreign
countries.

Foreign Friends and Enemies:

Every country has some friends and some enemies. Friendly countries are called
foreign friends and enemy countries, foreign enemies. For example, during the
Second World War, France, U.S.S.R., America, Canada, Australia, etc., were
foreign friends to England; and Germany, Japan and Italy were foreign enemies
to England.
We do not have good relations with South Africa and China and they can be
called foreign enemies of India. On the contrary, we have good relations with
U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Egypt and so they can
be called our foreign friends.

Previously, we did not have good relations with Pakistan and the result was Indo-
Pak conflicts in 1965. But Tashkent Summit held in January, 1966 resulted in an
agreement between Mr. Lal Bahadur Shastri, the then Prime Minister of India,
and President Ayub Khan of Pakistan.

The agreement could remain effective only for a bit longer. The relations between
the two countries were once again strained and the result was the second Indo-
Pakistan conflict in December, 1971. But historic Simla Summit held in July, 1972
resulted in an agreement between Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President
Bhutto. In spite of that Pakistan continued hostile attitude towards India.

How Can the Citizenship be Acquired?

Citizens are of two types: natural born and naturalized. Natural born citizens
are those who are the citizens of a state by virtue of their birth or blood relations.
Naturalized citizens are those foreigners who are granted the citizenship of the
country on the fulfillment of some conditions laid down by the respective country.

A person who desires to be the citizen of a foreign country has to give up the
citizenship of his native country. No persons can be the citizen of more than one
country at the same time. Any person can acquire the citizenship of a foreign

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country after having fulfilled the condition laid down by that country for this
purpose.

How the Citizenship is Lost?

1. If a person willingly gives up the citizenship of his country and becomes a

foreign citizen;
2. A woman loses her citizenship if she marries a foreigner;
3. A person loses his citizenship if he remains absent from his country for a
longer period of time. But if he gets his citizenship renewed every year
through the embassy of his country, he does not lose his citizenship;
4. A person can be deprived of his citizenship if he proves a traitor to the
country or if he runs away from the army
5. A person loses his citizenship if he joins a foreign service or receives a
foreign honor without the permission of his own government.

Qualities of A Good Citizen:

1. Social sentiment
2.Good health and sound physique
3.Sentiment of world citizenship
4.Moderate thinking and self-control
5.Unselfishness and helpful attitude to others
6.Patriotism and the elimination of a sense of untouchability
7.The proper use of adult suffrage
Hindrances of Good Citizenship:

1. Selfishness
2. Favoritism and Nepotism
3. Indifferences
4. Feeling of regionalism
5. Idleness

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 6. Illiteracy
7. Poverty
8. Capitalism
9. Feeling of Untouchability
10. Provincialism, Communalism and aggressive nationalism
A good citizenship can be established only after eliminating the hindrances
mentioned above. So every state is adopting measures to eliminate these evils.
Ideals citizenship can lead to the progress of the country and to the security of
world-peace.
Source:www.politicalsciencenotes.com/essay/citizenship-meaning-
definition-and-other

Each country has its own policies, regulations and criteria as to who is entitled to
its citizenship. A person can be recognized or granted citizenship on a number of
bases. Usually citizenship based on the place of birth is automatic; in other cases
an application may be required.

Citizenship by Birth (jus sanguinis)

If one or both of a person's parents are citizens of a given state, then the person
may have the right to be a citizen of that state as well. Formerly this might only
have applied through the paternal line, but sex equality became common since
the late twentieth century. Citizenship is granted based on ancestry or ethnicity,
and is related to the concept of a nation state common in China. Where jus
sanguinis holds, a person born outside a country, one or both of whose parents
are citizens of the country, is also a citizen. States normally limit the right to
citizenship by descent to a certain number of generations born outside the state.
This form of citizenship is not common in civil law countries.

Born within a country (jus soli)

Some people are automatically citizens of the state in which they are born. This
form of citizenship originated in England where those who were born within the
realm were subjects of the monarch (a concept pre-dating citizenship), and is
common in common law countries. In many cases both jus solis and jus
sanguinis hold; citizenship either by place or parentage (or of course both).

Citizenship by Marriage (jure matrimonii)

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Many countries fast-track naturalization based on the marriage of one person to
another citizen. Countries which are destinations for such immigration often have
regulations to try to detect sham marriages, where a citizen marries a non-citizen
typically for payment, without them having the intention of living together.

