Assigment Task
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Assign by : Sr Muhammad Saleem
Submit by : Nimra Robeen
Topic: Theories in Phonology
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Theories in Phonology
Introduction:
Most current phonological theories have arisen out of the linguistics. linguists are
attempting to understand how language is organized in the brain. They have not yet
succeeded.No one theory currently is used by all SLPs.Up to the 1950s, the focus had been
on analysis of what the speaker produced.All current theories are based on the idea of
features as abstract things
stored in the brain It’s believed that what is in the brain and what is produced may not be
same There are some phonological theories, but the twob classical theories are most
important theories.
1. Generative phonology
2. Natural phonology.
Contemporary theories of phonology include following.
3. Optimality theory,
4. Nonlinear phonology,
5. Distinctive features Theory.
All of these are recovering the alternative explanations as well as descriptions of speech
acquisition and SSD in children.
Generative Theory.
It is a branch of phonology that came to prominence b with Chomsky and Halle's (1968)
"Sound Pattern of English" wherein their aim is to eliminate and factor out redundancy from
phonological analyses by using the phonological rules. A set of the phonological rules
applying to underlying forms to the yield surface of phonetic representation. This Theory
is a 1979 book by Michael Kenstowicz and the Charles Kisseberth in which the authors
provides an introduction to phonology in framework of generative grammar. Among the various
instituts of the phonology generative phonology is a well known because it has
become a standard theory against which most other work in phonology has been
measuredand evaluated. Generative phonology includes tenet that underlying phonological
representations are translate into allophones according to the rules of grammar of the
phonological system to create a surface phonetic representation.
A theory based on a system or systems of processes and representations. The theory is
expressed as behavior generated by running the associated system of the processes and
representations.Generative phonology, depends upon Sound Pattern of the English,and
distinctive features, post generative theories.
Rules of Generative phonology.
A subset of the grammatical rules are
the“phonological rules”which describe how it get from phonological representation to the
phonetic representation.
The phonological rules include:
1. Allophonic rules
2. Morpheme structure rules
3. Sequential constraints
4. Morphophonemic rules.
Hayes mentions that Chomsky and Halle's generative rules have the following formal
properties:
1. Generative rules are sequentially ordered re-writing rules (i.e. rules which " change or
transform one symbol into another"). Generative rules " are apply the sequentially,
that is, one after another, rather than applying the simultaneously":
2. This means that each rule creates as its output a new intermediate level of the
representation which serves as input to the next rule.An example of a phonological
rule:Final voiced consonants tend to be devoiced at the ends of words (an allophonic
rule)
[+ cons., +voice] Æ [+cons., -voice]
This theory says that when .we have an idea to express,we choose morphemes we need.
Then we assemble the words into
utterances using the rules of the grammar. This “ plan” then goes to the speech
motor system and is expressed physically
Each element in the lexicon is stored
with details about what features are needed assemble necessary phonemes.
This is “underlying representation”.
The rules specify how phonemes,
Morphemes, words, and the utterances
must be combined to express the idea
in a grammatically correct way.
Distinctive feature features of Generative phonology Theory.
The theory says that phonological rules
make use of distinctive features.
1. Sounds that share features form “natural sound classes”.
2. Natural sound classes are often subject to the same kinds of changes.
According to Chomsky and Halle speech sounds are portrayed as "bundles of the plus
minus valued features". Gussenhoven and Jacobs (2005: 65) state that distinctive features are
"the smallest units of linguistic
structure from which larger units are built"; they are sometimes seen as "attributes by which
phonemes can differ". In a prior attempt, Jensen has mentioned that segments are
composed of features; these features play fundamental rules. They are used to indicate
how segments contrast with each other and what groups of
segments natural classes have in common
DFs, Ogunsiji and the Sunday argue, are considered as an economical model in
generative phonology allowing possibility of writing rules using considerably smaller number
of features than the phonemes of
language.They are grouped to categories according to natural classes of segments they
describe as in the following examples:
1. +anterior p b t d m n f v
2. +voiced b d g а е ð m n
3. +dorosal k g ŋ
Ogunsiji and Sunday (state that in terms of DF matrices, there is a distinction between
maximally specified DF matrix which includes redundancies, and minimally DF matrix
which excludes all redundancies. For example:
1. /p/→ +obstruent, +consonantal, -continuant, -voiced
2. /p/→ +obstruent, +consonantal,- continuant, -voiced, -sonorant,
To sum, the following figure is a generative grammar model of language:
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Natural phonology.
