1 The evolution of State-System.

Historical development of the evolution of the state : The preceding article in tracing the origin of the state, found
difficulty in fixing he exact process by which the state came into existence and in separating political institution from
other closely related forms similar problems confront an attempt to outline the historical development of political
institution. The state has not had a single origin or a regular and continuous evolution. The idea held by many writers
that political development tends inevitably to pass through regular and clearly defined cycles is not borne out by
historical facts.
In broad outlines, the state has evolved through the following forms:
1. The tribal state
2. The Oriental empire
3. The Greek city state
4. The Roman world empire
5. The feudal state
6. The national state
The periods of time during which each of these forms predominated show wide variation, and within the general type
important governmental changes took place. Besides, earlier forms usually survived in some parts of the earth long
after later types had arisen elsewhere. There have also been tendencies at times to revive earlier forms among peoples
who had passed to the new and types strikingly similar have arisen independently at different times in widely
separated places.
The Tribal State:
As the previous chapter indicated the first states appeared in the form of tribes. These had certain elements in
common, though in other respects they showed marked differences. They were usually comparatively small in sing
and were governed by chiefs, often assisted by advisory councils. Some Were nomadic others were permanently
settled in definite areas. While the main purpose of their existence was the preservation of internal order and the
waging of aggressive of defensive war, they often retained strong traces of common birth, common religion, and
common economic interests.
The Oriental Empire:
The next step in state building resulted from the aggregation of population, the accumulation of wealth, and
improvement in the arts of peace and war in regions favored by nature. Warm climate, fertile soil, abundance of water,
and a considerable area free from geographic barriers were required to support a large population and to bring about
those permanent relations among men that demanded increasing government.
The Greek City State:
The Oriental empires were essentially agricultural, land powers. To them the sea was a barrier, not a highway and the
centers of their civilization lay, not on the coasts, but in the valleys. As civilization spread to the region around the
Aegean and Mediterranean, important physical differences were found. Europe is a peninsula, oceanic rather than
continental. It has a climate more temperate and products more varied than the river valleys of Asia.
The land is broken up into small units adapted to both intercourse and defense while the seas, though permitting
communication, made invasion from Asia difficult. Hence civilization, though arising later reached a much higher and
more varied development than in Asia, and the nature of political organization was correspondingly different.
The Roman World Empire:
The conquests of Alexander the Great about the middle of the fourth century B.C. destroyed the independence of the
Greek cities, extended the control of Macedon over a large part of the Eastern empires, and restored for a time the
Oriental-empire type of despotism. His empire, however, was short lived, and fell to pieces after his death. The main
line of political development passed westward to Rome.
The beginnings of political life in Italy were similar to those in Greece. Natural advantages of location, climate, and
resources led to increase of population, mingling of peoples and advance in civilization. While the mass of inhabitants
lived in loose tribal organizations, a number of small city states gradually arose. These were not commercial, as in
Greece,but were the centers of the surrounding agricultural area. One of these at first by no means the most
important, was formed by the union of several tribes occupying a group of hills in the fertile plain of the Tiber.
 The Feudal State:
The unity which the principle of citizenship gave to early Rome became meaningless with the expansion of Rome to
world empire. Imperial Rome depended increasingly on the army and the doctrine of power, and this gave no
satisfactory basis for solidarity. When the state failed, men sought refuge in kingdoms not of this world and in
individualistic philosophies.
The state was thereby disintegrated, and this internal decline made it difficult for Rome to maintain her frontiers
against those Teutonic barbarians whom she had been unable to conquer. Great numbers of these were gradually
admitted and many found service in the army.
The National State:
Out of the chaos of feudalism a definite form of political life gradually appeared. The spiritual principle and temporal
power of the church were not in harmony and movements for reform within the church weakened its unity and
attacked its claim to political leadership. As population became stationary and common interests developed. it became
increasingly evident that new states would, in general follow geographic and ethnic lines. Bonds of nationality and
language strengthened by natural boundaries, grouped the feudal fragments into more and more permanent
combinations and France, Spain, England, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Russia and, later, Germany and Italy arose.
2 International Relation: Theories and approaches:
A Theory Of International Relations is a set of ideas that explains how the international system works. Unlike an
ideology, a theory of international relations is (at least in principle) backed up with concrete evidence. The two major
theories of international relations are realism and liberalism.
National Interest
Most theories of international relations are based on the idea that states always act in accordance with their National
Interest, or the interests of that particular state. State interests often include self-preservation, military security,
economic prosperity, and influence over other states. Sometimes two or more states have the same national interest.
For example, two states might both want to foster peace and economic trade. And states with diametrically opposing
national interests might try to resolve their differences through negotiation or even war.
Realism
According to Realism, states work only to increase their own power relative to that of other states. Realism also claims
the following:
 The world is a harsh and dangerous place. The only certainty in the world is power. A powerful state will always be
able to outdo—and outlast—weaker competitors. The most important and reliable form of power is military power.
 A state’s primary interest is self-preservation. Therefore, the state must seek power and must always protect itself
 There is no overarching power that can enforce global rules or punish bad behavior.
 Moral behavior is very risky because it can undermine a state’s ability to protect itself.
 The international system itself drives states to use military force and to war. Leaders may be moral, but they must not
let moral concerns guide foreign policy.
 International organizations and law have no power or force; they exist only as long as states accept them.
Politicians have practiced realism as long as states have existed. Most scholars and politicians during the Cold War
viewed international relations through a realist lens. Neither the United States nor the Soviet Union trusted the other,
and each sought allies to protect itself and increase its political and military influence abroad. Realism has also featured
prominently in the administration of George W. Bush.
Liberalism
Liberalism emphasizes that the broad ties among states have both made it difficult to define national interest and
decreased the usefulness of military power. Liberalism developed in the 1970s as some scholars began arguing that
realism was outdated. Increasing globalization, the rapid rise in communications technology, and the increase in
international trade meant that states could no longer rely on simple power politics to decide matters. Liberal
approaches to international relations are also called theories of complex interdependence. Liberalism claims the
following:
 The world is a harsh and dangerous place, but the consequences of using military power often outweigh the benefits.
