MESOPOTAMIA (Cradle of Civilization)

OVERVIEW

Mesopotamia is one of the earliest centers of urban civilization, in the area of modern Iraq and eastern
Syria between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

As the Tigris and Euphrates flow south out of Turkey, they are 400 km (250 mi) apart; the Euphrates runs
south and east for 1,300 km (800 mi) and the Tigris flows south for 885 km (550 mi) before they join,
reaching the Persian Gulf as the Shatt al Arab waterway. Known as the "cradle of civilization,"
Mesopotamia served as the site for some of the world's earliest settlements. Named after the Greek
word meaning "between the rivers," Mesopotamia occupied the area between the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers that now constitutes the greater part of Iraq. The Sumerian civilization, which began. in the region
in about 3500 BC, built a canal system and the world's first cities.

Before the era of western expansionism, Southwest Asian history maybe. divided into three general
periods: the ancient period (3500BC-500BC); the Classical Age (500BC-600AD) and the Islamic Age
(600AD-1250AD).

The Ancient Civilization

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

After having gone through this lesson, the students will be able to:

Trace the history of the ancient civilization of Asia;

Name the different empires in Mesopotamia; and Explain the roles of the different empires the
development of West Asia.

OVERVIEW
The ancient period started with the rise of Sumerian city-states in the Tigris Euphrates valley. The
Sumerians laid the foundations of the Mesopotamian civilization. The Akkadians, Babylonians, and the
Assyrians who erected the first empires in the valley gave their own contributions to this civilization.

Economic progress led to progress in various fields of human endeavor. It also led to a greater degree of
specialization and social stratification. Political and social institutions emerged as means of organizing
and administering the work of and the relations among people.

Religions and their early practitioners led the way in developing, the arts,

Literature, and the sciences. The interactions of various aspects of human society

Are clearly noticeable in the development of the Southwest Asian civilization.

The Rise of Sumerian Cities

During the 5th millennium B.C., a people known as the Ubaidians established settlements in the region
known later as Sumer; these settlements gradually developed into the chief Sumerian cities, namely
Adab, Eridu, Isin, Kish, Kullab, Lagash, Larsa, Nippur, and Ur. Several centuries later, as the Ubaidian
settlers prospered, Semites from Syrian and Arabian deserts began to infiltrate, both as peaceful
immigrants and as raiders in quest of booty. After about 3250 BC, another people migrated from its
homeland, located probably northeast of Mesopotamia, and began to intermarry with the native
population. The newcomers, who became known as Sumerians, spoke an agglutinative language
unrelated apparently to any other known language

Mesanepada, who founded the so-called first dynasty of Ur and made Sumer as its capital.

The first Sumerian ruler of historical record, Etana, king of Kish (2800 BC), was described in a document
written centuries later as the "man who stabilized all the lands" and the last Sumerian ruler was
Lugalzagesi, the most powerful ruler of the Middle East.

Early Religion
The Sumerians believed in so many gods. This belief is known as polytheism. Each city-state considered
itself the property of one of the gods. Based on their belief, this god is the one who chose the ruler and
protect the city. The chosen rulers were responsible for keeping orders and to oversee building projects,
food storage and irrigation system.

In each city, people build a large brick temple called ziggurat to provide

home for their god.

Early Writings

The Sumerians devised a system of record keeping using clay tablets With a sharp pointed stick, a
Sumerian scribe pressed wedge-shape symbols into a square tablet of damp clay. This form of writing is
called cuneiform. The completed tablets were dried up or baked and then, stored in their library. By the
23rd century BC the power of the Sumerians had declined to

such an extent that they could no longer defend themselves against foreign

invasion. At the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Ur stands this ziggurat (mudbrick religious
temple towers). Built for the moon god Nanna, the ziggurat dates from the 2100s BC and stands 21 m
(70 ft) high.

The Akkadians

The Semitic ruler Sargon I (reigned about 2335-2279 BC), called The Great,

Succeeded in conquering the entire country. Sargon founded a new capital,

Called Agade, in the far north of Sumer and made it the richest and most powerful city in the world. The
people of northern Sumer and the conquering invaders, fusing gradually, became known ethnically and
linguistically as Akkadians. The land of Sumer acquired the composite name Sumer and Akkad. The
Akkadian dynasty lasted about a century. During the reign of Sargon’s
Grandson, Naram-Sin fr. About 2255-2218 BC), the Gutians, a belligerent people

From the Zagros Mountains, sacked and destroyed the city of Agade. They

Conquered and destroyed the whole of Sumer.

