< . - = NI ee . ny 2 ae i a 2 = so te * - ‘ ij Se) n 6 rete Pg redo aoa ceos ewor : Concrete is the most widely used construction materia in the word, and is se wo this postion has played a maj part in the shaping of chilsaton from as lng ago as 7000 BC. “This sceeunt includes information from an earlier BCA publication, Highlights in the history of concrete and takes te story forward to include the eutrent uses ofthis remarkable material. does ‘ot clan to be a comprehensive record ofthe technical development of concrete ut rather uses features ofits histor to chronicle its progres fom its earist hr use tothe diversity of its presentlay applications. While it is acknowedged that many spectacular developments in concrete took place in othor countries, this publication concentrates pariculaty on adkances made in the United Kingdom. A range of examples is used ilastrate the many and varied ways in which concrete forms a major part of our world today - both as inspirational structures that dlght the eye, and asthe often hidden infrastructure on which we all depend as our wore moves into the tied millenium, ‘Thanks ae given to all he people, too numerous to mention here, who generously gave of their time, knowledge and experience in highlighting examples ofthe uses ofthis durable, economical, ‘versatile, magical material - concrete Sema JIM STEVENSON, O8F (Chief Executive, British Cement Assocation, 1989 to 1999 cknowledgements “This publication f the result ofa joint effort by 2 group of people, all wth a great inteces in concrete. Special thanks ae given to: (CHRIS STANLEY - the orignal author of Highlights in the history of concrete, who was on the staf of the Cement and Conerete Association (as it was then called) at Fulmer Grange fram 1962 1 1987, and is nena consultant working with Can Build Technologies Ld in Hong Kong. CILLIAN BOND - an editorial constant, who updated the historical text with help from a range of M26 is i“ = Fist publlshed in 1999 specials and gathered new material forthe modern pst ofthe publication, ean agzio teare Price group DE THE CEMENT MAKERS - Blue Cid ncsies, Castle Coment, Rugby Cement and Buston Lime Indisies, © Brish Cement Asiaciation 1999 Cover astrations The cover features a selection of fuiings and structures that have eceved Concrete Sovity Avards. British Cement Association for excl These awards have been made anual snc 1968 and ever the ears almost 90 Ceti Hou, Teor Avene Crowthome, Bershie RGAS 6S awards and commendations have been made. The background 1 the photographs is rom a acteurs am coloured concrete wall panel by artist David Under. ‘Website wan ea.ong.kConcrete from earliest times 27000 Bc - 300 8c Early beginnings 300 BC-AD 150 The Roman achievement 40-800 The Romans fortify Britain 500-1670, The Middle Ages and beyond 1670-1825 Experiments with new cements 1024 The invention of Portland cement The mid 140 Concrete in housing 1054 The advent of reinforced concrete 1870-1690 Stately homes and towers 1690-1920 The growth of structural concrete 1920-1945 Concrete comes of age 1914 18 andl 1939 45 Concrete and war 1945-1965 Rebuilding Britain 1965 onwards Towards today oncrete through the ages 10 n 12 13 14 Foundation for the future Housing Travel and transport Serving the community Water The world of work Care for the environment Energy Bridges Creativity and imagination Looking ahead Cement - its manufacture and chemistry The making of concrete Where concrete is used The British Cement Association Picture acknowledgements Further reading Concrete isa building material composed of cement, crushed rock or gravel, sand! andl water often with chemical admixtures and other ‘materials I'4as known to the Romans, the Egyptians and to even earlior Neolithic civilisations. After the callapse ofthe Roman Empire its seerets were almost lst, only to be rediscovered in more recent times, Indeed, its mecern development spans no more than 175 years 1824 isthe date on the patent for the manufacture ofthe first Portland cement, ane of the most important milestones in concrete’ history. There have been remarkable developments in the last few dlecades ofthe 20th century, with new structures, new techniques for handling concrete and even new kinds of concrete, Yet, in their way, some of the earlier achievements were no less notevorthy. Since the middle of the 19th century great rivers have been spanned, huge buildings erected, vast sheets of water dammed and large networks of roads ‘consructed. In these-and a thousand other ways the face ofthe world has been changed as a result of the discovery of concrete and the: ‘many uses to which it can be pu Concrete has alo played a major role in improving the health of the world's inhabitants, through its use for sewage disposal and treatment, and for dams and pipes providing clean water for drinking and washing, 16 18 20 22 24 26 29 30 32 34 35 36 36 37 37‘We may never know iho made the fist concrete since early attempts probably rested ina very {rable materia all aces of which would have kc did noespring to lie filly developed, but sadually evolved over many centuries ince vanished. One thin is dear: concrete The oldest ct around 7000 BC, and was found in 1985 when 2 bulldozer uncovered a eoncrete floor dig the construction of a road at Yalta Elin southern Galilee lsat, Itconssts of ime concrete, made ffom burning limestone to produce quicklime, ‘which, when xied with wate andl stone st to The floor vais in hikes rom 30 te 80 mm and was bid ma even base of sandy chy. The ccamcrete has ben wall ‘compacted and tssuface is hord and very smooth. The quantity fof ime needle forthe 180 mn’ floor would have eqqird an elective ive Kiln, and fragments of sshat was probably a kil Bing have been found at the site. Another example of ancient concrete date about 5600 BC, and came to light duting ‘excavations on the bunks ofthe river Danube at Lepensk Vein the Yugpslav Republic. tt was used to make hut flrs in part-ofavilage constructed by Stone Age hunter shermen, and is reported to be a lime concrete made from a mixture of red lime ¢rought ior almost 200 miles upstream From the evidence so far unearthed, it seems that by 5000 BC the art of making eancrewe may have ied ust and swe have to come down through the years to about 2500 BC to see the re-emergence of any form of concrete, There are confictng reports, but t would seem that atype of concrete was used betveen the stone blocks inthe Great Pyramid at Giza in Ancient Ep 2500 BC. This has been said by some writers to at about be alime concrete, whist others state that the ‘cementing material was produced for burnt ‘peu, One researcher claims that the blocks thearsees sere actualy made rom eancete, The earliest known ilutration of concrete work pt dating fom aboxt 1950 BC that shows various can be seen in a mutal from Thebes inf tages in the manufacture and use of mortar and ‘cancrte, For many years concrete was jus used 8m infill materia for stone walls, and only much later di it devel ‘ov ight. The at of making concrete eventually spread {ror Egypt around the astern Mediterranean and bby 500°C was heing used in Ancient Greece The Crt used ine-bused éomip al of sunid brcks. is reported that the palaces of Croesus and Aitalus were bul in a render forthe pls, and as 3 Iynding material beween brick and stone this way. Ie was ako use a pornus limestone used for ton Excavations on the land of Rhodes revealed any underground water storage tank near the rules tf the Temple of Athena, This vas built of sone lined wath a fine concrete to make it waer-tgh The extent andl quay of hi concrete floor indicates that late Stone Age man vas suprisingly a anced technology The sample shows 2 curved surface atthe junction ofthe oor withthe wal Probably rene of eal, The trapeziam shaped Soor thick, was made from concret lu and then compacted to frm the floor, sone hearth was incorporated ito the Noor a one end, The drawing shows a construction of what this riverside hut thought 0 have This probably the fst tustation ofthe une of concrete anid taken fom a ml in Thebes. The top ofthe picture shows workmen filing earthenware jars with water that then mixed with me and Used as mortar for stone masonry. Below » conerete wall faced on both sides with Stonework is under construction, Notioe des, keeping | 3 watchful eye'on the worker, / the: Site agent, whip on sh This ank had a capacity of abou 600,000) litres, and was eet store water forthe City of Cairo unl 200 - 300 BC when wae replaced by a new stem !Its posible thatthe Romans copied an developed the idea of making concrete from the Greeks. Examples of back to 300 HC. The very word concrete comes from the Latin ‘concretus ‘meaning grown together or compounded. Some time during the second century BC the Ron Poazuoli Thinking it was sand, they mined t with much stnger concrete than anything they had This discovery was to have a farseaching effect cn building and ch engineering daring the next four hundred yeas, foe the material was not sand ing silica and alumina which combined chnially with th lime to produce what became known as pazzolanic cement, One othe fist as inthe theatre at Po me 136 by ses ofthe mater constructed in 75 BC. Measuring it seated 20,000 spectators | 13 UC Vitruvius desrbed in his handbook or Roman architects the preparation of bull ‘mati by mii a to obtain that hardened in air and unde water sid down by Virus for the preparation of concrete were folkwed Ie seems that the rule out the Roman empie The R strength