International cooperation is therefore in the interest of every state.
 Military power is not the only form of power. Economic and social power matter a great deal too. Exercising economic
power has proven more effective than exercising military power.
 Different states often have different primary interests.
 International rules and organizations can help foster cooperation, trust, and prosperity.
Example: Relations among the major Western powers fit a model of complex interdependence very well. The United
States has significant disagreements with its European and Asian allies over trade and policy, but it is hard to imagine
a circumstance in which the United States would use military power against any of these allies. Instead, the United
States relies on economic pressure and incentives to achieve its policy aims.
Idealism
Idealism is a specific school of liberalism that stresses the need for states to pursue moral goals and to act ethically in
the international arena. Idealists believe that behavior considered immoral on an interpersonal level is also immoral
in foreign policy. Therefore, idealists argue that dishonesty, trickery, and violence should be shunned. In the United
States, idealism has usually been associated with the Democratic Party since World War I.
Example: As he negotiated the treaty to end World War I in 1918, Woodrow Wilson worked to promote democracy
and national self-determination. Wilson’s idealism led him to push hard for the creation of the League of Nations, an
international organization that would fight aggression and protect the weak from the strong, in 1919. Scholars use the
term Wilsonian to describe a person or group who advocates promoting democracy overseas in the name of idealism.
3. State behavior in International Relations.
System level analysis examines state behavior by looking at the international system. In this level of analysis,
the international system is the cause and state behavior is the effect. Characteristics of the international system cause
states to behave the way they do. Change in the international system will cause change in state behavior. The key
variable in the international system is the power of a state within the system. Some states are powerful; others are
weak. So for example, the cold war had two powerful states. Therefore the central cause of all state behavior in the
cold war was the fact that the US and USSR were the two powerful states in a bipolar system. Today, there
is unipolar system – one superpower (or hyperpower) -- and that defines the behavior of all other states in the system.
(See neo-realism below). So this level of analysis might explain the US intervention in Iraq as a matter of the US, the
one and only powerful state, flexing its muscles to police the world against states that threaten it. The US wants to
preserve its dominance and therefore crushes all challengers.
State level analysis examines the foreign policy behavior of states in terms of state characteristics. For
example, some scholars say that all democracies behave a certain way; they don’t fight with other democracies. Some
scholars might look at the different behaviors of weak or strong states; states that live in rough neighborhoods
(Germany or France) vs. states that live in more benign surroundings (the US). Some scholars might say that the foreign
policy behavior of every state is a cultural characteristic, defined by the historical legacy of the state, the religious or
social traditions, or the economic and geographic nature of the state itself (see constructivism below). State level of
analysis might explain the US intervention in Iraq as a function of the missionary quality of US foreign
policy. The US has always had an idealist streak in its foreign policy (some disagree with this) and sees “bad guys” out
there in the international system. The US is compelled by the nature of its political system and its belief that some
day all states will be like the US. It has a drive to remake the world in its own image. The job of US foreign policy is
not done until all states are democratic and all nations have free market economies.
Organizational level analysis examines the way in which organizations within a state function to influence
foreign policy behavior. States don’t make decisions. Organizations bargain with each other to create a foreign policy
that is a compromise between competing organizations. This level of analysis for example, might look at the Iraq war
and try to explain it by examining the interests of the US military, the department of defense, the state department,
and central intelligence agency. How did these organizations create US foreign policy would be the key question at
this level of analysis.
Theories of State Behavior
The following list illustrates some of the theories that you’ll be reading about. Each one is a specific theory that tries
to explain the way states behave. You’ll get plenty of ideas within the books, so I’ll give you the brief
outline. Remember though that the authors will take these basic ideas and modify them. Again, these are starting
points for theory and the authors are modifying them to build better theory.
Classical realism is a state level theory that argues that all states seek power. That is the first and last principle of
state behavior. States seek to increase their power; they seek to decrease the power of their enemies; and everything
they do is in the name of amassing power. States see other powerful states as rivals because power, when it is not in
your hands, is threatening. People are greedy, insecure, and aggressive, so the states they govern will have those
same characteristics. This doesn’t mean war, however. There can be peace, but a durable peace is based upon a
stable balance of power – the big players in the international systems are roughly equal in power resources, so
therefore no one thinks they can win a war. If you don’t think you can win a war, you generally don’t start one. The
US and USSR were rivals in the cold war because they were the two most powerful states after WW II. They were both
wary of each other’s power and became enemies. But they did not go to war because they were roughly equal in
power.

Neo-realism is a system level theory that is an offshoot of classical realism. It argues all of what classical realism
does. However, it sees the cause of all the power struggles and rivalries not as a function of the nature of states, but
as a function of the nature of the international system. States are out there alone. There is no world government, no
one looking out for states, no rules that can’t be easily broken. The world is anarchy and states do what they can get
away with to gain power and they do what they must to protect themselves. Power creates rivalry because it is
threatening by its nature. If some other state is more powerful than your state, you have no way to protect yourself
but to defend yourself or attack your rival first. A neorealist might say the cold war was caused by the fact that there
were only two powerful states that survived WW II. Sine there was no world government or rules of behavior to
restrain the rivalry it became the cold war. This theory dominates scholarly thinking today and will be discussed in a
lot of the books.
Neo-classical realism is a sort of revival of classical realism. It accepts all of the above about power rivalries, but it
suggests that state characteristics (state level variables) play a large role in the behavior of states. States don’t just
seek power and they don’t just fear other powerful states, there are reasons that states seek power and there are
reasons that states fear other states. It’s a sort of combination of classical and neo-realism that factors in both system
level and state level variables. For example, a neo-classical realist might look at the cold war and say that the
differences in ideology between the US and USSR was a factor in the US-USSR rivalry that exacerbated the tendency
for two powerful states to form rivalries.