After several generations the Sumerians threw off the Gutian yoke. The city of Lagash again achieved
prominence, particularly during the reign of Gudea (2144-2124 BC), an extraordinarily pious and capable
governor. Because numerous statues of Gudea have been recovered, he has become the Sumerian best
known to the modern world. The Sumerians achieved complete independence from the Gutians when
Utuhegal, king of Erech (reigned about 2120-2112 BC), won a decisive victory later celebrated in
Sumerian literature.

One of Utuhegal’s generals, Ur-Nammu (2113-2095 BC), founded the 3 rd Dynasty of Ur. In addition to
being a successful military leader, he was also a social reformer. Ur-Nammu’s son Shulgi (2095-2047 BC)
was a successful soldier, a skillful diplomat, and a patron of literature. During schools and academies of
the kingdom flourished. Reign the

Before the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, the Amorites, Semitic

Nomads from the desert to the west of Sumer and Akkad, invaded the kingdom.

They gradually became masters of such important cities as Isin and Larsa. The

Resultant widespread political disorder and confusion encouraged the Elamites

To attack (2004 BC) Ur and to take into captivity its last ruler, Ibbi-Sin (2029

2004 BC).

The Babylonians
In 1792 BC, Hammurabi of Babylon united the country for a few years. Hammurabi (18 th century BC),
king of Babylonia, and the greatest ruler in the first Babylonian dynasty extended his empire northward
from the Persian Gulf through the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys and westward to the coast of the
Mediterranean Sea. After consolidating his gains under a central government at Babylon, he devoted his
energies to protecting his frontiers and fostering the internal prosperity of the empire. Throughout his
long reign he personally supervised navigation, irrigation, agriculture, tax collection, and the erection of
many temples and other buildings. Although he was a successful military leader and administrator,
Hammurabi is primarily remembered for his codification of the laws governing Babylonian life.

A raid launched in around 1595 BC by the Hittites from Turkey brought Babylon down, and for four
centuries it was controlled by non-Semitic Kassites. Ashur fell to the Mitanni state, set up by Hurrians
from the Caucasus, who were presumably relatives of the Armenians. The Hurrians had been in
Mesopotamia for centuries, but after 1700 BC they spread in large numbers across the whole of the
north and into Anatolia. The Assyrians About 1500 BC, Assyria became a dependency of Mitanni, a
kingdom of imperial proportions that had extended its sway over all northern Mesopotamia. Assyria
remained in subjection until early in the 14th century, when the Mitanni Kingdom suffered a serious
defeat at the hands of the rising empire of the Hittites to the north. Taking advantage of the ensuing
confusion, the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I (reigned 1364-1328 BC) freed Assyria from the Mitanni yoke
and even annexed some of its territory. Under Tiglath Pilser 1 (1114-1076), the Assyrians ruled over a
huge territory from the Mediterranean coast up to Turkey. Tiglath Pilser's successors were unable to
maintain the empire By 912 BC, Assyria returned to just being another kingdom occupying a small
territory. The Assyrian recovery took place under the rule of Ashumnasirpal II (883 859 BC). He
reorganized the army which he led in reinvading the neighboring kingdoms, particularly Syria and
Palestine and made Calah as its capital. During the rule of Sennacheribs's grandson, Ashurbanipal (ruled
669-627 BC) who assumed the title "King of the World" the Assyrian Empire reached its Golden Age in
art, architecture, literature and science. A huge library was founded over 20,000 fragments of books
written on mud slabs have survived to this day. In order to flaunt Assyrian power, Sennacherib founded
a new capital, the city of Nineveh. The construction of this city was so remarkable. It has a wide streets
and parks surrounded by a double wall and a moat with a circumference of about eight miles. In order
to ensure that the moat was always filled with water, an aqueduct or water-bridge was constructed to
bring in water from a river about 30 miles away from Nineveh. After Ashurbanipal's death, the Assyrian
empire lost its central authority. and many kingdom succeeded in breaking away from its rule. In
Arakpha, the Babylonians and their allies defeated the Assyrian army led by its leader Nabopolasar.
Because the rich city represented the hated authority empire, it was ruthlessly destroyed by the Medes
and the Chaldeans. With the fall of Nineveh, the Assyrian empire fell, never to rise again. of the Assyrian
The Chaldeans (New Babylon) With the fall of the Assyrian empire, its territories were divided by the
Medes and the Chaldeans. The territories in the south and west went to the Chaldeans who founded a
new dynasty in Babylon. Under Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562), the city of Babylon was rebuilt and
surrounded by a double wall thirteen feet thick with a circumference of 11 miles. During
Nebuchadnezzar's rule, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon was built as a gift to his Medean wife Amyitis.
The garden was referred to as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Trade prospered and boats plied
the Euphrates River up to the Persian Gulf in order to buy products from Arabia and India. On land, the
trade routes extended north to Turkey, west to Syria and east to Persia. Babylon's primary trade goods
were wool, woven cloth and barley. Babylonian astronomers studied the skies and drew up a star map.
They gave name to newly discovered planets and calculated solar and lunar eclipses. Nebuchadnezzar
continued the Assyrian tradition of conquest. In 586 BC, the Babylonian invaded Judah and seized
Jerusalem. Thousands of Jews were captured into slavery. Nebuchadnezzar died in early October 562 BC
and was succeeded by his son Amel-Marduk (the biblical Evil-Merodach). Hanging Gardens of Babylon
This hand-colored engraving by 16th century Dutch artist Maarten van Heemskerck depicts the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Technically, the gardens did not hang, but
grew on the roofs and terraces of the royal palace in Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar II, the Chaldean king,
probably built the gardens in about 600 BC as a consolation to his Median wife who missed the natural
surroundings of homeland. Nabonidus (reigned 556-539 BC), the last Babylonian king, rebuilt the old
Sumerian capital of Ur, including the ziggurat of Nanna, rival to the ziggurat Etemenanki at Babylon. It
survived well and its facing of brick has recently been restored.