of some oftheir stuctures by reinforcing them with bronze strips and rad. This was not successful because although there was some improvement in the tensile strength ofthe Sorte, he bros hal igh event hetmel expansion than the concrete, and the . slferentil caused spalling and ex rengih of concrete ond this wiccenfl partly berms soe and -oncrete have very similar coeicents of ‘expansion and contraction over the range of the Romans had to desig their bulking to carey toads in compression ony An arched requied to enable the constuction of rs and aches, required buttresses to provide stability sometimes resulting in walls of ever ‘metres thick ightweigh concrete was developed in order to luce the need for such massive butreses and walls. Early attempts to i rade by casting earthenware ars into w arches. This lowed by the introduction of crushed pumice, which ia very light volcanic rock, a5 an aggregate Lightweight concrete was used in some ofthe the Pantheon, whichis one ofthe few Roman buleing to survive intact, With a diameter of ‘over 43 metres, its dstinctive domed root fs 2 testimony tothe dura bly of concrete, and was the Iegest dome inthe word until the 20h Century. I probably spied Si Chtrpher Wer In his desig for St Pauls Cathedral in London, th The Romans were versatile and enterprising ‘engineers, and used concrete extensively in the of thei aoe, founda sours andl bridges. Their for ue underwater. At the alan port of Pueok ‘months before being sunk into postion to form a breakwater, 200 Rom Notable forthe frst major use by the Romans of pazzolanic’ cement, made for a mibaure of ime and voleanic ash ‘and found to be far stronger asa binder than lime alone. The concrete was used as an inl aera in walls that had a stone ‘oF brick facing ons of the largest and most Important amphicheatee in Rome were made of dense concrete, while lightweight ‘concrete Was used in some ofthe arches and ‘decorated with marble. An ova 190 by and vaults, eas ace wth ston 130 mezes, it seated 50,000 spectators for glaliatovial contests and other shows. Ithassinoe been damaged by lighining, earthquakes and, more recery by vandals This was one ofthe few buildings in Rome to survive intact alter the decline of the Roman Empire. The inteor view shoves the lightweight caneete dome in which ‘rushed pumice was used as an aggregate, fine example of Roman engineering i stands 48 meses bigh, The channel along ‘which the water was conveyed is made of concrete, a are the cores of some ofthe ‘walls. Conerete was al used forthe bedBy the fist cemury AD; epnerete had come to be accepted as a svuctural matevial and, inthe Period up tothe decline-of the Roman Empires number of outstanding buildings were completed, including the Basilica of Maxentivs and the Baths ‘of Caracal In| In Brain mest of the Roman concrete appears to be a line concrete, fe, without the addon of the: sere ees coniclous and tended to make use of _rosing Europe with a cartoad of pazzolanic ‘coment, oF sking the hazardous the Bay of Biscay was not practical akl-ike material fram Pozzuol. The Ronsins scl matesal wherever posible. In any? case ccroming of In an attempt at making an atic ps ‘cement in tan they incorporated crushed backs, tiles o pottery (uhh presided the sea an alumina - see page 34) ito the mix, but Hine ‘eonxete was suitable for met purpeses anil ad a sven in some cases of ever 14 nearondmn For compareony he weength of mest medeeh sractral cnerete hes beter 30 and 60 Ne AD 46, in the reign ofthe Emperor Claud, two phari or lguthouses, were built on the lis at Dover to guide the Roman fleet tothe port. The easter one, near where Dover Castle was later built, cctago alin shape. The four storeys remaining are 13 metres high, and at onetime ‘were surmounted by a Medieval tp storey They were built of rubble bonded with ime morta, and origially faced with green sandstone, which Tassie ber et In AD 122, the Roman Empenor ofthe time, idan, visited letain, the nonthernmeet corner of his fa-fhing Empire. The object of this visit was the re-organisation ofthe frontiers defence system, The resale was Hadrian’ Wall, one ofthe Largest Roman constuction pres. ln ples ‘over four metues high, i stretches some 75 miles feom the Sohsay Fith Wo the Tyne Another example of defensive consrution is Portchester Castle in Hampshire, This large square fort: enclosing nine acres, sone ofthe most notable remains of Roman Bitan, It dates rom ‘the end ofthe third century AD, and was one of series of forts constructed to defend the sot cent coast of Britain against continuing waves of Saxon imsaders. Concrete was used forthe foundations and the cove ofthe walls, which wore faced with age ints embedded in ine meta In those days, concrete was made by pouring the mortar over layer of broken rock or stone. This ‘was then lft to harden before the prncess wa repeated with another layer, The stone was broken up ta be of uniform size, with the arger stones olen use in the foundations and the The Romans ako wed concrete widely forthe construction of villas and frm in Bain, The ‘concrete was used in walls and for Roars, some of ‘which were erlid with an elaborate decoration ‘Over period of 800 years the Romans developed concrete from a crude filing material to being one of the main structural materials, but ‘with the dacline ofthe Roman Enis mast of the nowedge mained in the use of concrete seems to have dioppeared alnose completely during the Dak Ages Pctured here with Dover Cate inthe background, this lighthouse would have been visible from the French coast. The remaining concrete cor® is seen alongside the Med a the belfry al chutch, for which it served (One ofthe largest Roman coostrution projet, tsuetches for some coco bonded together with concrete of ending stength, part from the wal the defensive system Included a series of 16 forts, each housing 500 t9 800 men, 80 small forts, known 35 micas, an 158 towers. Fort built by the Romans in the third eaniry AD a5 against the Saxon iewaders. The bukings ith Une square permeter wa tof thelr defences tower in the comer were constructedIe vas thought thatthe Normans re-introduced the art of cancret-making into titan, bu excavations in Noehampton brought 10 ight the from about 700 AD. The ter of three mets and te other to were ve mers dating st nner ad a vo metees They took the form of shallow begs ‘a into the bedrock, with a central post hole andthe smaller mixers were fined with wate and ‘daub, Anais of concrete and smote depos Taken (con the mixers show tha local Hinson vas used 28 aggregate and ben ine asthe binding agent Saxon eencrete work appears to have bee lnited, and it was the Normans who brought ‘eancrete-aaking back to Britain. The Nowsan at ofthe ear Roman perio concrete vs asi if ceancrete work Was not unlke alin wall that wee faced with stonework The Normans used sre and le: mortar in thee bouiling, and found thatthe adeition of proved hardness and pounded ties and bricks dhurab ty by prodicing 2 similar reaction to that ofthe Roman pazzolana Aan interesting example of Norman work can be seem a the mains of Reading Abbey in erlshine, where the stone facing has been almost “ompleely removed leaving what i, in effect, a Camrete was widely sedi cates, cluding the White Tower inthe Tower of Loin, an in aver, Corfe and Rack and cathedral, concrete was used principally for Foundation work. Salsbury Cathedral, which has the tallest spice in Britain, has concrete er Castles, lv churches Foundations that lasted for over 700 years bef some recent strengthening was requited Line Moreton Hall, a magiificnt halsimbered house in Cheshire, includes a wing built around 1360 that has fst and second Fors made from lime-ash, a mixture of ime, sand, wood! ash and sypau. This material was used in rooms ntaining fireplaces in order to eliminate the hazard inherent in the traditional timber lor, and the practice was quite common inthe East Midlands where gypsum isto be found, Apart rom foundations andthe occasional very litle concrete was used in the Medieval and fe i war mace in-1 55. bythe French achat Pribert de TOnne ‘One of vee mixers onearted during redevelopment werk in Northampton. The concrete was apparenty mixed by pales fixed o a hear that mated round & central axis; notice the curved grooves let by the paddles. The drawing shows an arts reconstruction ofthe miserin The origina fallen aay or been remeved for use in oe fang tots wal has other buildings, leaving the concrete core standing on is own. Te tallest spine in Britain was add a century later, and stood fr some 600 years on original concrete foundations betore some srenghening was requis A nota feature of this famous Eizabethan manor house i the imevash loving in one wing, This has cently been restored in the orginal seriaThere was very lite use of concrete by the Bits Lunt the 18th century sith the notable exception in the 1670s of the construction ofa breakwater ‘or mole at Tanger, a Brish outpost on the Noah Affican coast. There, Henry Shere, a young, ‘engineer, supenised the moles construction, based on The mole was made from a series of wooden chess, which were suokin place and then ile with concrete consisting of stones together with ‘mortar made from ime and Raa tas (a natural ppoczolana. Shere experimented wth some 30 slfferent mikes to select the one that se the frardest under water, and it was on this property that the succes of the project elie by 1683 he had completed mole some largest cl engineering structure made by Beith Siti athe: beat