Liberalism adds values into the equation. It is often called idealism. It is a state level theory which argues that there
is a lot of cooperation in the world, not just rivalry. States don’t just compete or worry about power. States try to
build a more just world order. They often do so because they have learned that in many instances cooperation is a
better strategy that conflict. States try to create enforceable international law. States are progressive forces for social
justice. Liberalism might look at the cold war and examine the different values of the US and USSR and point out the
repressive and murderous nature of the Soviet state as the key to the US and USSR animosity. It also might look at
the decades-worth of US-USSR cooperation in the midst of the cold war (arms control, the lack of direct conflict).
Neo-liberalism is an offshoot of liberalism. It is a system level version of liberalism and focuses on the way in which
institutions can influence the behavior of states by spreading values or creating rule-based behavior. Neo-liberals
might focus on the role of the United Nations or World Trade Organization in shaping the foreign policy behavior of
states. Neo-liberals might look at the cold war and suggest ways to fix the UN to make it more effective.
Cognitive Theories are those mentioned above which examine the role of psychological processes – perception,
misperception, belief systems – on the foreign policy behavior of states. It can be state, organization, or individual
level of analysis depending on whether the research is focusing on the psychological dynamics of a state decision
maker or the shared perceptions of an organization, or the shared belief systems of a nation. Cognitive theorists might
look at the shared images of the US and USSR political leaders had of each other and explain the cold war as the
product of these negative images and the inability of either state to reshape the perceptions of the other.
Constructivism is a theory that examines state behavior in the context of state characteristics. All states are unique
and have a set of defining political, cultural, economic, social, or religious characteristics that influence its foreign
policy. States have identities and those identities define their behavior in the international system. The US has a
foreign policy character. Russia has a foreign policy character. The cold war is a product of the clash of those
identities. The end of the cold war may be a function of changes in the Russian identity.
4 The phenomenon of Power: A National Power, balance of power and power politics. In Phenomena of Power,
one of the leading figures of postwar German sociology reflects on the nature, and many forms of, power. For Heinrich
Popitz, power is rooted in the human condition and is therefore part of all social relations. Drawing on philosophical
anthropology, he identifies the elementary forms of power to provide detailed insight into how individuals gain and
perpetuate control over others. Instead of striving for a power-free society, Popitz argues, humanity should try to
impose limits on power where possible and establish counterpower where necessary.
Phenomena of Power delves into the sociohistorical manifestations of power and breaks through to its general
structures. Popitz distinguishes the forms of the enforcement of power as well as of its stabilization and
institutionalization, clearly articulating how the mechanisms of power work and how to track them in the social world.
Philosophically trained, historically informed, and endowed with keen observation, Popitz uses examples ranging from
the way passengers on a ship organize deck chairs to how prisoners of war share property to illustrate his theory. Long
influential in German sociology, Phenomena of Power offers a challenging reworking of one of the essential concepts
of the social sciences.
National Power therefore means capability of the state/nation to secure the goals and objectives of its national
interests in relation with other nations (Padelhord and Abraham Lincoln). He further elaborated on it as far as
involvement of capacity to use force or threat or any other influence over others in order to secure goals and objectives
of national interests. In other words, this may also mean voluntary commitment of nationals to ensure positive
achievements of national interests. The concept of national power is linked to international relations. This topic
attracted my attention in looking at different national powers and relations.
Marxist theory classified power according to dominion in capitalist societies where power is linked to class relations
in economics, politics and ideology. Power source comes from the ownership and of economic property, wealth,
productive assets of society, control of finances, ideas and hegemony control over the state which shows its
significance in international relations. Marxist perspective of sources of national power are justified by existing
reference of current governments across the world where corruption is day to day challenge in controlling national
powers.
balance of power, in international relations, the posture and policy of a nation or group of nations protecting itself
against another nation or group of nations by matching its power against the power of the other side. States can
pursue a policy of balance of power in two ways: by increasing their own power, as when engaging in an armaments
race or in the competitive acquisition of territory; or by adding to their own power that of other states, as when
embarking upon a policy of alliances.
The term balance of power came into use to denote the power relationships in the European state system from the
end of the Napoleonic Wars to World War I. Within the European balance of power, Great Britain played the role of
the “balancer,” or “holder of the balance.” It was not permanently identified with the policies of any European nation,
and it would throw its weight at one time on one side, at another time on another side, guided largely by one
consideration—the maintenance of the balance itself. Naval supremacy and its virtual immunity from foreign invasion
enabled Great Britain to perform this function, which made the European balance of power both flexible and stable.
The balance of power from the early 20th century onward underwent drastic changes that for all practical purposes
destroyed the European power structure as it had existed since the end of the Middle Ages. Prior to the 20th century,
the political world was composed of a number of separate and independent balance-of-power systems, such as the
European, the American, the Chinese, and the Indian. But World War I and its attendant political alignments triggered
a process that eventually culminated in the integration of most of the world’s nations into a single balance-of-power
system. This integration began with the World War I alliance of Britain, France, Russia, and the United States against
Germany and Austria-Hungary. The integration continued in World War II, during which the fascist nations of Germany,
Japan, and Italy were opposed by a global alliance of the Soviet Union, the United States, Britain, and China. World
War II ended with the major weights in the balance of power having shifted from the traditional players in western
and central Europe to just two non-European ones: the United States and the Soviet Union. The result was a bipolar
balance of power across the northern half of the globe that pitted the free-market democracies of the West against
the communist one-party states of eastern Europe. More specifically, the nations of western Europe sided with the
United States in the NATO military alliance, while the Soviet Union’s satellite-allies in central and eastern Europe
became unified under Soviet leadership in the Warsaw Pact.
The concept of power politics provides a way of understanding systems of international relations: in this
view, states compete for the world's limited resources, and it is to an individual state's advantage to be manifestly
able to harm others. Power politics prioritizes national self-interest over the interests of other nations or
the international community, and thus may include threatening one another with military, economic,
or political aggression to protect one nation's own interest.
5 National Interests
National Interest Meaning Definition Kinds and Methods
In international relations, national interest is an effort to describe the underlying rational for the behaviour of states
and statesmen in a threatening international environment, that preserves and protects one’s values against others.
