Literature is a group of works of art made up of words.

Most are written, but some are passed on by

word of mouth. It can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction and whether it is
poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short
story or drama, and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to
certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre).

(The medium of literature is language, both oral and written. But not everything written or spoken is
literature. Literature is language, aesthetic- it can give order to events in the form of plot, all of the
elements combine to create an overall order, an overall coherence, fictional , true- is conveying the
reality of human experience, it speaks of real world, uses literary devices such as: plot, metaphor,
irony, musical language and suspense to create an imaginary “world”, authors use typical characters
and probable actions, expressive- it’s an expression of the individuals who write it: their
personalities, emotions, beliefs, affective- it’s ability to create an emotional response in the reader.)

Defamiliarization- is the artistic technique of presenting to audiences common things in an

unfamiliar or strange way so they could gain new perspectives and see the world differently.

Imagery- combination of images that are used to create an impression. Poet use our senses to make
impressions: smell, feel, taste, hear, see. Imagery provides the reader a sensory experience, it’s a
literary device that appeals tour physical senses, helps us produce the scene.

1. Visual imagery- helps us describe place, person, thing an show it.

2. Olfactory imagery- (smell) smell is described
3. Gustatory imagery- (taste) describes taste
4. Tactile imagery-(touch)
5. Auditory imagery- (sound)

Image- words or phrases that appeal to our senses.

Poetry is a type of literature, or artistic writing, that attempts to stir a reader's imagination or
emotions. The poet does this by carefully choosing and arranging language for its meaning, sound,
and rhythm.

Symbol- something that stands for something else. It’s an example of transference of meaning. It can
be an object, a colour, a person, a place to which writer attribute a deeper meaning. It can be a
detail, an object, a character, or an incident. To understand symbols reader needs awareness and
intelligence. Types of symbols:

1. Conventional- it’s like the letters of thing stand for what we can see, use, touch for example
word T-A-B-L-E, flag, the cross,
2. Accidental- it’s about our personal experience i.e. when we have bad experience with a city
if we hear the name of it we will feel bad emotions associated with this city, it can be also
scenery, house, street
3. Universal- there’s intrinsic relationship between the symbol and that which it represents i.e.
fire- it symbolizes power, energy, lightness, water- energy, continuity, calmness.

Techniques that writers use to create symbols:

1. Repetition- reader should take note of multiple references to a particular object, or the
recurrence of the same gesture
2. Emphasis- does author seem to pay particular attention to some element, describe it in
detail, or use poetic or connotative language when referring to it?
 3. Associations automatically made with shared symbols- the reader should try to understand
if the author wishes him to make conventional associations with the symbol or if he has
added his own personal significance

Symbol haunting- attributing symbolic status to objects, characters or actions where there’s little
evidence that they should be viewed as symbol.

Synecdoche- a word or phrase in which a part of something is used to refer to the whole of it, for
example "a pair of hands" for "a worker", or the whole of something is used to refer to a part, for
example "the law" for "a police officer"

Epithet- an adjective added to a person's name or a phrase used instead of it, usually to criticize or
praise them

Hyperbole- exaggerated or extravagant statement used to make a strong impression, but not
intended to be taken literally

Onomatopoeia- the formation of a word from a sound associated with what is named

Metonymy- one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated (such as
"crown" for "royalty")

Metaphor- a way of describing something by comparing it with something else which has some of
the same qualities

Oxymoron- a compressed paradox: a figure of speech in which seemingly contradictory terms appear
side by side

Simile- a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different
things. Unlike a metaphor, it draws resemblance with the help of the words “like” or “as;”

Paradox- a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly but may include a latent truth. It is
also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas

Apostrophe- an arrangement of words addressing a non-existent person or an abstract idea in such a

way as if it were present and capable of understanding feelings

Anaphora- the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic
effect

Alliteration- a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a
series

Assonance- vowel sound repeated

1. “I would have given anything for the power to soothe her frail soul, tormenting itself in its
invincible ignorance like a small bird beating about the cruel wires of a cage.” (Conrad, Lord Jim)
- Simile