is paltical deci outpost and the mole was demolished - an the 19th century. Atthis stagea engineering triumph that was destroyed before it could prove isel ile ofthe 18th entry ad in 1753 C Semple use! tin the foundations ofthe Essex Bridge ia Dublin 11756 a Leeds engineer, John Smeaton, was et bull the third lighthouse on the Fedystone Rocks in the Englsh Channel 14 miles seuth-nest of Plymouth, The to previous lighthouses had been constructed of timber had urnt down andl the other had blown aay ina gale Smeaton soon cealized thatthe only practical ‘method os to build with blacks of stone, but this presented the problem of how to bind thers a rigid monolithic structure, The blacks would be tar would Smeaton began testing mortars from lite od that imestone wed in pars oF the country. He woul et nd sles and alumina), But lime moar did not se solve the problem and he eventually setled on a mistune of burn limestone from South Wales a (ons experiments wore the fit scientific investigations and paved the way rmader cements. The lighthouse, inten toeee ae re keyed and tok three yeas build, and came into ‘operation in 1759, ‘When par of th structure began to weaken in 1876, w995 replaced by the house ‘which is far larger chan its predecessor Atthe request ofthe people of Plymouth, Smeatons Tower was smart as or a its base and te-erected a5 3 this day, The undismantied stump sil exis as defiant as ever om the rack on which Smeaton butt some 240 years ago, ‘Seaton outlined hie researches into cement in ‘book ented A marative of the Flys tthouse, a copy af which was purchased by chance in 1613 by a young Loeds brcklaye, Joseph Asp. T ground effect on Asplin an prolly result ok must have had a Towards the end ofthe 78th century there we cement, with many formulations which, in essence, wer litle beter than Smeaton’ tempts. Pha the best ‘iscovered by accident ya ven, the Rex. James Parker of Norte in Kent, who a pebble lected ren he beach ont his ire, where i 2 developed a cement which he patented ia 1796 under the name Roman’ cement because, it ‘ssupgested, he believed he had discovered how The peb ‘cement stone rom the London cay contained Time, sea and alumina, and were: burnt in kiln before being sarge sin the Thames Estuary ane other pa Jhed wo predace the Roman to make a cement that remained popular until the ride ofthe 19th century Built to provide protection against the Atlantic Ovean and Barbary mole was consucted of a series of wooden chess filled with stones and ‘mortar that set under wat. A print sheasng Seeaton’ lighthouse on the Edeystone Rocks, The foundations, fot ‘which Smeaton developed his cement tha) st under wate, sil stand alongide the present lighthouse on the Eddysone ree This lighthouse ood for 117 yosts on the Feklyslone Rocks belore being re-erected ‘on Phmauth Hoe a the request of the townspeople,[A geat milestone ia the history of concrete was the inwention of Poland cement by Joseph Apa, Following his researches in Wakefitl he tok out 2 patent on 21 October 1824 forthe manutaeiee of the wore’ fist Portland cement, hich he claimed tw have boen making since 1811, He chose this ame because, when st, he thought it resembled Plana stone in colour andl not, 8 people often think, because twas made in Pot At around this time, cement making was becoming well xtiblshed in north Kent ang the Ian ofthe Thames and Macha vers. This was ‘due to the high quality and abundance ofthe raw ‘material, chalk and cay In addon to the Reman cement made by James Parker of Neethieet, there was an artificial Roman cement made by lames Frnt who established 3 works in Swanscombe in 1825, producing rsh cement. These and other cementsmaing works were the sat of major Kentish industy that eventually evolved to form the present day company, Blue Cirle, Aspains was undoubtedly the most superior cement offs day bat since that ime considerable improvements have been made in the cement aking process, s that todays Potlind vement resembles that product by Aspdin in name atid basic ngretens ony A this time, Joseph Aspin possibly dirt feavizage the many potential uses fox Portland ‘coment key that he saw his cement more as an external grade of plaserto be uscd to render brickwork, thus producing eatvey cheaply dhe appearance of Podland stone blocks He established is fist coment works around 1828 at Kirke in Wakefield. These were dems i 1836 and by 1843 he had set up a new works a Inge Road in Wakil So far as can be ascertained, only one bulling Incorporating Asin’ cement sil survives, tis the Wakefield Arms, a ricki suc Kigate Station, faced on the ouside with a rendering of Portland cement and sand i is very close to the site of the cement works, spain younger son, Wil, let hae about this ‘ume to seek his fortune 200 mls the sot fn London, He setup a cement work at Rotherbithe, to the ext of London, ata ime when arbard ingle Brunel was faving problems consti, the Thames Tanne ln his booklet, published Several years lates William claims that Brunel earetlly placed evel tons of his cement into the ver when the turned root collapsed. This sealed the beak and Brune! was able to pump the brik but tune cy and shen celine parts of with mortar mace with Portland cement. Despite the problems with its camatrueton, this was the world fist significant underwater tunnel In. 1847, Wiliam Aspdin moved 1o Nowe, where heset up anather cement works. One of the cement kins for this til survives at the Site of he present day Blue Circe works , Thain 1852 Asplin moved to Gateshead, and set up what was probably the lngest ‘emont works in the world at dat time. tn 1860 he tart cement manutactue in Germany, where he died four years later. The comenit-making process was improved by Isaac Johnson whe managed a cement works in swanscombe and ltr 9 1856, took over Agra abandoned works in Gateshead, He raised the temperature at shih the cement wis fired, and is regarded by mary a5 the father of mmodeen Portland cement. Joseph Aepins orginal patent forthe ‘manufacture of Porland cement. The ‘cement asso named because its coliur resembled that of Porland sone. From a painting commissioned by the Asp family, this shown the bot kilns ‘where batches ofthe raw materials were buat ro produce convent The only known surviving building in ‘which Joseph Aspdins eiginal Ponlandt ‘coment was used. tis a bricked structure, rendered on the outside with Portland cement fo resemble sone, Altra series of ish, Brune tne ‘vas eventually built andi ill in use today carying underground trains on the Eas Londen line between Rotherhithe and Wapping. has been restored recenly inthe orignal ye, “The oldest surviving Pirdand coment kl, ‘rom part of Wiliam Aspdins Nonthfioct works ‘Ghe ofthe largest cement works inthe world at thot tine. The barclsof emont «ar be seen stacked for shipping. The foyal cot of ares abe te gate ily 7 metres high, and the work are crowned by a colosalconcrote figure of Hexcules sainly endeavouring to break upon an anvil a beam of bricks joined together vith Poctland cement Patna cement fly qu eplaced Roman cement in moras ad renders but, with 3 few exceptions, was not generally mined with aggremtes to make concrete for use in buildings tum she mil 1800s,he very fist al conerets house was built for John they wete fll of eement, which hal aleady set Bazley White, a major manulactrer of Roman foment, at Swanscombe, Ken, 1835. Ithad They held # meeting and décled, so the story ies, to tak the bares to the beach and use csomcrete wal, es, wide frames ond ‘tase baad ae ee decorative work - and ween concrete gnomes in the floor of comer aren! The only thing it lacked was a fist Ins would hae eequired a knowledge of reinforcement that did net come: ‘unl some years ater A more comventional use was made of cement in " but on the searone in Fe 0 when a crescent of 13.concrete hues Was kent, they were designed and constucted by Joba Pope and Son, a local fm of aritects and buikers. They ‘we eon fervor that was raised as concreting P igrssed - a technique that developed into jocming and is til in se today. The exterior erween 1845 and 1348 a considerable quaniiy of eonerete was used in the construction o ‘was rendered in Portland cement and sand (Queen Victorias country mansion, Osborne Hue, on the io of Wight, which was designed an bat by Thomas Cubitt under the supervision of the Pines Conson. In about 1875, the lasing cemant manufacsorer three-storey house in Gravesend to demonstrate 1Willam Aspdin ted to promete the early uses ofthe tse of hi cement concrete for house construction, and started work in 1850 on avast concrote mansion called id i Kent. was abandoned when only half complesed after it had cost almost £40,000. Only pact ofthe house survived, together with a small section of he boundary wall, which is capped by what are thought to he sme ofthe earliest commercially produced precast concrete units Pestle Hall, overaoking Grave ales, a numberof concrete houses, a fam, a school aed a ri Gregynog Estate neat Newtown in Pos between about 1870 and 1894 by the Hon, wore built as par of the Henry Hanburytray, I must have been = ding experiment as the arutural se of concrete was unknown in the area a the tine. The houses were bit entirely of iit concrete sth walls (02 eoete thick, The Hors and root were male 1B with sates, Ese [At this time cxment was sold by the hore, and a of eanerete the later cove the saienses snd chimneys ‘hip lod with Willa Aspens coment va re of concrete sailing down the River Thames when itr aggounl