Every country seeks to promote and further its national interests of the country. The primary interests of each state
are self-preservation, security and well being of its citizens.
Meaning
The word -Interest” derives from a Latin word, that means, “it concerns, it makes a difference to, it is important with
reference to some person or thing”. It is a condition of wanting to know or learn about.
Definition
1. Some Scholars like Raymond Aron are of the opinion that it is a meaningless theory. However, some of the
definition given below will help in clarifying the concept of National Interest.
2. “The general and continuing ends for that a nation acts.” (Brooking’s Institute)
3. “A general long term and continuing purpose that the state, the nation and the government all see themselves
as serving.” (Abdul Said).
4. “The goal that might be pursued by nations in their foreign policy can run the gamut of objectives any nation
has ever pursued or might possibly pursue”.
Development of the Concept of National Interest
The concept of National Interest is comparatively a new concept. In the ancient and the medieval times also the states
pursued certain substantial interests on the basis of that their relations were conducted. In the early Middle Ages the
laws of Christianity formed the basis of these relations and the states were expected to ensure that their laws etc.
conformed to these principles. However, with the emergence of the secular power, Church began to be looked upon
as the enemy of National Interest and the National Interests were equated with the interest of the prince of the ruling
dynasty. At that time the national interest meant the interest of a particular monarch in holding fast to the territories
lie already possessed, in extending his domains and in aggrandizement of his house. But in course of time the popular
bodies challenged the authority of the monarchs and asserted themselves. This resulted in the growth of democracy
and the honour of the Prince was replaced by the honour of the nation. Thus, the concept passed from the feudal and
monarchical system to the republic democratic system and soon gained a common usage in the political and diplomatic
literature. In short term, “National Interest” gained currency with the emergence of the national state system, increase
in popular political control and the great expansion of economic relations.
Kinds of National Interest
According to Thomas W. Robinson, the national interest can be classified into six categories i.
Primary Interest
The primary interests of a nation include the preservation of physical, political and Cultural identity of the state against
possible encroachments from outside powers. These interests are permanent and the state must defend these at all
costs. No compromise of these interests is possible.
Secondary Interest
The Secondary Interests though less important then the first one is quite vital to the existence of the state. These
include the protection of the citizens abroad and ensuring of diplomatic immunities for the diplomatic staff.
Permanent Interests
Permanent Interests refer to the relatively constant and ” long4erm interest of the state. The change in the permanent
interests, if any, is rather slow. An example of this type of national. interest. is provided by the determination of Britain
to maintain freedom of navigation during the past few centuries for the protection of her overseas Colonies and
growing trade.
Variable Interests
The variable Interests refer to those Interests of a nation that a nation considers vital for a national good in a given set
of circumstances. In this sense the variable interests can diverge from both Primary and Permanent Interests. The
variable Interests of a state are largely determined by the Personalities, Public opinion, Sectional Interests, Partisan
Politics and Political and Moral folk ways.
General Interests
The general interests of a nation refer to those positive conditions that can be applied to a large number of nations or
in several specified fields such as economic, trade and diplomatic intercourse etc. for example it was the general
national interest of Britain to maintain balance of the European Continent.
Specific Interests
The Specific Interests although the logical outgrowth of the general interest -are defined in terms of time or space. For
example, Britain has considered it a specific national interest to maintain the independence of the lower countries for
the sake of preservation of balance of power in Europe.
In addition to the above six types of national interest Prof. Robinson refers to three other interest that he describes
as, “International Interest”. These include the identical interests, complementary interests and conflicting interests
that are as under.
 The Identical Interests: The Identical Interests refer to Interests that are held in common by a number of states.
For example, both United States and Britain have been interested that Europe should not be dominated by any
single power.
 The complementary Interests: The Complementary Interests of the nations refer to those interests that though
not identical, can form the basis of agreement on some specific issues. For example, Britain was interested in
the independence of Portugal against Spain because she wanted to control the region of the Atlantic Ocean.
Likewise, Portugal was interested in the British maritime hegemony because this was a safe means of defense
against Spain.
 The conflicting Interests: The Interests other than identical and complementary interest fall in the category of
conflicting interests. It may be noted that the conflicting interests are not fixed and undergo a change due to
the force of events and diplomacy.
6. Economics
PAKISTAN'S ECONOMY
The economy of Pakistan is the 27th largest in the world in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP) and 38th largest in
terms of nominal Gross Domestic Product. In 2014-15, the GDP was recorded at 4.24 percent up from 4.02 percent in
2013-14.
Traditionally the economy of Pakistan has been semi- industrialized with agriculture as the major contributor to GDP,
with centers of growth along the Indus River. Over the decades services and industrial sectors have developed
significantly. The service sector has grown to become the biggest contributor to GDP, calculated at 58.8 percent in
2014-15. During the same period, the agricultural and industrial sector respectively accounted for 20.9 percent and
20.3 percent of the GDP.
With a large population, majority of which is young, Pakistan is a consumption oriented economy. Consumption,
investment and exports are the drivers of the country with exports being the biggest driver of economic growth. Most
of Pakistan’s exports are to Afghanistan, United States of America, United Arab Emirates, European Union, the United
Kingdom and the Middle East. Major exports include agricultural products, textile products, sports goods, leather &
leather products, surgical instruments, light engineering goods and services. The import bill accounts mostly for the
import of fuel, heavy machinery and industrial equipment. Major sources of imports are China, Saudi Arabia, United
States, Malaysia, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, the European Union and Japan.
Pakistan is a fast urbanizing country. The biggest industrial hub is the port city of Karachi (Sindh Province). Other
industrial centers are located in major cities of the Punjab Province. A vast population lives outside major urban centers
in small towns and villages practicing traditional trades of economy i.e. agriculture, animal husbandry and small scale
cottage industry.
MAIN ECONOMIC SECTORS
Services Sector
In recent years, the services sector has grown at a considerably faster rate than the commodity producing sector of
the Pakistani economy. It has emerged as the most significant driver of economic growth. In 2014-15 the services
sector contributed 58.8 percent of the GDP and registered a growth rate of 4.95 percent. This sector has potential for
further growth.