Mesopotamian Government

Basis of organization was no longer the clan and tribe of the primitive villages Man had imposed order
on himself as well as on nature Politically, the but a territorial unit with definite geographical
boundaries. The authority of the state was vested in a king.

According to the belief shared by Sumerian empires, the well-being of his community depended entirely
upon the favor of the gods. According to their beliefs, the patron deity owned not only the city itself and
all its inhabitants but also its farms, orchards and outlying towns. Entrusted with the rule of this
celestially owned property was a mortal, a

King presumably approved by the god to serve as his earthly representative. Some of the duties of a king
were:

• To defend his city and his lands from enemy attacks and to extend its territory, domination and
influence; was the building

As head of the clergy, one of his sacred obligation

And repairing of temples:

Oversees public works. Promote and preserve law and justice.

Social Stratification

Society in Sumer was composed of three distinct classes: the aristocrats; the commoners and the slaves.

The aristocrats were composed of a number of rich and powerful families from which came the temple’s
more important priests and from which the ruler drew his counselors, ambassadors, generals and other
high ranking officials

The commoners, considered as the backbone of society, were composed of productive workers-the
architects, scribes and merchants, cattle breeders,

Fishermen, potters and brick makers. Many of these possessors of specialized skills or occupations were
employed by the wealthiest landlords in town. At the bottom of society were the slaves. The slaves are
property of the

Temple, the palace or the wealthy estates.

Religious Beliefs

The gods were ranked hierarchically according to their importance. Influence and power. Greatest of all
were the gods in control of the four major realm of the universe. An, god of heaven, Enlil, the air-god,
Enki, the water-god. And Ninhursag, the great mother-earth goddess. These four were the supreme
deities, who planned and created the components of the universe, and placed

Them in the charge of one or another of their offspring, the administrative gods. Religion undoubtedly
played a central role in Mesopotamian life. It was the source of inspiration of magnificent temples,
impressive sculpture, decorative steles and plaques, picturesque inlay, attractively engraved cylinder
seals Its rites and rituals were so impressive that they were echoed by most of the ancient world for
several millennia. Above all, in that early time when powerful natural forces were utterly inexplicable to
fearful humans, their religion gave perspective and order to the lives of the people of Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamians believed that the dead descended to a gloomy underworld. Based on the epic
Gilgamesh, an unknown Babylonian poet described the underworld as a huge dark cave where they sit
in darkness, where dust is there food and clay their meat. Mesopotamian Laws Rulers in Mesopotamia
were expected to carry out the wishes of their gods. Hence, these rulers prepare laws and written in
cuneiform. Accordingly, the first written law came from Ur Nammu who ruled Ur about 2100 B.C
Hammurabi, the ruler of Babylon, had the laws of the kingdom collected and organized. Women had
fewer rights than men but they can own property and ran some shops and inns. Laws protected
Mesopotamian wives from abuse and neglect and made sure that they received payments if they were
divorced. However, a wife might be forced into slavery to pay back her husband's debt Ancient Health
Practices in Mesopotamia Ancient Mesopotamia believed in a spectrum of illnesses. At opposite ends of
the spectrum were illnesses caused by evil spirits and illnesses caused by physical problems such as
worm. A medicine man decides to which end of the spectrum the illnesses lay. If the sickness is caused
by evil spirits, the patient is sent to an exorcist. If it is physical, the patient is sent to a herbalist. The
Sumerians, Amorites, Babylonians and Assyrians, in turn, were able to develop their medicines. They
carried out surgery, washed and bandaged wounds and used hundreds of remedies. In Babylonia,
physicians probably remove eyelid cysts and cut blood vessels, a common treatment over the ages
using few surgical tools. Metal surgical instruments were used 4,500 years ago in Mesopotamia. Assyrian
stone tablets that came from Nineveh dating back from about 700 B.C. reveals details of several
stomach disorders and recommended various medical remedies. Healing were practiced by priests who
learned their trade from thousands of inscribed clay tablets in the city's library of Ashurbanipal named
after the Assyria ruler. King Hamurabbi, ruler of Babylon between 1792 and 1750 B.C. established a set
of laws called the Code, which have been preserved on a stone slab. There were seventeen laws related
to medicine were written .