on the Ie 6f Shoppes. The local people ‘quickly removed the barrel rom the wreck thinking they contained whiskey, ly to find that Practically everything is bulk of concete there was even concrete gnome tn the front garden (Queen Victorias country mansion. A considerable amount of conerete was ted in it construction and for rendering the wal. ‘Originally built by Wiliam Asp demonstrate the uses of Portand cement the suing part was erimed West Hi Hue, and was demolished in the 1970: Two of the precast units from the wall are shown a a cut-out The orginal pubs new called The Groat and is used for meetings. The picture shows the wall made fram the cement ‘that had set int the shop ofthe barrels, This atractve crescent of 14 owses was bul on the seafront ar Folkestone. They are pictured here in the 1970 while in tae as hole, Isaac Johnson superseded the Arpdies 35 leading mamifoctrer of Ponandt ‘cement, This house was but of concrete io demonstrate the we of his cement Sil cll by their orginal namo, these cottages wee built eniely of concrete ‘ee forthe oof sates. The window ‘oxer the Gothic porch hes always been painted onto the wall as par ofthe sei‘As ealy 251830 the idea of reinforced concrete was fist mentioned in the Fnoyelopaeda of cottage, frm and vilage architecture hich sugested tha a lattice of ion te rods end be embeded in concrete to fm a oof 184 the world fist eiforced concréte boat was bul in France by Jean-Louis Lambot, He plastered a layer of fine concrete ev mortar ever a network of iron rods andl mesh to produce what is now Keown a fere-cement. It created ite 2 sensation when shown at dhe Paris Exhibition of 1855. The man generally credited with the invention of reinforod concrete is litle-known Newcastle tulle, Willa Wilkinson. tn 1854 be took et 9 patent for embedding a network of lt iron bare ‘er ice rope in lors and beams of lat or arches concrete. This appears to be the fist ose of reinforced concrete asa compat structure as ‘opposed tothe French dea of metabwork encased in eonerete, Wilkinson has thus come to be regarded a the fist enon to understand the esi structural principles of reinforced concret ‘Ope ofthe eariest uses of einfxced concrete as ina par of ota bil in 1866 by Joseph Tal at Bealeyheath in Kent. lace of hoop iran vas embedded in the origina fat roo and he used his patent method of formwork for casting the monolithic concrete wall By the late 18805 concrote was being widely used fara variety of applications in England but te tention was ven to Wilkinson das and most ceancrete Was uoreinfrced An example of mass unreinforced concrete is the Waverley Case Hotel at Melee in Scotland that sas consisted in 1869 asa hydropathi sa. In its day it must have qualified as one ofthe worlds fargo concrete structures. The concrete isin gned condition and the hotel itiln use, in 1870, one of the fist concrete bridges was completed at Homersield near Bungay in Suk The Fixton Bridge hs a singe span of 16.5 metres and consist ofa cast ion fare completely ‘embedded in concrete, was in regular use fe 100 years but unorunatety was not wide enough to cope with the increasing volume of ti, and anather bridge ws but in 1970, The original bridge was restored and bought back imo pedestian use in 1996, “The freeing quality of concrete as soon realced and became a msjr selling point, pricy for indstalbuldings. AL st wo sed chiefly for reinforced concrete ls, capecially in cation and woolen mils where in the squalid working conditions that prevailed, the incidence of fre was very high A wine and spit store erected in Bridge Sr, Reading in ahout 1870 sas anather very Inge conceete structure. Built of mass concrete, it had four storeys, The walk were of slid conc were the Roos, which were vated and supported én cation columns each calelated th canya land of 100 tonnes Aer more than 10 years of service, the ste was demolished ‘make com for new development, This was the frst use of einforcel ceancete in a building, Wite ropes were ‘sod to provide the reinforcement inthe ceiling. When the house was demolised ln 1954, these opes were found to bo stl In good condition, These cottages had walle cast in sty exing patent formwork stem. These are amongst the east surviving reinforced ncrete houses in the woud, The original ‘at roofs were replaced with the pitched rool show ny the po. Ftured here atthe turn ofthe century, this tel must have been one ofthe ‘ark’ Largest mass concrete structures the time tas bul Brains oldest surviving eonerete bridge, “The 16:5 metre span has a cast ron frame -onpletey embedded in concrete eis shove eae after eetoation in 1996, This interior phomayapashoms one of the salid auld eancrese loos supported on ‘8 on coluenns. Concrete is srong in compression, but relatively weak in tension | <— \ ‘When an unreiforced hear i loaded at rmi-ypan the top camnpresses ane the btm ofthe beam in tension SS ee ee Adding veinioncementvecomes this ‘weakness fa tenslon and coms rackingBy the 1900s concrete was being used extensively for docks, rver banks and bridges. I 1897 one of the fonigest bridges atthe time was constructed as of the extersion ofthe railway line from Fort ‘Wiliam to Mallaig inthe Western Highlands of Sceland, The bridge, known asthe Glenfinnan Viaduct, over 300 metres in length and has 21 sans, som of them almest 31 metres above ound level, was constructed ential from ass concrete by Robert McAlpine, who was known as Concrete Rob because of his ‘eathusiasm fr the materi But what had happened al this time to reinforced concrete? Wilkinsots ides had ot attracted ‘much attention and was left 10 the French t pioneer its development. A numberof famous ames were involved but it was perhaps one Hennabique, who had the greatest Impact on the development of ainforced ‘concete inthe United Kingdom. In 1097 the directors of Messrs Weaver and Co. decided to expand their business by constructing 2 second flourmil in Swansea, and spoke to Hennebique’s agent, G Mouchel, eh had jst rowed tthe tow, Alter completing several hundred projects in Europe, this was Hennebique’s big opportunity fin a foothold in Britain, By Augast 1898 2 new chapter in the history of concrete in this county had been opened; Weaver’ Mil was the fist mulistorey reioecedl concrete framed buling to be exected in the UK The fist enforced concrete bridge in rian was constnicted on the Hennetique system at ‘Cheyston Glen in the New Forest and competed in 1901, There are at least sb bridges in Erglane ‘sith a plaque, al claiming to be the Fist reinforced concrete bridge but dating fram 1903, to 1921! For the next decade this sytem was foc 4% of reinforced concrete bre The populariy of the Mouche/Hennebique system was sa immense tht is use dominated structural concrete uni 920, b everything ftom og sed foe i industrial buildings to bridges, wharves, reser and even beats As contraction methids were pelected, 50 speed of erection increased. It scored many mote ist including the fst reinforced concrete vate tier, f 68,180 tres capacity, but in Raurmensouths Meyrick Prk in 1900, tBu there were many other reinforcing systems in tse atthe time - this was the golden age ofthe etreprenei that culminated in 1907 with the publication bythe Royal Intute of British Architects f the first national cade of practice for reinforced concrete. In 1908 work began on the reinforced concrete frame of the Royal Liver Buling, Britain’ fst skyscraper. The 15 floors were completed inj. ‘over a year. Crowned bythe Liver Bird at almost 100 metres high twas the wallet concrete balling inthe world atthe time The fist reinforced eancrete factory in Blain was the Jnioyal Rubber Factory evected in 1912 in which stage underwent repair which should testend its ie for another 25 yea But the we ofthe Heanebique system was aot restrict enc bulllings and stractnes in 1912 Tilycothie Many ‘was completed in ral Aberdeenshire, was probably the lst od in the Scottish Baronial syle and inthe esi 1900 was convert to Mas All the while, developments i ceinent taking place, and in 1908 the fet Bish Standard for Portland cement was published. Sil an essential par of the rail ink to the ‘Wester Ines, this unreinforoed concrete viaduct is caryng rains far heavier an ‘any emizaged at the time ofits construction. The photograph shows fone ofthe tour steam trans that Generally cegarded as sillin good contin atthe time of ts demolition in 1984, this was the oldest surviving reinforced concrete structure inthe UK ‘Nate the overhanging cantlever above ‘the loading bay - this would have been imposible to achieve without reinforcement. This ws the fist reinforced doncrete water toner tobe constructed in Britain. This Merseyside landark is notable fo bring the fst conerete feared British skyscraper. The buiklng was clad with stone around the reinforced concrete frame; nowadays the dadding, too, woul almost cetinly be of concrete, The fist conerete shell ro - here was the realisation tha concrete cou be ‘moulded in such a way that its stenggh ‘vould be derived fram is shape tuted here tn 1989, this factory il performing well ae some repit work to fetend tie for 25 yearsBetween the Fist and Second World Wats attention focused on the development of fretressed concrete It shard to realise that 70, ears ago presiressing was litle more than a theory and an object of resaarch fr 2 hard! of hopel engineers who had a viéon oft enormous pofental, Today this penta is fully realised and hardly a major building pogramme s undenaken in the world without prstessing