The sub-sectors are: Transport, Storage and Communication; Wholesale and Retail Trade; Finance and Insurance;
Housing Services (Real Estate); General Government Services (Public Administration and Defense); and Other Private
Services (Social Services).
During 2014-15, the growth of these sub-sectors were as follows: Transport, Storage and Communication - 4.21
percent, Wholesale and Retail Trade - 3.38 percent, , Finance and Insurance - 6.18 percent, Housing Services - 4.0
percent, General Government Services - 9.44 percent and Other Private Services - 5.94 percent.
Investment Potential
 Pakistan is home to a host of multinational companies and financial institutions. There is room for further
investment in fi nancial and insurance markets.

 The demand for large scale commercial transportation and mass-transit systems is growing with the expansion
of road infrastructure. Foreign investors can take advantage of this opportunity and invest in the transport
sector.
Agriculture Sector
Pakistan has a rich and vast natural resource base covering various ecological and climate zones. It also has one of the
largest canal water irrigation systems in the world. This gives the country the potential for producing a variety of food
commodities. Land totaling 22.45 million hectares is already under cultivation, 16.5 million hectares of which are
located in the Punjab Province.
Dairy
Pakistan has huge dairy industry, with the country ranking fourth among milk producing countries with a production
of 45,529 tons of milk which is worth Rs. 177 billion (approximately US$ 1.77 billion). This sector has immense potential
for further development . Milk production can easily be multiplied by applying mechanized farming techniques and
scientific breeding methods. Foreign investors have found the dairy sector as an attractive avenue for investment.
Livestock and Poultry
Pakistan has the 3rd largest livestock population in the world. Traditionally this sector has been dominated by small
producers to meet their food security needs and supplement this income. The livestock and poultry sector performs a
vital role in Pakistan’s economy with contribution of around 12 percent of GDP. During 2014-15, livestock share in the
agriculture sector value addition stood at 56.3 percent. Livestock recorded a growth of 4.12 percent. Major livestock
and poultry products include meat, eggs, animal and hides. The major share of production is consumed locally. Meat
demand in Pakistan is growing at approximately 6 percent per annum and there is increased potential investment in
production and distribution of meat, poultry and good quality slaughters houses.
Fisheries:
Pakistan has a total coast line of 1050 km. with a total fishing area of approximately 300270 sq.km. These fishing areas
are rich in marine life and are home to species of commercial significance. Apart from marine fisheries, inland fisheries
(based in rivers, lakes, ponds, dams etc.) are also commercial significant. Fisheries add substantially to the national
income through export earnings. In 2014-15 the fisheries sub-sector registered a growth rate of 5.75 percent.
Crops
With a share of 11.1 percent in value addition of agriculture sector crops contribute 2.3 percent to the GDP. This sub-
sector has grown mildly at 1.09 percent over the last year. Similarly growth has been registered production of crops
such as onion, grams, lentils, chilies and potatoes. The fruit and vegetables production has remained stable.
Cotton Ginning
Cotton Ginning has 7.4 percent share in the crops subsector and 2.9 percent contribution in agriculture sector and
contributes 0.6 percent in GDP of the country. Cotton ginning has witnessed significant growth registered which was
at 7.38 percent last year.
Industrial Sector
The industrial sector in Pakistan contributes 20.30 percent to the GDP. It has four sub-sectors including mining and
quarrying, manufacturing, electricity and gas generation and distribution, and construction. Each sub sector of the
industrial sector has its own role and significance in the economy. Performance of these sub-sectors is given below:
Manufacturing Sector
Manufacturing sector accounted for 13.3 percent of GDP and employed 14.2 percent of the total employed labour
force. There are three subsectors: Large Scale Manufacturing, Small Scale Manufacturing and Industrial processing.
Large Scale Manufacturing (LSM) contributes 10.6 percent of GDP and dominates the overall manufacturing sector,
accounting 80 percent of the sector share. Small Scale Manufacturing accounts for 1.7 percent of total GDP and 13.0
percent of Manufacturing. Industrial processing accounted for only 7.0 percent of overall Manufacturing sector.
Construction Sector
The contribution of construction in industrial sector is 12.0 percent. It provides employment opportunities to 7.33
percent of labour force. This sub-sector has potential for growth as demand is high, especially for low cost housing.
The construction sector recorded a growth of 7.0 percent last year.
Electricity generation & distribution and Gas Distribution
This sub-sector of industr y plays an impor tant role in development of the country and also contributes to the growth
of all sectors of the economy. Its share in industrial sector is 8.2 percent.
Mining and Gems
Pakistan has enormous mineral potential including precious metals and dimension stones. Availability of abundant
raw material, low cost of production, talented, artisans and mining concessions by the government makes this a
primary sector for investment. Pakistan has abundant reserves of coal, copper, rock salt, limestone and onyx marble,
China clay, dolomite, fire clay, gypsum, silica sand and granite, as well as precious and semi- precious stones. This sub-
sector contributes 2.9 percent of GDP. Mining and quarrying recorded a growth of 3.8 percent in 2014-15.
Investment Potential
Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation offers joint venture in the following projects:
 Gold and Base Metals Exploration in the Northern Areas of Pakistan
 Coal Briquetting Plants
 Coal mining for small thermal power plants
 Production of Ultra Refined Salt
Textile
Pakistan is the 8th largest exporter of textile products in Asia. This sector contributes 8.5 percent to the GDP and
provides employment to 40 percent of the industrial labour force. Pakistan is the 4th largest product of cotton with
the third largest spinning capacity in Asia. The major markets of Pakistani yarn during 2011-12 were Bangladesh,
Turkey, Egypt and Colombia.
Development of the textile Industry and making full use of its abundant resources of cotton has been a priority area
in industrial policy. Following the GSP plus Agreement with the European Union, Pakistan products now have a
competitive edge in the European market.