Contributions of Other Cultures

The traditions of Mesopotamia affected the lives of other Peoples and were in turn affected by them.
Some of these cultures were: influenced by the Egyptians;

Absolute monarchy as Cosmopolitanism as introduced by the Arameans;

Trade and commerce from the Phoenicians;

Techniques of iron-working as displayed by the Hittittes;

Concept of human life and religious traditions contributed by the Hebrews;

Advances in mathematics and astronomy.

The Classical Age

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

After having gone through this lesson, the students will be able to: Relate the rise and fall of the
Achaemenian Empire; • Analyze the Hellenistic government of Alexander the Great in Asia; and

. Explain the birth of Christianity in Asia.

OVERVIEW

The emergence of at least four great empires which held sway over the whole of Southwest Asia for
over a thousand years characterized the classical age. The Persians, the Macedonian Greeks, the
Romans and, then, the Persians again succeeded each other in imposing their will over various cultures
and peoples of Southwest Asia. Even their great progress was made in every aspect of human society
under the rule of the Achaemeneid Empire of Persia, the Macedonian Greek Empire of Alexander the
Great, the Roman Empire and the Persian Sassanid Empire.

The Achaemenian Empire

In 539 BC the Neo-Babylonian kingdom fell to the Persian Achaemeneid king Cyrus the Great.
Mesopotamia became part of the Persian Empire, and a royal palace was built at Babylon, which was
made one of the empire’s administrative capitals. Among the remains from Babylon of the time of
Alexander the Great, the conqueror of the Persian Empire, is a theater he built at the site known now as
Humra. The brilliance of Babylon was ended about 250 BC when the inhabitants of Babylon moved to
Seleucia, built by Alexander’s successors.

Under the Persians, Mesopotamia became the satrapies of Babylon and Ashur. The Aramaic language,
widely spoken earlier, became the common language, and the imperial government brought stability.
Persian kings ruled the crossroads were Asia, Africa, and Europe met-from the edge of the Indus Valley
to the European shores of the Hellespont, from Central Asia to Egypt.

Government
The central government, with its council of state and handful of high officials, moved with the king
among the capitals Persepolis, Susa and Echatana. A rudimentary bureaucracy supervised the subjects.
Cyrus and Darius divided their empire into about twenty satrapies, each governed by a Persian satrap
who exacted tribute, kept order and manipulated the barbarians on the frontiers. Although the satraps
were virtually deputy kings, yet fellow officials and inspectors watched their loyalty. A great network of
roads and

Post houses bound together the empire. The Persians were relatively lenient to their subjects so long as
tribute. And outward obedience were forthcoming. They permitted local political and religion autonomy.
The Jews, who benefited from this policy to establish their theocratic state at Jerusalem, praised their
Persian overlords more than any

Others they ever had.

Religion

The religion of the Achaemenid Persians developed from that of the early Iranians. It was polytheistic
but developed a strong trend in the direction of the worship of one god, Ahura-Mazda. The great
religious prophet of Iranian religion was Zoroaster, a contemporary of Cyrus the Great. Zoroaster
converted a local leader in Northern Iran (Parthia) about 550 BC. This ruler became a satrap under
Darius and by the time of the last Achaemenid, Zoroastrianism became the leading religion of the
Iranian aristocracy. In the Zoroastrian view, this world is very real and man is set in its center

To serve as redeemer and perfecter. Zoroaster saw life as a ceaseless struggle

Between the forces of good personified in Ahura-Mazda, and the forces of evil

Personified in Ahriman. This concept of dualism, the constant battle between

Good and evil in all spheres of life, remained the salient feature of religious

Thought in Iran.
Zoroastrianism has been called an imperfect monotheism which in its ethical precepts was at that time
almost as advanced as Judaism. Zoroastrianism did not manifest itself in the building of great temples.
The use of simple open air altars, the lighting of fires and animal sacrifices formed the principal rituals.