being taken into ‘consideration 28a posible solution Prestresing sa form of Toad balancing in which ‘compressive stress ate introduced int those parte ‘of concrete structure that wil ater be subjected to tense sreses due to applied loads, The prestes it apple by tensioning high-ense steel. poets longer spans compared with reinforced concrete and leads to lender and acefl designs. The French engincer Eugene Freyasin, is gonerally garded asthe father of restr concrete; he had stared developing ideas as abridge designer ss early a5 1908. His research revealed that success ‘depended on the use of beth high quality concrete and particulaely of high-tensle ste! inorder to rime: prestresing owes By 1928 work in Britain had confemed Freyesinet's work on concrete and heed him to refine his theory of restessing. Feysinet then devoted himself fll prentrened conerste and 50 beg is cemengince Contin 2 practical technique on the “The fit practical application of prestressing in Briain was in 1940 when the Ministry of War Tanspoit stockpiled prestressed bide beams for tse in an emergency. It as not ut wel ale the Second Wold War that pressing was used to ‘any great extent in Britain, Benen the Wold Wars, the use of reinforced concrete continued to expand, Wembley Stadium was builtin 1923 n time forthe FA Cup Fina wen is eputed to have hold a crowed of 200,000. lime a be the argest monumental building ever to have been constructed in reinforced concrete, At the time of wring itis rot yet clear whether the famous twin towers the extensive updating programme that is require to bring the stacy into the wl survive third millennium, Reinforced concrete’ abit to take unusual shapes wos vividly ‘ilstate by the Penguin Pool at London Zoo. Bui in 1935, this wis one ofthe structures thatopened up new aesthetic aswell a structural posites for conerte 2 A building with a more fase purpose the De La War Pavilion in Rexbillan-Sen. This an ample ofa syle of architecture directly dived irom the nature of teinfoced eoncree constuction The desire t experiment with reinforced conerste asthe mesivation fora group of young architects who formed the Modern Maven in Eitan in the 1930s, Much of thee work took the form of prhote houses with characteristic Nt roof, white walls ard wide windows Another landmark building during this peso isthe block of fats known as Highpoint 1, ennstraced in north London in 1935. Here the wal andthe Frame were of in-situ einorced concrete, used in ‘new and effective way to provide an elegant ambience typical af the 1930 It was in 1931 thatthe ist ready-mined concrete ‘was praduced ata plant west of London, ad so began the bulk proation of a more consistent ane ceil ailable materi By the end ofthe 1939-5 wa, conerete was the ‘material n which mainstream architecture in Ec was wonstucted and Brain was set to fll, Concrete strong in compression, but relatively weak under tension, Tensioned ste! puts the concrete into a tate of ‘compression before the oad is applied. Applied load | ea Precompresion: High-tesile ste! ‘The twin white tawers that became synonymous with focal in Britain were built of reinforced concrete. The twin spas of reinforced concrete a sila source of delight to vistors and penguins alike, lis vigorous curves and dramatic conta between wall and window provided an ‘example of form derived from the nature (One of the eatest Modernist houses in the country, this Grade 1 sted building arranged in a fan shape around a cena Stoltcase, and has & oof trace with builtin flower boxes. ‘One of the later examples ofthe elegant reinforced concrete work ofthe Swiss engineer, Robert Milla, From 1905 his beautiful curved bridges had demonsrta the aesthetic pessbilities of concrete ‘Alandmatk ofthe 1930s, this builling ‘appears Fresh and atractive todayeis uss of sitnarne Wat aso bud up 1 be poston at inte d hus through the Chanel ver and they were anchor off Sho where they bscare a hazard to shipping. ental aise wa fo 1 of them ssa replacement forth Nab hsp inte Engh Channel, ne se of Wight. ln 1920 the 61 m ace forced ship owners infor alteration. Many canal and seagoing arg sre bu all ove sane of wich se FH afhat They often had names beginning with o°k The $$ Arise; launched a Bartoin-Fumessin ship tebe built in Britain. trade betwe being wip achinery and i 1 lating warehouse at Luan, where mained uni 1969 when twas d Kent cas in 1917. The smooths ane ig hp the Ai Force track and shoot down seven of 22 German bombers du Dring the Second Work! War prestressed concrete Europe, in particular forthe ron of U-boat pons, ich were to meters thick. ln Brita ing ais shelters, huts for itary carp and aie Mulberry Harbour, which played a vital role in th Day lang leading tothe hberaion of Europe Asal the exétingharbous in France we in end rund plan 4o5 made to consnsct a harbour in sections in Britain, which cul be Nosed ngby 18 metres deep and 18 metres wide that Criginally designed a one ofa hain nsubmarine devices, ths tower now Furope in 1918 the Prime Mins, oye ng, began bung "homes it fr neroes', They were constructed entire The fist si propelled concrete ship bul in Britain, this wasn use in Angola unl 1969, te vras 63 met remy air attack began wth concrete far trumpets They worked soccesstuly is World War, shut wore superseded by radar forthe towards the end of the x the finishing touches toa conctet shelter against enemy bombing several port in southern Englund, towed com the Channel and sunk ips ope Many ofthe Unis cae sil be seen ying ofan at ‘Arromanches, Nermandy and some in Harbour this side of the Chatae by spi ters anil hundreds of barges were‘One of the most talked about housing The rapid reconstruction of haus, begs, The yo of rods, by-pass elevated urban schemes inthe world in the late 1950s factors and schools destroyed in the war was the roads an! motonays was a major featre ofthis the high-rise blocks are face with white ‘main challenge facing the construction industry _prod, and concrete was the dominant material precast concrete dadking, in rom 1945 onwards, when sled rasmen used in their construction, Majoe engineering al some sructral teil eel and wxcod) were projects inched the Harnmersmith Foner in in shox supp 196! in West London. Meanie 2 start was made ATTEN onthe motorway netwark with the opening in petal Foe housing, this este in the erection by 1948 of 1958 of the &-mile lng Preston Rypas the stato 3 40,000 prefab - preface single-storey houses, he MG. This was followed in 1959 bythe fist 70 nary built of abestos coment, which were ie stretch of he MT, Both of these were mae of imendled as temporary accommodation oncrete, a were many of the akcioted bridge This precast prestressed viaduct was bull Follenig this, ystems for bung permanent ow in 30 months with practically no tse housing fom prelabricated reinforced concrete Siegnon of va loments were developed, ana wed und the 19605. 1958, precast concrete aking was used foe high ie reinforced concrete fats atthe Lonlon ater County Coueels Aton East Esare in Rochampson, Sie nicna wate eee: ory now lis derelict, Taig io il ses oF concite, 1951 sate cmsarveton ofa factory in Hey, uth Wale An example of architecture meeting remarkable for nine renorced concrete shel ‘engineetig, hs huge bus sation house domes that covered its age clear proton lat 200 new buses tht replaced tam ate the War. CConetracted almost entirely of eiforce The exponsion inthe ose of precast concrete in the ‘concrete, tis school provided magnitia ‘ly 19605 resis inthe devdopmect of many facilites for 2000 gic, incre building yes for hoses and Hs, Fefabricatel wal, floor and rf units were factory Produced and assembled on ste with the mini ‘The nave catelpy' i supported by 14 An example ofthe spectacular use of epi Bea ails amount labour andl eflont, Wath the ungent nee i Pe ° elegantly tapered prestessed precast to ebuild most of Europes shared ctes ater the Minorca concrete tena Sse a columns made wit ght blue sey a ‘Garage in London. Fished in 1953, i provided a See Weed eed wm ogjcal method of buiing, dear space some 116 by 60 metres for 200 buco xe only 6.0m square: in Ban alone, But their popularity was shortived, ©? PaNK anc! manneuvre and the highs blocks were ws not ied by Ue reser Complete in 1962, Coventry Cathedal sone of the most poignant reminders oft fay of war is inked tothe bombed-out rains ofthe Auihisime, bilge degre were ao lig previous cada. though the ester i tne rake «sof winforced and praised concrete Jd, the es ofthe structne, even the ata a allerativsto steel, One tonne of prestresing tet re 15 tee ec of beg ‘rade posible by one tonne of sac ‘One ofthe urgent ass inthis postwar pet the consaaction of schools to take the infu of cin folloning the postwar aby boom, An example is Kalbrooke Comprehensive School | ear Greenwich, bul in 1954 Adkamn Viaduct in Wigan, bit in 196, was followed soon ater ly Nunn ge at Fishtfin Lincolnshire, which was the fist in crete bridge Britain, and use the Freyssnet sytem, Prestressed concrete qui became the dominant material forall ridges, except those with ver kg spans where ase prestressed “The late 19805 Sawa continuation ofthe need to ‘ater forthe post war baby hoom’ and concrete payed! a major part accommadting the inlax ‘of students 10 universes and colleges: One: rmuch-acclaimed project was the new University of East Ang. tn the early 19709 attention was focused in the appearance of cancrete, There was. need for te recover from its somewhat unfortunate image that had