2. “I must be cruel to be kind.” (Shakespeare, Hamlet)- paradox

3. “Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush sensation
and memory; let me become as nought; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in darkness.”
(Shelley, Frankenstein)- apostrophe

4. “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar)- Metonymy
5. “His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces
about her.” (Stockton, The Lady or the Tiger?)- synecdoche

6. “Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O anything, of nothing first create! O heavy lightness!
Serious vanity! Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms! (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet)- oxymoron

7. “I’ll love you, dear, I’ll love you Till China and Africa meet, And the river jumps over the mountain
And the salmon sing in the street, I’ll love you till the ocean Is folded and hung up to dry” (Auden, As I
Walked One Evening)- hyperbole

8. But a better butter makes a batter better- alliteration

9. “The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees…” (Tennyson,
Come Down, O Maid)- onomatopoeia

10. “Thou mad mustachio purple-hued maltworms! (Shakespeare, Henry IV)- epithet

11. "The streets were a furnace, the sun an executioner." (Ozick, Rosa)- metaphor

12. “Everything looked dark and bleak, everything looked gloomy, and everything was under a
blanket of mist.”- anaphora

13. My dear, you have all my heart.- metonymy/synecdoche

14. Our team needs some new blood.- metonymy/metaphor

Prose-is a form of written (or spoken) language that usually exhibits a natural flow of speech and
grammatical structure—an exception is the narrative device stream of consciousness.

(Prose is verbal or written language that follows the natural flow of speech. It is the most common
form of writing, used in both fiction and non-fiction. Prose refers to any written work that follows a
basic grammatical structure (think words and phrases arranged into sentences and paragraphs). This
stands out from works of poetry, which follow a metrical structure (think lines and stanzas)).

Prose:

-Follows natural patterns of speech and communication

-Has a grammatical structure with sentences and paragraphs

-Uses everyday language

-Sentences and thoughts continue across lines

Poetry:

-Traditional poetry has deliberate patterns, such as rhythm and rhyme

-Many poems have a formal metrical structure—repeating patterns of beats

-Incorporates more figurative language

-Poems visually stand out on a page with narrow columns, varying line lengths, and more white space
on a page than prose

-Deliberate line breaks

Story- set of events that really happens in the timeline (one after another).
Chronology- is an un-tampered with ordered list of events

Subplot- plot that receives less time and attention than another

Plot- set of events planned in a narrative. It is a pattern of carefully selected, causally related events
that contains conflict.

1. Unstable situation- the conflict that sets a plot in motion

2. Exposition- explains the nature of the conflict
3. Series of events
4. Climax- the most intense moment in the narrative
5. The falling action(denouement)- brief, less intense events
6. Stable situation- end

Internal conflict- Character struggles with himself in his head, with his thoughts.

External conflict- character struggles outside, with the environment, other characters, society.

Literary character- it can be a human, thing, animal, creature, any personage in literary work who
appear (is interacting with other characters, makes actions), act and speak to other characters. They
have to have human being features (thinking, speaking).

Protagonist- main character, the one fighting for sth. -can be a hero

Antagonist- opponent of the protagonist, often unsympathetic. -can be a villain

Hero/heroine - you associate them with good, braveness

Villain- black character, bad

Antihero- protagonist lacking in one or more usual attributes of traditional hero

(bravery,skill,idealism)

Roles of minor characters:

-support the main character

-support the reader in understanding/developing main character

-they’re background for story

Flat character- we know less about him, he has one or two significant traits important for plot (often
stereotypes like lazy husband, stupid athlete) , but they’re not fully described

Round character- (we can change opinion about him when author show more of his features) more
complex character, we know about him more, has multiple personality traits and resembles real
person.