The Traditional and Modern Views of Citizenship, i.e., the State-Centric vs.
Participatory Notions of Citizenship

Traditional Views on Citizenship

POLIS

Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states
of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon
dating back only a few hundred years and, for mankind, that the concept of
citizenship arose with the first laws. Polis meant both the political assembly of the
city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship has generally been identified
as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient
times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view
has come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static
relation, but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one
view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain
times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early
Athenian state.

Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested
that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance
of freedom. Hosking explained: It can be argued that this growth of slavery was
what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any
Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost
any time. When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being
enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into
slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free
men.

Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fear of being enslaved was a central motivating
force for the development of the Greek sense of citizenship. Sculpture: a Greek
woman being served by a slave-child. Slavery permitted slaveowners to have
substantial free time, and enabled participation in public life. Polis citizenship was

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marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens had a higher
status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves or barbarians. The first form of
citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in
small-scale organic communities of the polis. Citizenship was not seen as a
separate activity from the private life of the individual person, in the sense that
there was not a distinction between public and private life.
The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected into one's everyday life in
the polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new
development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of
Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of
the ancient Greeks, a person's public life was not separated from their private
life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to the
modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply
connected with everyday life.

To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which

Aristotle famously expressed: "To take no part in the running of the community's
affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was based on
obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the
citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong
affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were
strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an
opportunity to be virtuous; it was a source of honour and respect. In Athens,
citizens were both ruler and ruled, important political and judicial offices were
rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.

Roman ideas

In the Roman Empire, citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the

entire empire. Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over
the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Roman citizenship was
no longer a status of political agency; it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard
and the expression of rule and law. Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship
such as the principles of equality under the law, civic participation in government,
and notions that "no one citizen should have too much power for too long", but
Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for
lesser forms of citizenship.

If Greek citizenship was an "emancipation from the world of things,"the Roman

sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things

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as well as other citizens, in the sense of buying or selling property, possessions,
titles, goods. One historian explained: The person was defined and represented
through his actions upon things; in the course of time, the term property came to
mean, first, the defining characteristic of a human or other being; second, the
relation which a person had with a thing; and third, the thing defined as the
possession of some person.
Roman citizenship reflected a struggle between the upper-class patrician
interests against the lower-order working groups known as the plebeian class. A
citizen came to be understood as a person "free to act by law, free to ask and
expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such
and such a legal standing in that community. Citizenship meant having rights to
have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were "available in many kinds
and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of
reason". And the law, itself, was a kind of bond uniting people. Roman citizenship
was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and
applications.

Middle Ages

During the European Middle Ages, citizenship was usually associated with cities
and towns, and applied mainly to middle class folk. Titles such as burgher, grand
burgher (German Großbürger) and bourgeoisie denoted political affiliation and
identity in relation to a particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile
or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic
status were interchangeable with citizens.

During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above
commoners (see aristocracy), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning
most prominently with the French Revolution, abolished privileges and created
an egalitarian concept of citizenship.

Renaissance

During the Renaissance, people transitioned from being subjects of a king or

queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation. Each city had its own law,
courts, and independent administration. And being a citizen often meant being
subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help
choose officials. City dwellers that had fought alongside nobles in battles to
defend their cities were no longer content with having a subordinate social status,
but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship. Membership in guilds was

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an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially.
The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of republicanism, according to one
account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power. Citizenship
became an idealized, almost abstract, concept, and did not signify a submissive
relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and
the state in the rather abstract sense of having rights and duties.
Modern views on citizenship

The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but
it is usually done through "elaborate systems of political representation at a
distance" such as representative democracy. Modern citizenship is much more
passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting,
not an impetus to act. Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their
obligations to authorities, and are aware that these bonds often limit what they
can do.

Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas:

The liberal-individualist or sometimes liberal conception of citizenship suggests

that citizens should have entitlements necessary for human dignity. It assumes
people act for the purpose of enlightened self-interest. According to this
viewpoint, citizens are sovereign, morally autonomous beings with duties to pay
taxes, obey the law, engage in business transactions, and defend the nation if it
comes under attack, but are essentially passive politically, and their primary
focus is on economic betterment. This idea began to appear around the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and became stronger over time, according
to one view. According to this formulation, the state exists for the benefit of
citizens and has an obligation to respect and protect the rights of citizens,
including civil rights and political rights. It was later that so-called social rights
became part of the obligation for the state.