developed ewer the previous decade Building in harmony’ became al he fashion, culminating io the Eurapean Architectural Heritage Year, 1975, Merging the bullings ofthe 20th century with thase of our proud past enriched many of our ures. Concrete, with ts versatity \wae able to grow to-meet this challenge and 50 Jnecame one af the finest Corsruction mater of the century. Aa example of note sto be seen on The Promenade in Cheltenham, Here an old ‘nema was pulled down and a new office block erected to match the adjacent Regency syle sunicipal offices, histori twee The past 35 years have also seen considerable advances in el engineering. The quest fore resulted in the construction of complex production platfoems fot we in the North Sea, in which ‘concrete again played a major role. These ptioans {see page 28) involved advanced techniques ia both thet clsign and construction, which ten years ‘eater might hae seemed alms inconceivable |n 1978 the pumped storage hydro-electric scheme at Dinorwie in North Wales was one of the largest civil engineering contacts urdertaken at that time in Europe, A mountain was holed ‘out to prose a turbine hall 0 huge that it could accommodate a cathedeal complete with its spire. This caver, together wth a maze of tunnels, was lind with concrete, which was ako used fae much ofthe structural work (se page 2) Another lange contract was the mult-miion pound scheme to protect London from Noodting asa result ofa suge tice Towing up the River Thames, the Thames Harter, picteed om page 22, was built across the rver at Woolwich Reach in 1983. ts massive gates can be red ino postion from the riverbed to prevent flooding Te increase in road use since 1965 has resulted in two major features of constuction: the continued enh ofthe monseway network with ts accompanying brides and elevated sections, and the increase io mlth-stoey carparks. Concrete has been the material chosen for the majority ofthis work, Alter he war the use of ready. mbeed concrete ew ata vast rate, 0 that by 1370 it was well on its way to being used for most in-situ concrete work, supplied by truckmixers om a network of cal pla The constriction ofthe Channel Tunae Soe page 1) with is English and French terminals has boon dlescribed as the greatest engineering achievement fof the 20h century. The total ane length is just und 32.mies, and the Enis lf ined with some 1/2 milion precast concrete segments ‘weighing upto 8 tonnes. Enough conerete was sed inthe tunnels to fill Wembley Stadium to the height ofthe Blackpno! Tower [A major factor over the years has been the increase in the strength of concrete and this has influenced design by allowing alle, longer and vet ighterstractutes, The emphasis has now soviched to durability tues, and the concept of whole-lie costing, thatthe construction cost of the structure pls its cost in use. This has resulted In nceeased impotance being given to the cest of repair the enewgy used and projected year of setice, Concrete scores wel when al these ace taken into scour, ‘A precastng yard was st up onsite to produce the nits for these terraced ‘accommodation blocks that overloak the park and lake and were very poplar with the students ofthe time: A precast conerete facade was used on the RoySeot Trust headquarters to match the adjacent 1839 Regency buikings on CCheltenhamys famed Promenade. Perhaps the mest famous building in the ‘word, the dstincove shell ootine owes ‘much fo the UK enginoers, Ove Arup & Partners, Here i technological achievement inthe service of ar. This large mulsleve interchange on the Mad near White City relies heavily on concreteg blocks that can be simply venideed Concrete i the main material used 0 satsy the 4 everyere cen the tp to the Most architects.and builders les or fibre cement heat loss theugh the ino fe and its soundnsulating chaacteritics mean it Alors, which provide the added benef of fe 6Se enue Ce pra ceed eric SON eer orn‘Whatever our chosen method of anspor land ‘sea oar - concrete contbutes to out journey We find in rss, safety bares, ail racks, pedestrian precincts, pots, harbours, tunnels and atpor ‘Maden joints road construction techniques, coupled ith the se of Suhisper ms-noe concrete an along, eatiree he have led to the increasing we of concrete for road surlaces, bases and sub-bases, Concrete withstands heavy lads and noodle ‘maintenance, and because of is restance to ofl {is ncrasingly used as blocks for parking are A feature of modern aay design isthe hard: wearing concrete sleeper, which as taken ‘ove from its timber forerunner: Appearance rompted the railway to use concrete paving for platiorms, ‘economy and durability have ao forecourt and other public ans Seagoing passenger and Height companies have followed suit, making nod use of concrete arin harbours and at fer terminals and hoverpons. An aera view of London's Heathrow airport ‘makes it clear how much concrete is used in air transport facies. ost Brith airports rely on the stractral eng of the material far taxinays, haretandings and runways, 25 well s for teeminal bling. Tuning to bekw ground connections, a major project ofthe 190s, the Channel Tunnel, eles teal on concrete for both the tne ining ane the terminal at Folkestone, Also below ground, the Jubilee Line extension was built to take vistors to the Millennia Dome at mbt Grwenvich via a sting of light, ary aConcrete provides good va nd education building, with help fram The arts are well served by concrete, whichis used to house theatres, museums and galleries hs 20Bull to bouse the Mappa ‘Mur - the ony lange ‘scale gothic map ofthe sword = this building was designed to complement the adjacent Hereford Cothedtal The new Royal Armoiios axe in Lees was bul 10 re- house part of Brinins dese ‘useum collection fom the Tower f Landon the Griish Museum extension is esened fo complement the coleton, which ranges om massive scptires tosis treasures, The Soa Bank Ars Centre Houses 3 complex of theatres, concert hals nd art gailletes, and ap example of rmastve corer ats mest magnificent The human scale of the Maternity Unit strikes an appropriately domestic ote in comparison with the multistorey general swing at Ealing Hospital, ‘Tho oe opera house at Glyndebourne ‘yee desgned exclude icra Hise “hile providing he coret aces qalties within, The concrete cing his a builtin ‘sparkle provided by micaceous sand, “hye rew No. 1 Court alum and Dbroadaet contre vas the fis phase tn the eedevelopment othe tena aeites aL Wimbledon - home of Brish tenis. ‘The Wterront Hal, list, makes mark a 2 sate-ofsthe-ant public building providing conference snd concert flies. i i : 1M Tike garden quadrangle ax St ohn’ College, Oxted, set elo youne level House te public spaces ‘The stent and timelessness of inpaiied concrete costes a ‘iting ambience ai Citon Catedral, Brit “Tha American Air Meum at Dasford prow 2 lorge clear dome to bokd a masive 8.92 bomber and many other vintage panes 2Where the caastine or riverbanks reduced by concrete dellectors aroun walls al marinas. 3 towers around the Concrete i the major material used for elegant opply net Concrete has an equally important rle to play in underground drainage systems and fr the“Two cous of concrete ‘wert chosen for this water “tower at aydon, which provides 9 dot lance > the Wilshire countyide ‘The Rula, sn here a regal in the Solent. js 9:5 metres tong. 'Built by her owner, she's, srasnaly ged ad her sth feos ull axing from wood or fibreglass. NS ue Times fare bul event ida ages lod London, rach st which ties byelow sea lene, Concrete: cui the make pre sn into the chak below ere, Ineowsen which asthe gates tha are raised when required. ‘The Royal Sovereign Light Tower staneis ‘inthe English Channel, tt was budtan tand, and towed! out to its pastion near Brighton ‘ara ship the cont! zat. aa “wace a long atthe Channa! Tunnel the ‘Leon Ring Main cates half tbe water supply fr one tive wells major cies ‘the va delince at Butane, ‘Somes include 2 new promensde protested bye of Bras largest ‘wave tue wal “The iver Tes vag ngounds th ‘ver provide ashton etch fer hgh iy ati deseopments. On ane side othe ‘age 2 nagation channel wh oth and othe thera ite ‘ster canc ars cone he raga! sea al at ghton Protects the mavina from the ‘ort that be Chanel can ‘hrs at ‘Gott 1 ply den ‘at fore suroundng area Wirbleball Da in Somerset ae ust for creationprovides quick and cost petitive cial world, Offices, hotels and other busines premises can be completed within tight time schedules and 0 budge ost commercial and dinistrative buildings have concrete foundations, sarwells and it shuts but increasingly the fare (i.e the wall columns and Hoor) is kely to be This often left exposed and its dheemal mass hulps moderate the temperature. Interal walls may be of concrete blockwork and the ext may feature architectural conecete cladding Concrete blocks and in industrial areas, nclding docks harbours where heavy-duty service srequited Factories and warehouses take advantage of strong concrete founda hard. wearing flrs that can take the load, while columns svithstand the knocks Formers, tao, have turned to te for a range (of agricul faces, inclding niki parlours silos, storage buildings, yards and roads to provide al-weather access for heavy vehicles. ‘Communications area major growth industry and fortelecemmunication towers that need to contain heavy equipment, concrete provides the ideal solston. Underground duct cable inks ao ses concn he ton entre, eonesete is apparent in mu erg and in pedestianised