The Fall of the Achaemeneid

In 525 BC, Darius I consolidated the Persian Empire by establishing a strong and effective administrative
organization throughout the region. His attempt to subdue the Greek city-states, however, was stopped
by the Athenians at Marathon in 490 BC. A subsequent expedition, this time by Xerxes, met a series of
defeats at Salamis, Plataea, Mycale, and Sestos. From then on, the Greeks were on the offensive. The
Macedonian Greek, Alexander the Great, overthrew the Achaemeneids in 321 BC, after a thirteen years
campaign.

The Hellenistic World

After Alexander the Great’s conquest in 331 BC, The Greeks became the

Dominant force in the region and produced the new Hellenistic culture, a fusion

Of Greek and Asian cultures. Alexander, however, did not live long enough to consolidate his conquests
Alexander’s marshals speedily fell to war among themselves to claim their master’s inheritance. Though
many were highly capable, none was successful in the end in taking the whole empire. Within a
generation, it fell into three

Major groupings: the Ptolemaic Kingdom covering Egypt and south of Syria,

The Macedonian Kingdom in Europe, and the Seleucid Kingdom in Asia.

The self-made monarch suffered instability in governing their constituents. The mercenary armies
composed of Greek and Macedonian stocks were not always loyal which resulted in armed conflicts over
succession. The soldiers also desired the booty of conquest and so fostered the curse of interstate
warfare
Government

Whereas the Greek ideals had been that of the republican city-state, the new kingdoms were, for the
most part, ruled by absolute monarchs who drew on the traditions of Middle Eastern monarchy. As
shepherds of the people, the kings gave much the same things that were expected from the gods and
often were deified or at least were felt to be under divine protection.

The kings, for the most part, sought to govern well and to improve their domains. To aid in their
government, the monarchs turned primarily to Greeks and Macedonians, who remodeled the
bureaucracies of the older civilizations in accord with rational principles. Natives who are willing and
able to adopt Greek ways might take part in the new bureaucracies, which used Greek as the language
of government. By and large, the Hellenistic world was one where a Greek belonging to the upper, layer
governed the masses or the natives. This situation became a source of eventual weakness as the natives
became fully aware of the new intensity of exploitation.

Economy

The basic economic activity is agriculture. The introduction of modern techniques and animals saw
improvement in commerce and industry. The main centers of this activity were Corinth. Rhodes,
Antioch, Seleucia in Mesopotamia, and Alexandria, From these points, trade routes radiated out by land
and sea. The Mediterranean and Middle East were being drawn together in an economic unit based on
Greek standards of coinage and business.

Religion

In many regions, majority of the population continued in long accustomed ways, with the worship of
their own gods, and speaking in their own tongues In Iran, there was much Greek influence. Yet,
Zoroastrian Mazdaism had its adherents especially among the princess of Fars. In Palestine, the Hebrews
resisted vigorously. Seleucid attempts to enforce Jewish worship of Greek gods were unsuccessful and
served only to strengthen anti-Greek feeling and the Jews’ religious and racial isolation. The
cosmopolitan character of Hellenistic civilization remained foreign to the greater part of the population
of Western Asia.

The Persians and the Roman Empire in Asia

Rome, at the height of her power governed not only a large part of Europe together with the north coast
of Africa, but was also an important power in Asia. After the expansion under Pompey, the Roman
power was in contact with the Parthian empire in Iran. The Romans attempted to subdue the Parthians
but they were met with stiff resistance. The two empires competed for control in certain strategic
border areas, especially Armenia. The political status of Armenia was important to Rome, but during
most of the Republic and the empire, this country remained under the political and cultural influence of
Iran

Behind the Armenian and Mesopotamian frontiers, the Romans established an empire. During most of
their period of control in Asia, the urban life coming from Hellenic times and earlier was continued.
Later, in the face. Of economic crisis in the 3rd century AD, the Roman central government took over
administration and the old urban life of the Graeco-Roman world came to an end.

East-West Influence

Asian ideas permeated the Mediterranean world. An important instance in the political sphere was the
deification of the Emperor. This idea originated in Asia Minor and was transmitted to the Romans
through the example of Alexander and the later Greek tradition.

Influences from the Mediterranean also spread eastward under Roman

Rule. In the realm of philosophy, Platonic ideas became mixed with Oriental

Mysticism. The Roman sphere in Asia, from the beginning, included the land

Of Judea. It was during the time of Roman control in Palestine that Jesus of

Nazareth lived and preached in the area.

The Birth of Christianity When Rome controlled Palestine, Jesus Christ had been preaching in the area to
spread Christianity. The emergence and rapid growth of Christianity depended mostly on his followers.
More clearly than in any pagan philosophy or religion, the followers of Christ shared a radically different
concept of man. Each was an individual with a soul of his own. He came to the church in the early days
through his own deliberate seeking for salvation; yet in the church he was grouped with his fellow-
believers in the physical bond of the church services and in the spiritual ties of charity and brotherly
love. When Jesus commanded his followers to love God and to love their neighbors as themselves, he
laid down laws which were remarkably divergent from pagan thought.