The civic-republican or sometimes classical or civic humanist conception of

citizenship emphasizes man's political nature, and sees citizenship as an active
process, not a passive state or legal marker. It is relatively more concerned that
government will interfere with popular places to practice citizenship in the public
sphere. Citizenship means being active in government affairs. ] According to one
view, most people today live as citizens according to the liberal-individualist
conception but wished they lived more according to the civic-republican ideal. An
ideal citizen is one who exhibits "good civic behavior". Free citizens and a

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republic government are "mutually interrelated." Citizenship suggested a
commitment to "duty and civic virtue".

What is Participatory Citizenship?

A citizen that is active at local, state, or national levels in addressing social
issues relevant to the community by learning how government systems work and
taking part in community-based initiatives.
Ways Citizens Can Participate

Looking for information in newspapers, magazines, and reference materials and

judging its accuracy; Voting in local, state, and national elections; Participating in
a political discussion; Trying to persuade someone to vote a certain way; Signing
a petition; Wearing a button or putting a sticker on the car; Writing letters to
elected representatives; Contributing money to a party or candidate; Attending
meetings to gain information, discuss issues, or lend support; Campaigning for a
candidate; Lobbying for laws that are of special interest; Demonstrating through
marches, boycotts, sit-ins, or other forms of protest; Running for office; Holding
public office; Serving the country through military or other service; Disobeying
laws and taking the consequences to demonstrate that a law or policy is unjust.

Should citizens participate?

Many citizens do not participate in our government. They don't vote or participate
in most of the other ways you have just discussed. However, some people
believe that citizens have a responsibility to participate.

Deciding whether to participate and how much time to spend participating is

important. To make good decisions, you must think about several things. Some
of these are: The purpose of our government; How important your rights are to
you; How satisfied you are with the way the government is working.

An Example May Help

Imagine that you have hired a company to repair your bicycle. Before you hired
them, you would want to be sure they could repair bicycles. Then you would want
to make sure that they did what you had hired them to do. Suppose the company
did a good job. Then you would not worry about checking on them if your sister's
bicycle needed repairs a few weeks later.

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Suppose the company did a bad job on your bicycle. Then you might want to
replace them or watch them even more closely when your sister's bicycle needed
work. The same is true with the government. We should be sure the people we
"hire" (elect) can do the job we are hiring them for. Once they get the job, we
should keep an eye on them to make sure they are doing that job. If they do a
good job, we may not watch them as closely. If they do a bad job, we may watch
them very closely and may even decide to replace them.

Participation in government is in our own self-interest. The amount of time we

spend participating will probably depend on how well we think our elected
officials are doing. If everything is going well, we will spend less time than if we
are concerned that someone is violating our rights. If we are pleased with the
government, we may vote and do little else. If we are dissatisfied, however, we
will probably take other types of action.

[From We the People: The Citizen & the Constitution, second edition (1998),
STUDENT BOOK]

HERE IS A LIST OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES; CAN YOU GIVE THE NAME OF ITS CITIZEN?

NO. COUNTRY NAME OF PEOPLE

1 FRANCE

2 PHILIPPINES

3 DENMARK

4 IRELAND

5 JAPAN

6 GREAT BRITAIN

7 QATAR

8 CYPRUS

9 CZECH REPUBLIC

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 10 GREECE

11 IRAQ

12 SPAIN

MODULE 13
INTEGRATION
LESSON: HOW THE CONCEPTS/IDEAS LEARNED IN CLASS CAN BE
UTILIZED IN ACTUAL EXPERIENCES

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of citizenship;

2. Identify issues related to political engagement and youth empowerment;
3. Determine programs that address issues related to political engagement
and youth empowerment;
4. Addresses an issue related to political engagement and youth
empowerment; and
5. Conduct a research for a draft proposal on a project on political
engagement and youth empowerment.

LEARNING CONTENT:

For Unit 1: The concepts of Politics and Governance

Guide Questions:

1. What is politics according to Lasswell?

2. Describe Politics in the Philippines.
3. How should politics be studied?
4. What are the different indicators/characteristics of Good Governance?
Give its meaning.
5. How are the indicators of good governance related to each other? Give a
concrete example of your answer.
6. Give your recommendations on how to improve Philippine governance.

For Unit 2. Political Ideologies

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 Guide Questions:

1. Give the five (5) major political ideologies discussed in this Unit. Explain
them briefly.
2. Who are the advocates of Absolutism? Explain their respective
advocacies.
3. Discuss the different beliefs or its emphasis in Conservatism.
4. Explain the evolution of Socialism.
5. What are the two most prominent evolutions of socialism? Briefly explain
them.