shopping cents w rey ear pas, ard fo those but nd atractive block paving i found! underfoot. Many and offices are ikaly to have frame, perhaps laced with bricks foSMe eat) ee ea) SI anu SR | Cees COR om eee Ly CCE cy COR eg De Road Fem eie edWhen used in bull isan environmentally friendly materi I aggvegate for making new concrete, so reducing, the amount of new aggregate requited. fi the natural choice for filter beds and satment pants, which are now 1 ground 80 a not to the above-ground envionment in buildings, concrtes thermal bility to absorb and radiate heat ning. This recaces ener consumption and so enhances sesainabiliy addition to thi, lightweight concrete blocks are ‘wed in many bulling or thee insulation propertios, {Brain there is a great shortage of unused land for development. Where a brownie se has taeen affected by ps Inia proces, the ly locked ito a redevelopment " carefully matched with folder Gement can abo be used to stabilize nuclear buildings, 30 avoiding a clash between the old and the new Jy for many yeas at is com i Concrete can be used to preserve and protect our Ietitage hy undexpioning o epg stares tothe fed of eeycing, cement and concrete hat are unstable ar in danger of claps come into their own, Worn out road surfaces canrel a Ce eT 5 Auguring well for the future CS uu Sy Le) Ce eer)Concrete’ stengh and versatility have armed it Looking ahead to an important place in the production of energy, altemative sources ‘whether from ol, gas, col, nuclear fuels ‘water oF wind! of parser, concrete faking ts mar as wind towers, both on land and ‘offshore and in the development cof wave and tidal energy schemes. [North Sea oil boom af the early 1970s, concrete was use o bull some ofthe fist production platiorms and is lll used today. These massive oll igs ate subject to harsh conditions where concrete’ aw maintenance need and resistance to sat water come inte thelr ow, ‘The coal industry made extensive use of concrete for consrution atthe pit head and underground, and the tall cooling towers at eletty power Sations are invariably made of caneret, Concrete also provides the housing and power stations shielding fr nuclear reactors, where its Strength and impermeabilty to radiation help keep the environment and the site workers safe Some ofthis country's lectrcity is generated by ‘massive hydropower dams, most of which are constructed of concrete because of sheer mass, strength and resistance to water - qualities which alsa make it ideal fr pumped storage 28 xs constcted ina de ih postion the decks were ced to prowide pre (centre) ak Hanworth Coley in wy pe, and raceived a Civic Trust award Nottinghamshire ia surpi reall adhtion i Rows ofthe familiar power stato cooling towers take the heat. rom the exhaust steam fom the power turbines From concrete to reduce the ot eels HS ROE The Loch Sloy dam in the Seomih i Highlands raised the lew! of the foch by 447 metres and doubled ts eng Sy jd tarnels so that Built of conctete inside a mountain, the Binorwic pumped storage scheme ue urls power to pump the Water to a View ofthe top of one of the nuclear reaetors at Heysham 2 Nuclear Power Station on the Laneashice coast, With ind has prestressed cJ Bridges (OF the bridges built since 1945 in this county about 70% are of concrete, which provides the strength for long, slender andl elegant spans a5 well asthe solid durability forthe supports and The majority of bridges tilt today ae constructed as part ofthe motorway and trunk road network, providing urban iyevers and ‘complex multi-level junctions, Inge of new techniques has evolved as ig ingenuity has been stretched to its der to keep up withthe demands made ‘on the country’ infrastructure, Pressing techniques ply 2 major par in achieving longer and longer spans without the need for saspension have remained litle changed since man fst made use of jumble of rocks jammed across a gorge, a fallen toe tank or some Gorge in Swiverland, designed by Robert Mallar (ace page 12) Tay the Scammonden Bridge over the M62 inthe Pennines echoes Mallets clasc lines. hae 2 span of 126 metres although this form of constuction ca 400 metres, With modern techniques, spans approaching 300 metres can be achieved withthe beam method af b brges are constructed as beams, but generally e constuction, The bulk of our motorway have much shorter spans, They are a fama sight ‘throughout the country, Forming intcate knots at complex mut-evel junctions, The suspension bridge has evalved into the cable stayed design, where the deck is held by cables attached to towers. The longest al concrete span sruction is 440 mi and sing, ‘recent development in bridge consisction invohes building them t cary roads ranning epaeopdl wate the found whete the MS runs ordain Walley near Br o Scammondeh tre crossing the M62 i the Pennines sa clasic arch - a shapes chosen to minimize fisturbance to airow in ths ‘exposed site thats prone to sno des ° ‘The Gieta Bridge the Lake Disvict takes the Keswick Norther Bypass acros the valley in-a curve that reflects the grandeur and beauty ‘of the counmside, “The async design ofthe Rover Des Estuary Brg eaves the navigable ‘channel cea fr shipping The single white cogrete bridge toner can suppor: 25,000 tomes “he Kyles ihdge cates the AUDA ‘actos the Kyestrome in Sutherland, in the for north west of Salland. The ‘lgant design spans deep water inthis remote and exposed ste, ‘The ther Tors Brg at Bideford in Now Devon canis the A19 ata the river in eight spars that curve upwards to allow a clear naigation chanel up the mee Rourlng the bend on the A55 coast : gad in North Wales, the motorists _geeted by the Renenscarhos Quarty foorbrdg hot spans the di ‘ariouovay ina spectacular 45 meee circular atchimagination |eJaret aor the rig seboo! architect these precast concrete lum by Piers Gough ade serest to the new wing at Bryaaston Schoo The thse 7 thigh colar crated by Carole Vinoet stand in privat colecton on de ard of one. Colour agpegates such 3s bec fragments aus Wo precce concrete dubbed Binzcete by He actin Jobr Outram aes the concrete made with rubble hom bomb se ibe opts st in concrete are used by. Amhony Fanshawe to cet this bie and bak ple wth a Mihy Way ‘Cast n highly polished black and white mould, China Weary ie pained thewillbe Eons to reac th used when eequited tion that aleady in use Sustainable development invabyes meeting present ity This ikl to them down to sae again, Refurbshing or a probable parading existing buildin tuiding, its demotion or adaptation for another us dlsign has to be integrated with i method of constriction, maintenance upgrading, the works of the consttion process tra controlled operation in a factory i anather way of with 2 lack of sled labour ‘whole bathroom poe can be in Me wen down to the instalation of plumbing and pion of constuction techniques th ime taken on reatrent: With ts strength Con techniques and products are being “ " % bailing at CardCc ronsCement - its manufacture and chemistry The fst Portland cement was made by burning together batches of 2 miture of chalk and cay in a bot kil, These formed fused like that \was ground (a fine powder, The same principles are applied today except that either chalk or limestone may be ase, together with clay oF shale. The process has improved so that its continuous, using. eetary in to sintora carefull controlled mix of materials at higher temperatures, Caring forthe environment The raw material used for Portland cement ae bias! by quarrying and great care s taken to avoid causing nuisance tothe local area and i Inhabitants. The quanying techniques used reduce waste, and the movement of kee is minimised by sting cement works adjacent tothe quart, Whee a quarry exhausted, R may be either teinstated to farmed, Special Scenic Interest where wiklie can flours. Or it may be given new life, perhaps asa ping, wale sports and recreation cenite-or ash compl or building development. So dissed qoaries become lard sites before final reiosatement as farmland, so belping to soe one Of todays major problems - waste disposal Cement making ia highly sophisicated instil procs that operates under very rc environmental ‘contol governing the nature and acuant fthe ‘wae material given out o the a water and nd although releases to the bs bo ae inherently kw The extremely high operating temperatures reached in cement kilns mean that they can safely burn fuels made from waste proicts such 2s used car tyres ad inca sents. This helps conserve fos fuels by recovering energy from waste whilst minimising dsposal o land Ey Cement chemistry The eleareass materials used to make the ‘coment the chalk of lmestone) provide alum, This reacts with the silica, alurina and ia in the argillaceous materials the shale or clay to form a linker of calciom silicates, caleium aluminate and Calcium aluminofeerte. The cement cloker is finely ground with a small amount of gpm to reate Poland cement The addition of water to cement causes ito set and harden, This fs due to & chemical reaction Detween the water andl the cakium sctes that causes cement hydates to grow and interlock with ane anosher. The process called hydration and can continue fora longtime, increasing the Strength ofthe concrete ver many months. Cement has been manufactured to conform 10 Sth Standards since 1904, Now that the onmed a single marke, counts of Europe have 2 European sandard s being finalised by the ‘members ofthe European Union, Nowadays, cements are not necessarily compaced oF Poland coment only they may alo