Christians deemed themselves endowed with free-will so that the problem of salvation lay at least partly
in their own hands. Christians were also linked firmly and submissively to the will of God the Father, and
had a promise of salvation in the voluntary sacrifice of his only begotten Son.

The Rise of the Sassanid

While Christianity was expanding in the Mediterranean area and becoming established as a national
faith in Armenia, the people of Iran were little influenced. A strong indigenous Persian tradition dating
back to the Achaemenians continued in Parthian times and resulted in a new imperial dynasty whose
religion and politics were distinctively Iranian and apart from the Mediterranean world.

In Persia, Iran’s most strongly Zoroastrian Mazdaist region, a successful revolt against Parthian
supremacy resulted in the establishment of a new imperial line. Ardashir 1 (226-240 AD) was the first
king of the Sassanid dynasty (225-651) The Parthians fell (AD 224) to the Sassanids, whose domain
extended

From the Euphrates to present-day Afghanistan. Effective government with

A hierarchy of officials and improved irrigation canals and drainage brought

Prosperity.

Sassanian Government

The Sassanian organized their governmental structure emphasizing close cooperation of the throne and
the Zoroastrian priesthood. Ardashir I founded his power upon a combination of church and state.
The principal organ of the central administration was the bureau (diwan). For purposes of local
administration, the empire was divided into four toparchies Each was headed by a Shah who was of
royal rank. However, they were subordinated with the Sassanid king. Those who were possibly in line to
succeed the Great King were prepared and tested by being assigned to rule a toparchy.

Beliefs

Orthodox Zoroastrianism as it emerged in the Sassanian period emphasized the role of Ahura Mazda,
the god of light and righteousness. Sassanian Mazdaism emphasized the struggle between good and evil,
the veneration of earth and water especially of fire.

In its ethics, truthfulness, brotherly love, moderation and respect for property were to be enforced by
well-defined punishments. Most of these teachings were not new in Iran. But the codifying and the
ecclesiastical organization had not been accomplished before.

Social Class

The Sassanian government ruled over a society with a definite stratification. Uppermost were priests
and officials, then warriors, then intellectuals of various kinds such as scribes, and lastly, workers, who
comprised the great mass of the population.

Although these classes were neither as elaborate nor as rigid as the caste system of India, movement
from one category to another was very difficult. In theory, a change could be made with the express
permission of the king. There were various injunctions on the evils of class intermingling, and

There were institutionalized differentiations in dress and possessions to

Emphasize distinctions.

The Islamic Age

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After having gone through this lesson, the students will be able to:

Explain the rise of Mohammad in Asia; Study the development of islam in Asia; and

Identify the social classes of the Umayyad.

OVERVIEW

BY 600 AD, the Empires and Kingdoms that used to dominate Southwest Asia had weakened
considerably. The Romans took the eastern part and established the Byzantine Empire, trying to
maintain its position in the region. The Sassanid Empire, on the other hand, is gaining headway and is
already ripe for growth and development. In 630 AD, Mohammad established himself as the religious
and temporal leader of Arabia. After his death the four Medinian caliphs who succeeded him established

A unified Moslem Empire in Southwest Asia by defeating the Sassanid in 630 AD and

By wresting control of the Mediterranean from the Byzantine in 655 AD.

The Rise of Mohammad

The first significant fact in Mohammad’s manhood was his marriage at the age of twenty-five to a
wealthy high-minded widow named Khadijah. The economic security he acquires enabled the young
man to pursue his inclination to meditate in an isolated cave on a barren hill outside of Mecca. In his
meditation, he had the opportunity to reflect upon the doubts and problems

In his mind. It was in the cave that he received his first revelation. His early message was, “God is one.
He is all powerful, creator of heaven and earth. There is a day of reckoning with splendid rewards for the
righteous and terrible

Punishment for the wicked.”

Mohammad was able to convert some. However, he encountered stiff opposition from the aristocratic
branch of his own tribe, the Quaraysh, who served as custodians of the heathen Kaaba religion.

In 622 AD, around two hundred followers eluded the vigilance of the Quaraysh and slipped quietly to
Medina. Mohammad followed and became the head of the group. This was the turning point in his
career. After seventeen years, the Prophet assumed several roles: warrior, legislator, judge and civil
administrators. He led his group against the Medinese Jews, Meccan Quarayshites, and other enemiest
He broke off with Juadaism and Christianity. As well as Arabian heathenism. He replaced the Sabbath to
Friday.

At 630 AD, Mohammad entered Mecca triumphantly and rushed to the great Kaaba and smashed the
three hundred and sixty idols.