7 Sovereignty
sovereignty, in political theory, the ultimate overseer, or authority, in the decision-making process of the state and in
the maintenance of order. The concept of sovereignty—one of the most controversial ideas in political
science and international law—is closely related to the difficult concepts of state and government and of
independence and democracy. Derived from the Latin superanus through the French souveraineté, the term was
originally understood to mean the equivalent of supreme power. However, its application in practice often has
departed from this traditional meaning.
8 Nationalism
Nationalism is an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation or nation-state and holds that
such obligations outweigh other individual or group interests.
The Basic Concept of Nationalism
Although the term “nationalism” has a variety of meanings, it centrally encompasses two phenomena: (1) the attitude
that the members of a nation have when they care about their identity as members of that nation and (2) the actions
that the members of a nation take in seeking to achieve (or sustain) some form of political sovereignty (see for
example, Nielsen 1998–9: 9). Each of these aspects requires elaboration.
1. Raises questions about the concept of a nation or national identity, about what it is to belong to a nation, and
about how much one ought to care about one’s nation. Nations and national identity may be defined in terms
of common origin, ethnicity, or cultural ties, and while an individual’s membership in the nation is often
regarded as involuntary, it is sometimes regarded as voluntary. The degree of care for one’s nation that
nationalists require is often, but not always, taken to be very high: according to such views, the claims of one’s
nation take precedence over rival contenders for authority and loyalty.[1]
2. raises questions about whether sovereignty requires the acquisition of full statehood with complete authority
over domestic and international affairs, or whether something less than statehood suffices. Although
sovereignty is often taken to mean full statehood (Gellner 1983: ch. 1),[2] possible exceptions have been
recognized (Miller 1992: 87; Miller 2000). Some authors even defend an anarchist version of patriotism-
moderate nationalism foreshadowed by Bakunin (see Sparrow 2007).
Ethnicity can be a significant factor in international relations, as it can shape the foreign policies and actions of
states, as well as the relationships between states.
In some cases, ethnicity can be a source of conflict and tension in international relations, as states with large ethnic
minorities may face pressure to defend the rights and interests of those groups, while other states may seek to
exploit ethnic tensions for their own benefit. Ethnic conflict can also lead to violence and instability within and
between states.
On the other hand, ethnicity can also be a source of cooperation and mutual understanding in international relations.
For example, states with shared ethnic ties may have stronger cultural and political connections, which can facilitate
cooperation and dialogue.
Overall, the role of ethnicity in international relations is complex and multifaceted, and it can have a significant impact
on the relationships between states and other actors in the international system.
Here are a few examples of ethnicity:
 African
 Asian
 European
 Hispanic or Latino
 Native American
 Middle Eastern
 Pacific Islander
These are just a few examples, and it’s important to note that ethnicity is a complex and multifaceted concept. Many
people identify with multiple ethnicities, and ethnic identities can evolve and change over time.
9 Human Rights
What are human rights?
Human rights are inherent to us all, regardless of nationality, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language,
or any other status.
Human rights are rights we have simply because we exist as human beings - they are not granted by any state. These
universal rights are inherent to us all, regardless of nationality, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language,
or any other status. They range from the most fundamental - the right to life - to those that make life worth living,
such as the rights to food, education, work, health, and liberty.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, was the first legal
document to set out the fundamental human rights to be universally protected. The UDHR, which turned 70 in 2018,
continues to be the foundation of all international human rights law. Its 30 articles provide the principles and building
blocks of current and future human rights conventions, treaties and other legal instruments.
The UDHR, together with the 2 covenants - the International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights, and the
International Covenant for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - make up the International Bill of Rights.
Universal and inalienable
The principle of universality of human rights is the cornerstone of international human rights law. This means that we
are all equally entitled to our human rights. This principle, as first emphasized in the UDHR, is repeated in many
international human rights conventions, declarations, and resolutions.
Human rights are inalienable. They should not be taken away, except in specific situations and according to due
process. For example, the right to liberty may be restricted if a person is found guilty of a crime by a court of law.
Indivisible and interdependent
All human rights are indivisible and interdependent. This means that one set of rights cannot be enjoyed fully without
the other. For example, making progress in civil and political rights makes it easier to exercise economic, social and
cultural rights. Similarly, violating economic, social and cultural rights can negatively affect many other rights.
Equal and non-discriminatory
Article 1 of the UDHR states: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” Freedom from
discrimination, set out in Article 2, is what ensures this equality.
Non-discrimination cuts across all international human rights law. This principle is present in all major human rights
treaties. It also provides the central theme of 2 core instruments: the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women.
Both rights and obligations
All States have ratified at least 1 of the 9 core human rights treaties, as well as 1 of the 9 optional protocols. Eighty
per cent of States have ratified 4 or more. This means that States have obligations and duties under international law
to respect, protect and fulfill human rights.
 The obligation to respect means that States must refrain from interfering with or curtailing the enjoyment of
human rights.
 The obligation to protect requires States to protect individuals and groups against human rights abuses.
 The obligation to fulfill means that States must take positive action to facilitate the enjoyment of basic human
rights.
Meanwhile, as individuals, while we are entitled to our human rights – but, we should also respect and stand up for
the human rights of others.
10 Morals & Ethics - What Is Morality?
Morality is a person or society's idea of what is right or wrong, especially in regard to a person's behavior.
Maintaining this type of behavior allows people to live successfully in groups and society. That said, they require a
personal adherence to the commitment of the greater good.
Morals have changed over time and based on location. For example, different countries can have different standards
of morality. That said, researchers have determined that seven morals seem to transcend across the globe and across
time:
1. Bravery: Bravery has historically helped people determine hierarchies. People who demonstrate the ability
to be brave in tough situations have historically been seen as leaders.
2. Fairness: Think of terms like "meet in the middle" and the concept of taking turns.
3. Defer to authority: Deferring to authority is important because it signifies that people will adhere to rules that
attend to the greater good. This is necessary for a functioning society.
4. Helping the group: Traditions exist to help us feel closer to our group. This way, you feel more supported, and
a general sense of altruism is promoted.
5. Loving your family: This is a more focused version of helping your group. It's the idea that loving and
supporting your family allows you to raise people who will continue to uphold moral norms.