Natural phonology explains why children tend to simplify speech. Additionally, the e nduring
concept from Stampe’s theory of natural phonology is the phonological process. The
term and types of phonological processes is simply used to describe error patterns in
the speech of children Natural phonology suggests that in their desire to communicate,
children simplify what they want to say to make it
possible for them to produce it.Natural Phonology is presented as a functional theory,
where “ functional” means both
focusing on explanation and offering practical applications. As regards the first mean "ing",
Natural Phonology focuses on explanation, on answering the “why” questions rather than
precise description, as formal theories do.This theory assumes that the young of children's
"underlying representations" are just. like an adult's
According to Natural Phonology,“ scientific explanation is directed at gaining in-sight or
understanding” and “to ask for scientific explanation is to ask for one or more reasons
why it is as it is and probably cannot be different” this quote is taken from an author in
no way connected with Natural Phonology.Itclaims that to describe and to formalize does not
mean to explain.
Natural Phonology uses “deductive inferences about grammars based on universal
higher order principles applicable to language as well as to other natural
phenomena”Natural Linguistic preferences are explanatory be cause they are based on non
linguistic, external evidence.
Natural Phonology, a functional theory, is often used to model and explain first and second
language acquisition phenomena and speech therapy issues. This section will show how
the nature of Natural Phonology can be useful in research related to predicting
acquisition patterns in second language phonology.
Feachers and processes:
Natural phonology assumes that children’s speech is governed by a large number of natural
phonetic constraints where as adults have learned to suspend many of these constraints
and there by enjoy the benefits of a more complex phonological system. In each
language, mature speakers have learned to suspend certain constraints, but leave others
unaffected The set of unaffected constraints varies from one language to another this
often has striking effects when a word borrowed from one of the language into another A
significant problem with this theory is
that errors can sometimes be described
with more than one process:
E.g., /fɪks/ Æ /fik/ could be "cluster reduction" or "stridency deletion".
We try to resolve by determining which process is more frequent
Major Rules:
Like Generative Phonology’s “rules”, the processes presented by the Natural
Phonology are only .descriptions of what
is being observed. The Phonological development learning to suppress the natural
processes. Phonological disorders delay , inability to suppress the processes
Children with phonological disorders may:
• Retain early ‘typical’ processes.
• Demonstrate systematic sound
preferences.
• Use unusual processes.
• Exhibit variable process use.
Substitution processes
(one sound class is replaced by another), e.g.
• Stopping:
substitution of a stop for a
continuant sound e.g., /sʌn/ Æ /tʌn/.
• Fronting:
substitution of a front sound for a
back sound e.g., /wit/ for /wik/ .
Assimilatory processes.
(sounds change so they are like
another sound in the word), e.g.
• velar assimilation
• labial assimilation
Several broad categories of processes
• Syllable structure processes (change
the number or shape of syllables in
the word), e.g.
• Weak syllable deletion
• Final consonant deletion
Natural Phonology consists in the theory’s focus on explanation, and practical
applications. It has been argued in this paper that the basis for a discussion of
usefulness of any theoretical approach is agreement on the goals of research. It has been
shown that the methods of the study of the language and the approach taken, formalist or
functionalist, determine what goals we can aim.
Optimality theory,
The theory was developed in the early 90s by Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky. Since
Optimality Theory has been a topic of interest and has been constantly and
continuously further developed. Optimality theory is based on the idea that there is a set of
constraints that are universal to all languages and these constraints are the ranked and are
violable. The interaction of these constraints is what regulates output. These'forces' are
embodied byconstraints, each of which makes a requirement about some aspect of grammatical
output forms. Constraints are typically conflicting, in the sense that to satisfy one constraint
implies the violation of another.
Features of optimality theory:
This introduction to featural patterns in Optimality Theory begins by identifying the
fundamental function of speech sounds, their role in providing access to meaning. The
simplest and most effective way of identifying meanings is to have a unique and invariant
phonological address for every distinct meaning. The simplest and most effective way of
identifying meanings is to have a unique and invariant phonological address for
every distinct meaning. Hearing a particular set of the sounds from some of the language
would invariably direct speaker of that language to a particular meaning. But such a simple
mapping of sounds onto meanings is not what we observe in natural language. The complexity
that is actually found in sound systems results from the need to reconcile the demands of
conflicting constraints on the organization of speech sounds. This chapter focuses on
identifying some of these constraints, and showing how Optimality Theory can resolve
conflicts between them.
Major Rules:
There are two main principles within Optimality Theory. The first guideline is that the
constraints are universal. In addition, all constraints are present in the grammar of every
language. Using these two rules, it is possible to explain that the only difference among
world's languages is constraint ranking. Since its introduction, there has been considerable
debate as to whether the supposed universality of the constraints is feasible
Nonlinear phonology.
A broad group of theories are called as nonlinear phonological theories Developed since
the 1970s but only recently being considered in SLP research and practice.s called as
nonlinear phonological theories.