Dynamic character- may change throughout the story

Static character- he doesn’t go through any change

Stock character- stereotypical character i.e. dumb blonde

Archetypes characters- comes from antique, they are symbols or motives in literature, art,
mythology

Motivation- sufficient reason to behave as characters do

Allusion- reference to some famous person, place or thing in history, in other fiction, or in actuality

Scape goat- someone blamed, punished even if he shouldn’t be because he didn’t anything wrong
(kozioł ofiarny)

Direct characterization- character is described

Indirect characterization- we know character by his actions, there’s no description of him, we are
shown how he acts and therefore we know him

Setting- general locale and historical time in which story occurs (time and place). (It may reinforce
and clarify the theme of a novel or short story. Hostile surroundings-man’s struggle against nature,
“alien settings”-loss of roots, loss of home. Social setting- used to indicate the social environment in
which a story takes place. Social class may appear.)

Regional writer- usually sets stories in one geographical area i.e. W. Faulkner.

Naturalism- writer observes human characters like a scientist observing ants, seeing them as a
product and victims of environment and heredity.

Flash forward- seen in the future, we are moved in the future

Flash back- memories that happened in the past, we can be taken back to a moment before narrative

Foreshadowing- prediction or warning of what will happen in the future

Theme- one common message

Pacing- duration of the episode

Discriminated occasion- when author wants to slow down with the action

Stream of consciousness- wave of thoughts, they’re streaming, they’re mess. It may be an extension
of first or third-person narrative.

Point of views:

1. First-person narrator- is subjective, a character (typically a protagonist, but not always) is

telling the story. In the text appears “I”, “me”, “we”. It allows the reader to “get personal’
with the character. Narrator is directly speaking to his/her audience. We can also listen to
his/her thoughts.
2. Second-person narrative- The author uses a narrator to speak to reader, we can notice
“you”, “your”, “yours”
3. Third-person narrative- An external narrator is telling the story, observer of story. We can
see “he”, “she”, “it”, “they”. Feelings and thoughts are exposed to the reader.
a) Omniscient third-person narrator- god, all-knowing, he can read character’s
thoughts, he’s able to be in several places at once, he knows what is going to happen
and how each character will behave, he’s able to tall us more or less if he wants
b) Obtrusive third-person narrator- omniscient third-person narrator who interrupts
narrative and speaks directly to the reader, he ma use his intrusions to summarise,
philosophise, moralise or guide interpretation of events
c) Non-obtrusive- narrator does not address the reader directly
d) Limited omniscient narrator- story is told from pov of the character, character
becomes the centre of revelation
 e) Dramatic or objective pov- story seems to be told by no one, story present itself by
setting, actions and dialogue, we don’t know he character’s thoughts

Interior monologue- character express his inner thoughts aloud to the audience

Real authorImplied author(Narrator)(Narratee)Implied readerReal reader

Implied author- is not a character but a construct of the reader or interpreter, who tries to
determine the “meaning’ of the work in question

Implied reader- is constructed by a critic who predicates reader response on the work

Unreliable narrator- violates valid social norms in word or deed

Fallibility- omylność

Irony- makes visible contrast between appearance and reality, it exposes a contrast between what it
seems, what ought to be, what one wishes to be and what one experts to be.

Verbal irony- sth different is said and different is meant like when is bad weather “what a wonderful
weather”, sarcasm is the same but we additionally want to offend sb

Situational irony- the situation is different form what common sense indicated it is, will be, ought to
be. i.e. Priest should be a good man, but he has a sex partner

Dramatic irony- reader knows sth that character actually don’t

Attitudinal irony- individual thinks that reality is one way when in reality is a different way. i.e sbd
thinks that everything will be fine in the future but in fact the future is painful.

Drama- is kind of text written to be performed on stage by actors for audience. It’s mainly a dialog.
There’s no narrator, there are stage directions written in italics. (in fiction(-prose) we have narrator).

Playwright- author of drama play

Audience is important, bc performers see people’s reactions and refer to it. Performers can see if
audience is bored, happy, don’t understand sth and according to that they can speed up, slow down,
accent sth for them to understand

What play has:

Epilog- at the beginning, can be or not

Actsinto scenes

Exposition- explanation of the past, and present situation

Prologue- in the end

Monologue, dialogue

Soliloquy- actor alone on stage, gives his monologue, reveals his thoughts(-not to the audience but
to himself)

Aside is sharing secrets with audience and only to audience

Uniqueness- the same play is always unique, not 2 times the same