contain ‘other materia uch as ground granulated blasturnace slg, a by-product othe production fron, or pulverize fuel ash, a by-product of bburing coal in powers Transporting cement Freshly made Poaiand cement viously has to be opt ey and i ranspore in blk in aight containers either by ral or by rod. For the smal it's delivered in strong paper sachs lined wth polythene, Recently the weight of these socks has been reduced 1025 kg, so reducing the ‘ik of back injury for site workers This Himestone quary at Buxton in ‘Derbyshire atone time had the largest ‘working quary lace in Europe. This coment works inthe Peak District National Park ted close to quaries for both limestone ad shale 0 reducing the amount of frry movement inthe ‘surrounding ares The landscaping of the site that began ip 1943 was one of the fist fora UK incisal site, and was ‘undertaken by Sir Geoffrey Jline, 2 leading landscape architec. Raw tri ae deliver i blk, rushed andl ed into the kl, where they ae burt to proce clinker, wich then gad to aie powder, Sluewate, 2 new retail and lene complex in noth Kent, suit within a former chalk Aquary owned by a major cement maker Atte time of construction was the largest such complex in Europe, and proces out-of town shopping, cinéma and spots facies fo the inhabits fa lange part of the South EssThe making of concrete 2% csisinisaonsnnse Concrete taking hs nied in rm is eartiest laeinnings some 9000 years ago but the principle iss broadly the same - pieces of am inert hard crushed rock, together with sand to fil the gaps, are ved with a pase material, such as gravel Fomen d water This hardens over time to bind ial together, producing an extremely dlurable slid mas Aggregates Aout three-quarters by volume of concrete consists of fine and coarse ogeregat and crushed rock - obtained frm pits, quaries iid the seabed, C ea care stake to minimise the enveanmental impact of the quarrying ‘tives, andl to estore the workings to ‘ountysd or transfim them into something eel such apa watersports facity One quaey that has a mvinimal visual impacts Glens near the bind of Mull on the west coast of Scotland, where remote mountain Is being mined for is pane. Here the roc, From the top ofthe mountain is dropped down a ory’ hole in its conte and s then conveyed along 2 tunnel to the shore 4 ‘onta bulk carers. In addition a the traditional quad aggregates ate atic types such as sotered pulverized el as (a by-product of buening coal in pemwer jon) and expanded shale, bolls of which make 4 lightweight aggregate where che weight ofthe a To reduce the environmental impact of concrete production, the crashed! remains of demolshed concrete buildings wil be ‘coarse aggregates of various sizes and sand, patie bound together by the grey Foe smaller projects, concrete i mixed on Concrete Tor new buildings (ce page 26) es ‘The conto at a ready-ined concrete plant eosate that an accurate miss produced, ‘Making concrete Fresh concrete is flowable and gains ts final shape from the use of a mould, known as formwork, This can be constructed on site ron timber For larger projects concrete delivered 1 the construction ste aleeady mixed. Here ‘truck mixer collects a consignment of ready.mixed concrete, Dr ste! and is removed when the concrete is suficlerly hard to retain its shape and take soe lo. CConcrete'can ako be delivered to teas precast nits that have been made in a factory. Here the moulds are precision made, asally of steel, od Concrete mixes are described in terms of the proportions of their constituent materials: The mi is speuified according to the required seongth, appearance, carabilty ability to withstand 3 harsh environment) and workability (ease of placing). By altering the proportions of aggregates, ‘cement ane! wats, changes can be made to the properties ofthe fash and hardened concrete Special properties c bre imparted to the Ses ‘concrete by the use of admixtures Fr instance, accelerators speed up the harder while retarders slow it down, Pasticsers make the ‘concrete fw wel - around st for eerie = witout ‘etianing admixtures can be used to introduce mall bubbles that help the hardened concrete When making concrete, is important that te too much water wil sulin a porous, weake andl less durable concrete, ts also important to lly, ensuring thatthe ar voi expelled and thatthe concrete completey fis the former, ‘After placing concrete, it should be cured that's ‘kept moist long enough for the cement hydration process to develop @ thatthe guid strength onerete gains isThe making of concrete Continued from page 35 Rear: Types of concrete ‘ By changing the type of aggrogate,eonerete can bbe made so light that it ean float, oso heavy that its almost twice its usual density. it can be made Irypormeable for use in dans oe porous to let the wales percolate through asin fiter-beds at sewage ‘weatment plans The surface of concrete can be as smocsh as hss ‘or the aggregate can be exposed to make a decorative texture ish, Pigments can be added to create a choice of colours. Foamed concrete s made by mixing a foaming ager wl exter Thr free-flowing andl seal for filing tranches in roads, with the added advantage that ican be ‘Concrete can be made on site, with the cement easly removed for later acces, In contrast, high strength concrete is used ta prewide the necessity ‘ther by using a concrete mixer or by shovel for strength and durability for North Sea cil eis. ‘very small quantities, Nowadays, however, most ‘exncrete is supped to ite by 9 ready. mixed “Thus, by the correct choice of materials and ‘concrete tuck froma plant where it has been constuction techniques, thee is almost no made accurately to precise specications application for which concrete cannot he used. Where concrete is used Utilities 12% Private housing 26% Roads and bridges 10%, Industrial and [Social housing 5% farm buildings 15% ‘Oftices, shops and Schools and hospitals 9% entertainment 23% The British Cement Association The Bish Cement Assacaton is a focus fo the concrete indus y and is misson isto promote the ise of cement ane concrete though is ole as a ' trade association seater and bet «© sccntiie research association casa training onganis for cement 1 provider of concrete information services © yma evedagmost exter wih hes conireticllgty ‘© research partner with Government, industry and universes Concrete is pumped to where itis reeded, and vibrated to compact t thoroughly BCA Member Companies “The four major manufacturers of coment in the UK are: Blue Circle Industries ple UK Cement 184 Focleston Square London sWiv 1Px Tek: 0171-828 3456 Fax: 0171 245 3229 Castle Cement ttd Park Square 3260 Solihull Parkway Wirmingham Business Park Birmingham B37 7YN Teh: 0121 7792771 Fax: 0121 779 7609 Rughy Cement Crown Howe Rugby ‘Warwickshire Cv21 201 Tok 07708 542 111 Fox: 01788 540 166 Buxton Lime Industries Lid Tunstead Quarry Worehill Burton Denbyshive SkI7 016 ‘ok 01298 768 555 Fan: 01298 768 556Picture acknowledgements Thanks are due tothe following for permission to reproduce the illustrations sted below 2 Arche ten, Cameos Ministry of Culture, Greece. Archive of 22nd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities for the Dodecanese age 3 Ponta Gord Deri Plm Page 4 The Phan Dover Copyright Engh Hertage Motopaphic tee foge $ ‘Sito conc iser Northmpton Development Conpration (photogaph and dening) Page 5 Florepuis a Litle Moreon Hall The Sklingion Workshop Page 7 Cement kil, Norhfiet Bue Gel nds pl age 8 Concrete cottages Mary Oldham Page 9 ‘The Winery Hye Hoel Chr copy Repl Commision on th Delete Hooreal Maromere of Sand 10 Arorish Tower Stewart Sting, Hes Wat Unive 11 Royal ter Biking Tain onlaroaic by Cla Coker, Grain of Mouchel Consing Lid 11 Garedeberey til Sttesbury 12 Salga Gorge Brg Bil stcesbry 12 The ite Howe Peter Wight 14 Rochamplon ds Gee kin 44. _Hiegurrictry ve Ap and Panes Further ing yee Sears readi 15 ——_Universy of ast Anglia Frank Hawes Aone examination of concrete. 1G 15 ‘Spey Ope Hane bist oan Ges yr Be pa eetts a egy 17) Caneree are PCS LiPaverprint Loxembourg, 1987: Repeat Ear 10987 EN. 1 valicharier Maroon otrational 310 pos 19 Sion Roger Esl ‘ie memahl eek Cae Page 19 Nort Cacerwich Undegound Satin CA hotoste Lie Exon Te are one nae age 20 Ealing Hostal Maeriy Unit Ho Architects ‘A Niehon tty Dorey Henry fage 21 Dunford air Auseum gt Young Dubltons ba. S10 pp. age 21 Wimbledon Aung Design Parnesip Hier fle Cre. Ptr a fet Seat a see eee iy gyre ea Page 22 Concrete yack Robin Gates Bp ap 23 London Bing Noi AMEC Col Erineerng Lid be ease 25 aural Cross Roger Ell Tis conn saheons kita 26 Se Stephen Warook “Thomas Phos, Oxford teats cee 7 —SEMarys Abbey Elin Harwood 2m Rai (Ove Arup and Parnes evolution or evolution A cata or 26 Dinornic Pow Station Fist Hydro Company the exibition atthe nation of Ci Engineers bite on the ICEIConcote 2a) ‘Seaman rhe Pal rschmann Conant id pees eet 29 —_Rer Dee Estuary Bide fee pretrosed cone. CE, London, 1944, 30 wats oShaw fo eid & Jn PocklCZWG Architects opp 30 Alani Gareth Syret, oe 30. Stary tay ight Matin Thomas rvs ad ilies Histone coer. 30 Caleguy Kaen Partie Proceedings ofthe losin of Ci 3 Chins Wha Ja Ret & John PckiCZWG Actes cee 31 Thea of espe Roger Easel don. 480 pp 31 anyealow bu sey ironic a ioe i Pato aurence Hl (ieee ce Peay |e 33 Tanama iy Otsivatry Talal! Misafans e arene 4 Bhewater QA Pts Lid Preity of concrete, R Malina and ¥ GartnkelPubluhed in Conte ‘Ako many photographs sed on pas to 16 31 that weet by Teor kes internat, March 1991 p62 60. o