Nonlinear phonologies is important to the understanding and explanation of true
phonology. It's developmental strides on the growth of our pet science and one is like egg
and the other the hen. Nonlinear theories are necessary, especially in the accounting for
the prosody and complex segments. Thus, nonlinear representation and formalism have
more explanatory
advantage.All nonlinear and linear theories prove useful and together provide fuller
programmes that clearly define the field of phonology and also phonetics.
Features:
Generative ,Natural Phonology assume that speech is assembled in the brain and produced
in a sequential (linear) fashion.
Only focused on the individual speech sounds or their features.
Assume that all features and sounds are equal.
Later researchers recognized that features may also be arranged in a hierarchy which is
a series of the levels or “tiers”.
Really just an extension of the idea that
phonemes consist of features. nonlinear phonologies claim the existence of more than one
line, and the autonomy of elements on the parallel lines.
Exemplars of nonlinear theories
Before SPE and its precursor theories, a purely linear theory ofphonological
representation has been found inadequate Research that lead up to the establishment of
nonlinear theoriesbegan with the Autosegmental phonology made popular by John
Goldsmith’s PhD dissertation of 1976.
Other nonlinear theories include but the Metricalphonology, Feature Geometry, and
Optimality Theory. Considering thepeculiarities of our Nigeria linguistic ecology, we shall
discussnonlinearity in respect to namely, Autosegmentalphonology in view of our tonal
languages and Metrical phonology inview of stress in English language.
Metrical Phonology as nonlinear theory
Like Autosegmental phonology, Metrical phonology is another theory of Generative Phonology
that is the nonlinear. While Autosegmental phonology was primarily developed because
of tonology, which is not inadequately accounted for in earlier
theory Metrical phonology was developed to handle the relational concept which stress
represents.Thus Metrical phonology naturally concern stress, so we need certain
familiarity with the phenomenon of stress, to the better understand Metrical phonology.
Distinctive features Theory
The term ‘distinctive features’ is used in phonology to refer to the minimal units of sound
that serve to distinguish the meaning of one word from another within a language.
Distinctive features generally correspond to a specific articulatory or acoustic property
of sound.The central idea behind distinctive feature theory is the notion that contrasts
between phonemes can be most elegantly and insightfully described in terms of
properties. of segments rather than by treating segments as alphabetic atoms. For example,
if one identifies voicing as a distinctive feature, then it is possible to say not only that a
language contrasts the phonemes /p/, /b/, /t/, and /d/ but also that the contrast between
/p/ and /b/ is in some sense the same as, or a t least parallel to, the contrast
between /t/ and /d/. The early history of distinctive feature theory is thus bound up with
related issues, such as the definition of the phoneme, and, because many features are
defined in articulatory or auditory terms, the relation between the phonology and phonetics.
Throughout the history of distinctive feature theory, a major goal has been to identify a set of
features that is adequate for describing the segmental contrasts and phonologically
important segment groups observed in the world’s languages.
Proponents of this theory believe that
phonemes are stored in the brain as
“bundles of features”. Like phonemes, features are considered to be abstract mental
notions. Features are called “distinctive” because they allow us to distinguish among
phonemes. These Features may be based on:
1. Acoustic properties (e.g., strident, voice).
2. Articulatory properties (e.g., high, back,lateral, coronal).
3. Function in a syllable (e.g., consonantal, vocalic).
When we describe speech sounds, we
use terms like, place, manner, voicing,
tongue height, lip rounding, tenseness. When we specify of these descriptions, we are
defining the articulatory features of the particular sound. In this theory the basic unit is the
feature not the phoneme
These features can't be broken into smaller units. These Features are binary all
phonemes either have [+] or don't have [-] a particular feature. Several feature systems have
been proposed. This theory could potentially help us clinically. If we look at features rather
than phonemes
errors that look unique at the phoneme level may actually have a common basis.
What looks like several errors may actually be a common problem of not having learned
a single feature.
For example.
child’s errors may all be on [+] strident
sounds or on [+] continuant sounds.
Two phones are different phonemes if
at least one of their features is different.
● / p / = + consonantal, + anterior, - voice
● •/ b / = + consonantal, + anterior, + voice
●
Consider the following minimal pairs:
• pin – bin; pin – sin; pin – gin
Are these minimal pairs equivalent?
• Differ on varying numbers of features:
• pin – bin (1; voicing).
• pin – sin (2; place, manner).
• pin – gin (3; place, manner & voicing).
Such pairs are equivalent for the most
current clinical approaches. But if children really are learning features perhaps they should not
be considered equivalent. The “maximal oppositions” approach assumes they are not more
later.
IPA chart of distinctive features.
In developments to the theory of distinctive features, phonologists have proposed the
existence of single valued features. These features, called univalent or privative features,
can only describe the classes of segments that are said to possess those features, and not
the classes that are without them.
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