The Islamic Religion

The system of beliefs and practices instituted by Mohammad, of which is enshrined in the Koran, was
Islam, meaning to surrender or Islam, the religion of surrender and submission to the will of God. The
basic dogma is expressed in the euphonious formula: “La ilaha illa-l-lah” meaning “No God whatever

But Allah.” The Koran, according to Islam, contains the words of God which is uncreated, co-eternal, and
in its Arabic form identical with a heavenly original.

The religious duty of a Moslem is covered under the 5 Pillars of Islam: 1. Profession of faith that No God
whatever but Allah and Mohammad is

The messenger of Allah; 2. Prayer,

3. Almsgiving as a manifestation of piety and love,

4. Fasting and abstinence from food, smoking and sexual intercourse is

Ordained during Ramadhan;

5. Visit to the holy city of Mecca.

Mohammad’s Successor

After Mohammad’s death, Abu Bakr became his successor and was given the title Caliph. The Caliph was
regarded as the defender of the Faith. As a

Leader, he governed in accordance with the law as stipulated in the Koran.

The Umayyad Administration

The administrative divisions of the caliph empire under the Umayyads were based on the provincial
system of the Byzantine and Persian Empires. With certain modifications. Syria and Palestine went
together. Iraq and Persia together with eastern Arabia formed a vie-royalty having Kufa as capital.
Northern Mesopotamia went with Armenia. Egypt constituted a vice-royalty by itself and so as North
Africa with Kairwan as capital. The Amir of Spain ruled almost independently though nominally under
the governor general of North Africa The three fold governmental functions of political administration,
tax collecting, and religious leadership became differentiated and were entrusted to different officials
with the govemor general responsible for the political and military administration. The Abbasid
Government The Abbasid government is situated on the Tigris at Baghdad not far from the old
Sassanian capital. The structure of government was very different because of the Iranian influence in the
area. The government was established by Al-Mansur and continued by his successors. The first officer of
the realm beneath the caliph was the Vizir, a Persian office which al-Mansur has created in order to
obtain necessary advice from Persian sources. The empire was divided into 24 provinces
Communications within the empire was never sufficient to prevent a considerable degree of
decentralization, although a postal service which included the use of carrier pigeons was maintained.
The postal authorities also compiled maps, made surveys and operated the caliph's spy system. Social
and Economic Conditions Society under the Umayyad was divided into four major social classes: 1. The
aristocrats - This is composed of the ruling Arabian Moslems headed by the caliph household: 2. The
middle class - This is composed of warriors, veterans, and government officials; 3. The neo-Moslems -
These are the people who have been converted into Moslems and admitted as full citizens. It was these
neophytes within the Moslem society who became the first devotees of skilled crafts, specialized
professions, and the learned disciplines; 4. The slaves-They are at the bottom of the social ladder. These
are the people who have been prisoners of war, others captured by raids; still others were purchased in
the trade market. Social class was more of a caste which one could enter only by birth. There is no
possibility to move from one caste to another. Iraq was the economic as well as the political core of the
caliphate. Under the Umayyad, it had recovered much of the prosperity that it had enjoyed in ancient
times. Under their Abbasid successors, they constructed an extensive series of canals and ditches by
cutting through the Tigris and the Euphrates

which provided drainage for the swamps and water for irrigation in the region.

Wheat, barley and rice were the principal crops of Iraq. Persia came in next in economic importance. It
produces mutton, sugar, rose water, raisins, honey and pomegranates. The third in value was Egypt
followed by Arabia, Syria, and Palestine. The most important industry was weaving. The looms produced
articles. ranging from clothing to rugs, brocades and hanging tapestry. Ceramic industry

also thrives in Iraq and Persia. An industry which is of great importance was

the discovery of paper based on skin parchment of the papyrus.

THE HINDU CIVILIZATION

OVERVIEW

Nestled in Indus valley in western India, The Indus Civilization flourished from about 2500 BC to 1700 BC.
It covered a larger area than modern Pakistan. The two important cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
each held perhaps 35,000 people at their height. Other cities excavated included Kalibangan; on the
west coast bordering Pakistan was almost as large as Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro. These cities had
features which made them unique included brick and had well-planned streets, pottery drainage
ditches, large granaries, and a large bath for ritual cleansing. Constructed on raised platform most the
major buildings were made from brick. There were some small, two-room structures to large houses
with two-storied with courtyards

The Indus civilization declined in 1900 BC under pressure from a new people, the Aryans. The Indo-
European speaking Aryans entered the area from eastern Iran by 1500 BC

The Physical Features of India

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After having gone through this lesson, the students will be able to:

. Locate India on the map;

Identify the natural boundaries and its three natural regions; and Explain the factors that control the
variation of climate in the Indian

Subcontinent.