For Unit 9. Decentralization and Local Governance

Your class should be divided into small groups. Each group should visit a
particular Barangay and interview a Punong Barangay regarding the following
devolution of basic services on 1. Health and Services; 2. Environment
Management; 3. Agricultural (if applicable); 4. Infrastructure and 5. Tourism (if
applicable).

For Unit 10. Elections and Political Parties

Guide Questions:
1. Assuming honest elections are still possible; do you honestly believe the
government wants us to have clean and honest elections? Will it exert the
necessary effort to bring that about?

2. Assuming they are honest, do you think elections alone can change anything
in our society, or at least in the government? If no, what do you think should be
done? And what should be your role in it?

3. Assuming the elections are rigged, will you accept the results? If no, what will
you do, and what do you think should be done? Will you call upon the military to
get involved and defend the integrity of our political institutions?

4. Among the “presidentiables,” during the 2016 Presidential election, have you
heard or seen anything that leads you to believe things will change if anyone of
them is elected? How do you regard now the present Duterte administration?

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5. Do you think anyone of them wants to do something concrete and lasting for
the nation, or do you feel they simply want to become President for their own
reasons?

For Unit 11. Civil Society and Social Movements

The role of civil society and social movements

Civil society organizations (CSOs) can provide both immediate relief and longer-
term transformative change – by defending collective interests and increasing
accountability; providing solidarity mechanisms and promoting participation;
influencing decision making; directly engaging in service delivery; and
challenging prejudice. In this way, excluded groups can be effective drivers of
their own change by forming or participating in organizations that represent group
interests. CSOs also play an important role in conducting research to raise the
profile of excluded groups.

However, these activities can be constrained by institutional factors, such as the

type of regime they are operating in, the level of decentralization of state
institutions and various other aspects of governance. New research is
recognizing the importance of building alliances and platforms across the state
and civil society, to connect champions of change.

Your class should be divided into small groups. Each group should make a Role
Playing illustrating the concepts of the important role of Civil society
organizations (CSOs) as well as the Social Movements in our society.

For Unit 12. Citizenship

Guide Questions:

1. How is citizen participation related to the purposes of our government? Explain

why participating in government is in our own self- interest.

2. List three ways of participating in government. For each, tell why it would be
an effective way of protecting your basic rights.

3. Suppose you do not choose to vote or participate in any way in government.

Should you still be required to obey its laws? Why or why not?

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4. If you do not think the government is protecting your basic rights, should you
still be required to obey its laws? Explain your answer.

5. Does a good citizen have a responsibility to work to improve his or her

society? Why or why not?

6. Should a good citizen be concerned with improving the lives of those less
fortunate? Why or why not?
Problem Solving
Examining Participation

The main purpose of government was to protect people's basic rights. Almost all
citizens have the right to participate in governing our nation.

Your class should be divided into small groups. Each group should read the list
of ways citizens can participate. Then each group should answer the following
questions and share its responses with the class.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of each form of participation that is
listed?

Are all these forms of participation equally important in protecting our basic
rights? Why or why not? Which seem the most important?

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 ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

UNIT 5 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
Compare and Contrast Spanish Period from the American Period
Foreign Masters Spaniards Americans

Political System

Educational System

Social System

Economic System

ACTIVITY 2
ASSESSMENT OF FORMER PHILIPPINE PRESIDENTS
PHILIPPINE
RANK GREATEST ACCOMPLISHMENTS
PRESIDENT

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UNIT 5 /LESSON 2
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
PERFORMANCE OF THE THREE EQUAL BRANCHES OF THE
GOVERNMENT
A=Outstanding; B=Very Satisfactory; C=Good; D=Poor
CRITERIA EXECUTIVE LEGISLATIVE JUDICIARY
Efficiency

Transparency

Responsiveness

Rule of Law

ACTIVITY 2
What are Local Government Units? What Are Their Significant Roles or
Functions?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

UNIT 6 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT
POWERS DEFINITION

ACTIVITY 2
QUALIFICATIONS AND MANNER OF REMOVAL OF PRESIDENT
QUALIFICATIONS MANNERS OF REMOVAL
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.

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5. 5.
6. 6.

UNIT 7 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
THE PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE
Chambers Qualifications Head

ACTIVITY 2
24 Senators of the Philippines
1. 13.
2. 14.
3. 15.
4. 16.
5. 17.
6. 18.
7. 19.
8. 20.
9. 21.