 6. Returning favors: This goes for society as a whole and specifies that people may avoid behaviors that aren't
generally altruistic.
7. Respecting others’ property: This goes back to settling disputes based on prior possession, which also ties in
the idea of fairness.
Many of these seven morals require deferring short-term interests for the sake of the larger group. People who act
purely out of self-interest can often be regarded as immoral or selfish.
What Are Ethics?
Many scholars and researchers don't differentiate between morals and ethics, and that's because they're very similar.
Many definitions even explain ethics as a set of moral principles.Ethics
The big difference when it comes to ethics is that it refers to community values more than personal values.
Dictionary.com defines the term as a system of values that are "moral" as determined by a community. In general,
morals are considered guidelines that affect individuals, and ethics are considered guideposts for entire larger groups
or communities. Ethics are also more culturally based than morals. For example, the seven morals listed earlier
transcend cultures, but there are certain rules, especially those in predominantly religious nations, that are
determined by cultures that are not recognized around the world.
It's also common to hear the word ethics in medical communities or as the guidepost for other professions that impact
larger groups.
For example, the Hippocratic Oath in medicine is an example of a largely accepted ethical practice. The American
Medical Association even outlines nine distinct principles that are specified in medical settings. These include putting
the patient's care above all else and promoting good health within communities.
11 emphasis on Islam and its principles in International -Islam: Basic Principles and Characteristics
Islam is the religion of truth. It is the embodiment of the code of life which Allah, the Creator and Lord of the
universe, has revealed for the guidance of mankind.
For the proper development of human life, man needs two elements: (a) the resources to maintain life and to fulfill
the material needs of the individual and society, and (b) knowledge of the principles of individual and social
behavior to enable man to fulfill himself and to maintain justice and tranquillity in human life. The Lord of the
universe has provided for both of these in full measure. To cater to the material needs of man, He has put all of
nature's resources at his disposal. To provide for his spiritual, social, and cultural needs, He has raised His prophets
from among men and has revealed to them the code of life that can guide man's steps to the right path. This code
of life is known as Islam, the religion preached by all of the prophets of Allah.
Allah said:
Say, "[0 Muhammad] we believe in Allah and in the Revelation given to us, and to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac Jacob and
the Tribes. We believe in the Revelation that was sent to Moses, Jesus and all other Prophets from their Lord. We make
no distinction between them, and to Him we surrender." (3:83; 2:136)
He has revealed to you (O Muhammad) the scripture with truth, confirming that which was revealed before it even as
He revealed the Torah and the Gospel before as a guide to mankind and has revealed the Criterion (for judging between
right and wrong). (3:3-4)
All of them called humanity to the way of the Lord, the way of submission to Allah. All of them gave the same message,
and all of them stood for the same cause: Islam.
The Meaning of Islam
Islam is an Arabic word that denotes submission, surrender, and obedience. As a religion, Islam stands for complete
submission and obedience to Allah - that is why it is called Islam. The other literal meaning of the word "Islam" is
"peace." This signifies that one can achieve real peace of body and of mind only through submission and obedience
to Allah. Such a life of obedience brings peace of the heart and establishes real peace in society at large.
Those who believe and whose hearts find rest in the remembrance of Allah-indeed it is in the remembrance of Allah
alone that the heart of man finds rest-those who believe and act righteously, joy is for them, and a blissful home to
return to. (13: 28-29)
This message was preached by all the Prophets of Allah, who guided man to the right path. But man not only veered
away from the right path again and again, but also lost or distorted the code of guidance that the prophets had
bequeathed. That was why other prophets were sent to restate the original message and guide man back to the right
path. The last of these prophets was Muhammad, who Presented Allah's guidance in its final form and arranged to
preserve it for all time. It is this guidance that is now known as Islam and is enshrined in the Qur'an and the life-
example (Sunnah) of the Prophet.
The basic Islamic concept is that the whole universe was created by Allah, whom Islam calls Allah, and who is the Lord
and the Sovereign of the universe, which He Alone sustains. He created man and appointed for each human being a
fixed period of life that he is to spend upon the earth. Allah has prescribed a certain code of life as the correct one for
mankind, but has, at the same time, conferred upon man the freedom of choice as to whether or not he adopts this
code as the actual basis of his life. One who chooses to follow the code revealed by Allah becomes a Muslim (believer)
and one who refuses to follow it becomes a kafir (disbeliever).
A man joins the fold of Islam by honestly believing in and professing faith in the oneness of Allah and the prophet hood
of Muhammad. Both of these beliefs are epitomized in the kalimah (the article of faith):
La ilaha illa Allah, Muhammad Rasul Allah. (There is no Allah except Allah; Muhammad is His Prophet.)
The first part of the kalimah presents the concept of tawhid (the oneness of Allah) and its second part affirms the
prophet hood of Muhammad.
Tawhid: The Bedrock of Islam
Tawhid is a revolutionary concept and constitutes the essence of the teachings of Islam. It means that there is only
one supreme Lord of the universe. He is omnipotent, omnipresent and the sustainer of the world and of mankind.
Now can one observe the inexhaustible creativity of nature, its purposefulness, its preservation of that which is morally
useful and destruction of that which is socially injurious, and yet fail to draw the conclusion that behind nature there
is an all-pervading mind of whose incessant creative activity the processes of nature are but outward manifestations?
The stars scattered through infinite space, the vast panorama of nature with its charm and beauty, the regular waxing
and waning of the moon, the astonishing harmony of the seasons - all of these point towards one fact: there is a Allah.