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10. 22.
11. 23.
12. 24.

UNIT 7 /LESSON 2
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
Steps in the Passage of a Law
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

ACTIVITY 2
Enumerate the Powers of Congress
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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UNIT 8 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
PRESENT JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT

ACTIVITY 2
What is Judicial Power?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
UNIT 8 /LESSON 2
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
Match the President and the Chief Justice
Answer President Chief Justice
1. Corazon C. Aquino a. Lourdes Sereno
2. Joseph E. Estrada b. Enrique Fernando
3. ElpidioQuirino c. Renato Corona
4. Sergio Osmena d. Claudio Teehankee
5. Manuel L. Quezon e. Manuel Moran
6. Benigno S. Aquino III f.ApolinarioMabini
7. Carlos P. Garcia g. Jose Abad Santos
8. Emilio Aguinaldo h. Ricardo Paras
9. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo i. Cesar Bengson
10. Ferdinand E. Marcos j. HilarioDavide Jr.

ACTIVITY 2
Define the following Terms
No. Term Definition
1 Quo warranto

2 Mandamus

3 Certiorari
Habeas
4
corpus
5 En banc

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UNIT 9 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
Levels of Local Government in the Philippines
LGU Chief Executive Council
1.
2.
3.
4.

ACTIVITY 2
Sources of Revenues for Local Government
1 8
2 9
3 10
4 11
5 12
6 13
7 14

ACTIVITY 3
Composition of Metropolitan Manila (NCR)

1 6 11

2 7 12

3 8 13

4 9 14

5 10 15

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UNIT 10 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
Political Parties in the Philippines
Political Party
No. Founder
(Acronym-Meaning)
1.

ACTIVITY 2
Scope of Electoral Exercise in the Philippines
1. Election____________________________________________________
2. Plebiscite___________________________________________________
3. Recall______________________________________________________
4. Referendum_________________________________________________

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5. Initiative____________________________________________________
UNIT 10 /LESSON 2
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
READ AND MEMORIZE
ARTICLE V, SUFFRAGE, 1987 Philippine Constitution
Section 1: Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the Philippines not
otherwise disqualified by law, who are at least eighteen years of age, and
who shall have resided in the Philippines for at least one year, and in the
place wherein they propose to vote, for at least six months immediately
preceding the election. No literacy, property, or other substantive
requirement shall be imposed on the exercise of suffrage.
Section 2: The Congress shall provide a system for securing the secrecy
and sanctity of the ballot as well as a system for absentee voting by
qualified Filipinos abroad.
The Congress shall also design a procedure for the disabled and the
illiterates to vote without the assistance of other persons. Until then, they
shall be allowed to vote under existing laws and such rules as the
Commission on Elections may promulgate to protect the secrecy of the
ballot.
ACTIVITY 2
Qualifications for the Exercise of Suffrage
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UNIT 11 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
Roles of Civil Society and Social Movements
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ACTIVITY 2
Civil Society Organizations in the Philippines (Research)
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UNIT 12 /LESSON

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NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
Definition of Terms

Citizen

Citizenship
Natural-born
Citizen

Naturalization

Jus soli

Jus sanguinis

ACTIVITY 2
Rights and Duties of Citizens
Rights Duties

UNIT 13 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:

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GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:

ACTIVITY 1
MOST SIGNIFICANT LEARNINGS IN THE COURSE, PER UNIT
UNIT UNIT TITLE MOST SIGNIFICANT LEARNING

GLOSSARY
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Absolutism: The belief that a single ruler should have control over every aspect
of the government and of the people’s lives
Accountability: Refers to the answerability or responsibility for one’s action

Anarchism: The belief that the best government is absolutely no government

Authority: The exercise of legitimate power
Bureaucracy: Refers to the administrative machinery of the state
Citizen: A member of society who possesses rights and responsibilities
Citizenship: May be defined as (a) identification of an individual based on a
formal-legal status coterminous with the emergence of states, or (b) shared
membership of a political community in which [the] conception [of] citizens [is that
of] political actors constituting political spaces
Civil society: A society governed by law under the authority of a state and is
distinguished from the state
Conservatism: A set of political beliefs based on preservation of customs and
traditions that define the character of a society
Decentralization: The transfer of authority, responsibility, and resources from
the center to the lower levels of administration
Democracy: A system of governance in which rulers are held accountable for
their action in the public realm by citizens, intervening (a) directly, through their
own actions; or (b) indirectly, though the competition and cooperation of their
elected representatives
Elections: A democratic process which is a major source of political recruitment,
a means of making government and of transferring government, a guarantee of
representation, and a major determinant of government policy
Executive: Head of government responsible for the implementation of laws
Globalization: Refers to processes whereby many social relations become
relatively delinked from territorial geography, so that human lives are increasingly
played out in the world as a single place
Governance: Refers to the various ways through which social life is coordinated
Government: One of the institutions involved in governance
Ideology: Usually refers to a system of beliefs about how society should
function, behave, and operate