We witness a superbly flawless plan in the universe - can it be without a planner? We see great enchanting beauty and
harmony in its working can they be without a creator? We observe wonderful design in nature can't be without a
designer? We feel a lofty purpose in physical and human existence - can it be without a will working behind it? We
find that the universe is like a superbly written, fascinating book - can it be without an author? Truly, Allah said:
O, Mankind: worship your Lord, Who created you and those before you, so that you may ward off evil; Who has made
the earth a resting place for you, the sky a canopy and Who causes water to pour down from the heavens, thereby
producing fruits as food for you. So do not set up rivals to Allah, when you know better. (Qur'an 2:21-22)
This is the basic tenet to which Muhammad asked humanity to adhere. It is an important metaphysical concept and
answers the riddles of the universe. It points to the supremacy of law in the cosmos and the all-pervading unity behind
the manifest diversity. It presents a unified view of the world and offers the vision of an integrated universe. It is a
mighty contrast to the piecemeal views of the scientists and the philosophers and unveils the truth before the human
eye. After centuries of groping in the dark, man is now coming to realize the truth of this concept, and modern scientific
thought is moving in this direction.
But it is not merely a metaphysical concept: it is a dynamic belief and a revolutionary doctrine. It means that all men
are the creatures of one Allah and that they are therefore all equal. Any discrimination based on color, class, race, or
territory is unfounded and illusory. It is a remnant of the days of ignorance that chained men down to servitude.
Humanity is one single family under Allah, and there can be no sanction for those barriers. Men are one - and not
bourgeois or proletarian, white or black, Aryan or non-Aryan, westerner or easterner. Islam gives us a revolutionary
concept of the unity of mankind. The Prophet came to unite humanity on the word of Allah, which says:
Cling firmly together by means of Allah's rope, and do not be divided. Remember Allah's favor towards you when
you were enemies; He united your hearts so that you became brothers because of His favor. (Qur'an 3:103)
This concept also defines the true position of man in the universe. It says that Allah is the Creator and the Sovereign,
while man is His vicegerent on the earth. This exalts man to the noble and dignified position of being Allah's deputy
on earth and endows his life with a lofty purpose: to fulfill the will of Allah on earth. This will solve all the perplexing
problems of human society and establish a new order wherein equity and justice, as well as peace and prosperity, will
reign supreme.
12 New concept in International Relations
Mirror Diplomacy: A New Concept in International Relations
This little brief ramshackle effort to ever firstly introduce and coined new term or concept “Mirror Diplomacy” in
International Relations which may sooner or later become the part of this wider subject.
Apart from all other definitions of diplomacy, the simple meaning of diplomacy by using my petite and diminutive
knowledge and according to my lenses is “the tactics which are adopted by states aim to acquire or fulfill their national
interests or aim to forestall the adversary either aggressively or (un)aggressively”.
Interestingly, world politics is revolved around ‘Realism” in my perspective. The lust of power, ruled over the weak
states, adoption of corrosive measures, maximization of power, and firmly acquisition of national interests are rooted
in every state’s DNA. Being a strong realist and follower of the realistic school of thought and I have no chairs in my
dining hall for “Liberalism and constructivism” and I have a potent belief that state every, sole and single course of
actions; either improvement relations with other, economic juxtaposition, diplomatic looms towards each other are
associated with their national interests and enhancement of its abilities, capabilities, power and much more relevant
to benefits.
The national interests, enhancement of defensive capabilities, boost-up power which lead towards hegemony are the
rooted in State’s selfish nature, and states adopt different channels to acquire them and these channels can be called
term “Diplomacy”.Remarkably, as like the importance and significance of white and red blood cells in the body, the
national interests of states are significantly important and they adopt different strategies, policies, course of actions
aim to procure them. In International relations wider subject, these looms, strategies, policies can be called as
“Diplomacy”.
In the etymological context, the term “Diplomacy” can be traced from the 18th-century French word “Diplomat” which
is based on the antediluvian Greek term “diploma” which means “double folded paper”, “state paper” which are used
by one state for other ones aim to build-up relations and try to sort out any skirmishes among them according to my
knowledge which may be wrong or true.
It is a long history of Diplomacy. Alongside, many types of Diplomacy are adopted by states i.e. Open diplomacy, Close
diplomacy, appeasement, counterinsurgency diplomacy, economic diplomacy, gunboat diplomacy, hostage
diplomacy, humanitarian diplomacy, migration diplomacy, nuclear diplomacy, para-diplomacy, P2P diplomacy,
preventive diplomacy, cricket diplomacy, Ping-Pong diplomacy, dept.-trap diplomacy, quiet diplomacy, science
diplomacy, soft power diplomacy, city diplomacy, corrosive diplomacy, and much more.
Apart from discussing the elongated history of “Diplomacy”, this piece of writing will introduce or contribute to the
new term “Mirror Diplomacy” in International Relations subject and apply it as a case study of “India-Pakistan
relations”. “Mirror Diplomacy” can be explained that “apart from the notions of asymmetric & lopsided, the adoption
of in-depth “courage” or “eye-to-eye contact”, “face-to-face interaction” with opponents by arising the slogan of “Tit-
for-Tat” and “Action-Reaction (reflection)” is called “Mirror Diplomacy”. Furthermore, states adopt courage or direct
“eye-to-eye contact” with its adversary without thinking the “win or lose” and send a signal to the adversary that if
they attack, the reciprocal action will be more aggressive which may be harsher as the other expected. More precisely,
“Mirror diplomacy” can be related with “deterrence diplomacy (DD) or (D2)”. The lively example of the “Mirror
Diplomacy in the contemporary history is the victory of “Hu Chi Minh” in long Vietnam War and adopt the “mirror
diplomacy” that explains if the state has courage, it can defeat its adversary which is ten times more powerful. The
invasion of the Soviet on Afghanistan and the reciprocally 11 years “tit-for-tat” efforts of Afghans to deter its 100 times
more powerful invader with limited resources is another exceptional example.
History has witnessed that India and Pakistan have animosity since their first day of birth. Moreover, Pakistan has
traditional security threats from India. But it is a very rare example in history that a state with limited resources and
narrow economic power deter the nuclear major power and Pakistan is the example of this. Without discussing the
criticism of critics, Pakistan’s nuclear program and development, attain new munitions is the reciprocal action or
defensive policies or “Mirror” diplomacy which is adopted by Pakistan aims to ensure its existence in South Asia due
to Indian obsessed offensive “Supremacists” nuclear developments, upsurge nuclear stockpiles in a nuclear briefcase,
advancement in the military domain.