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Judiciary: The branch of government that is empowered to decide legal disputes
and interpret law, and arbitrate disputes between branches of government
Legislature: A collection or gathering of people to make laws
Legitimacy: The popular idea that the government’s rule is right; legal and
psychological right to govern
Liberalism: A set of political beliefs emphasizing individual rights and liberties
Nation: A complex phenomenon shaped by a collection of cultural, political, and
psychological factors
Nationalism: This [patriotic feeling, principles, or efforts] has three core
elements: (a) nations are real; (b) membership in a nation has practical
implications; and (3) nationhood is politically significant
Natural born citizens: Those who are the citizens of a state by virtue of their
birth or blood relations.

Naturalized citizens: Those foreigners who are granted the citizenship of the
country on the fulfillment of some conditions laid down by the respective country.

Patron-client relation: An exchange relationship between roles—may be

defined as a special case of dyadic (two-person) ties involving a largely
instrumental friendship in which an individual of higher socioeconomic status
(patron) uses his own influence and resources to provide protection or benefits,
or both, for a person of lower status (client) who, for his part, reciprocates by
offering general support and assistance, including personal services, to the
patron
Political party: Organized for the purpose of winning government power by
electoral or other means
Political science: The study of politics
Politics: May be defined as: the art of government, public affairs, compromise
and consensus, and power
Power: The ability to achieve a desired outcome and, in politics, is usually
thought of as a relationship
Proportional representation: An electoral system in which candidates are
elected based on the total percentage of votes cast for their party

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Social movements: Collective challenges based on common purposes and
social solidarities in sustained interaction with elites, opponents, and authorities
Socialism: A set of political beliefs emphasizing community and social equality
State: An organization, composed of numerous agencies led and coordinated by
the state’s leadership (executive authority), with the ability or authority to create
and implement the binding rules for all the people as well as the parameters of
rule-making for other social organizations in a given territory, using force if
necessary to have its way
Theory: A systematic explanation of empirical data usually presented as reliable
knowledge

REFERENCES
BOOKS

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Banks, J. A., and C. A. McGee Banks, eds. 2005. Multicultural education: Issues
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Bachrach, P. and Baratz, M. 1962. Two Faces of Power, American Political

Science Review, 56, 947-52.

Bennett, C. I. 2003. Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and

practice, 5th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Campbell, D. E. 2004. Choosing democracy: A practical guide to multicultural

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Cushner, K., A. McClelland, and P. Safford. 2000. Human diversity in education:

An integrative approach, 3rd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Dahl, R.A. 1957. The Concept of Power, Behavioral Science, 2, 3, 201-215

Domniku, Mirjeta. 2015. "Corporation – Its Way of Performance and Its
Presence in Some Transition Countries - with Specific Focus in South
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Ford, Donna Y., 2014. "Segregation and the Underrepresentation of Blacks and
Hispanics in Gifted Education: Social Inequality and Deficit Paradigms",
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Gay, G. 2000. Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice.

New York: Teachers College Press.

Heywood, Andrew., 2013. Politics 4th ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Kalmijn, Wim.2014. "Linear Scale Transformation", Encyclopedia of Quality of

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Migdal, Joel S., 1998. Strong Societies and Weak States: State - Society
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Ncho, Claudette D., and Susan C.D. Wright 2013.,"Health maintenance and low
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Resolving the Climate Change Crisis, 2016

Rondinelli, D., 1981. Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective:

Theory and Practice in Developing Countries. International Review of
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Scott, James C., 1972. Patron-Client Politics and Political Change in Southeast
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Scherer, Lexie.2015., “British ethnic minority children’s meaning-making of

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Scholte, Jan Aart., 2001. "The Globalization of World Politics", in John Baylis and
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Stewart, Angus., 1995.Two Conceptions of Citizenship. The British Journal of

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 Social Psychological Implications", Public Opinion Quarterly

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