OVERVIEW

India, the land of mystery where the past is never dead, boasts of a civilization which dawned about
2500 BC. The remains of the flourishing cities of Mohenjo daro and Harappa unearthed by
archaeologists in the Indus Valley revealed the remarkably high level of engineering and artistic ability of
its earliest settlers. The cities were well-planned and the culture is as unique as it is ancient for then as
now it is intimately bound up with the great social and religious system we call Hinduism. Ruled by a
civilized bureaucratic government with a priest-king probably as the head bureaucrat, India has had a
culture little changed since.

Geographical Location

India lies as a subcontinent on the southern part of Asia. This great triangular peninsula stretches
southward for 2,000 miles from the icy heights of the Himalayas into the Indian Ocean with its
southernmost point only 600 miles north of the equator. Within its area of 1,581,410 square miles may
be found some of f the world’s highest peaks, largest and wettest plains, hottest and coldest regions. Its
shores are perpetually washed by the Indian Ocean in the south, the Bay of Bengal in the east and the
Arabian Sea in the west.

This great land mass is occupied by the two independent states of India and Pakistan which were
founded on August 15, 1947 when Great Britain withdrew its sovereignty from the Indian subcontinent.
Thus, these two nations share the 5,000 year history of the Indian subcontinent.

The Natural Regions The subcontinent is conveniently divided into three natural regions,
Namely the Hindustan, the Deccan and the Far South or Tamil Land The Hindustan is a vast plain which
lies south of the Himalayas. The

The Hindustan

Himalayas which rise abruptly from this plain, form the greatest mountain mass in the world. Some of its
mountain peaks reach heights far above the level of the highest mountains in other part of the globe.
Mt. Everest, one of the highest in the world rises to more than 29,000 feet in nearby Nepal.

The Hindustan is bounded by two rivers, the Indus to the west and the Ganges, which is sometimes
called the Holy River, to the north. These two great rivers both rise from Tibet in the high Himalayan
system. The region is well-watered and fertile, and supports a large proportion of the population of
India. There arose the oldest center of Hindu civilization.

The Deccan

South of the Hindustan is an extensive lava plateau called the Deccan. It

Has an average elevation of 2.000 feet above sea level in most places. The east

And west side of the Deccan appear as mountains from the coast and are called Eastern and Western
Ghats. The Tamil or Far South extends to the tip of the subcontinent and includes

Tamil Land

The tropical coastal strips

The Climate

Since India is a large land mass that extends for 2,000 miles from the
Temperate north to the tropical south, there is a wide variation of climate.

Aside from the difference in latitude, several other factors control the variation

Of climate.

During winter, the lofty heights of the Himalayas protect India from the cold winds blowing down from
Siberia. The cold air which manages to pass through the mountains presses down the land and flows out
to the coast. Having traveled for thousands of miles over land, this air has had little opportunity to
absorb moisture by evaporation. Hence, during winter, India becomes cool and dry with little or no
rainfall in most parts.

During summer, the land mass of Asia is warmed up rapidly by the hot sun and as the warm air over the
land rises, moist, warmer air is sucked in from the Indian Ocean. Upon reaching land, this wet monsoon
provides heavy rainfall to most part of the Deccan. Nearly all rain comes between June and September.
On the other hand, in some parts to the far north, particularly in the Indus Valley and the adjoining Thar
desert, the climate is as dry as the Sahara of Africa.

Natural Resources

Nature has been bountiful to India. Its soil is fertile and the land has abundant natural resources. Its rich
mineral deposits are barely exploited. It contains 25% of the world’s reserves of iron, 80% of mica, the
second largest reserves of bauxite from which aluminum is produced and the third largest deposit of
magnesium. India rank first in the production of peanut and tea and second in rice, jute and raw sugar.
But other agricultural products such as grains, spices, rubber, coffee, coconut and cotton are important
too.

The Early Civilizations of India

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

After having gone through this lesson, the students will be able to:

Identify the origin of the earliest civilization of India; Describe the early people of India, and Appreciate
the contributions of the Aryans India;
Explain Hinduism as a religion.

OVERVIEW

For almost 1,000 years, from around 2500 BC to around 1700 BC, a civilization flourished on the valley of
the Indus River and its tributaries, extending as far to the northeast as Delhi and south to Gujarat. The
Indus Valley civilization, India’s oldest known civilization, is famed for its complex culture and specialized
artifacts. Its cities were carefully planned, with elaborate water-supply systems, sewage facilities, and
centralized granaries. The cities had common settlement patterns and were built with standard sizes and
weights of bricks, evidence that suggests a coherent civilization existed throughout the region. The
people of the Indus civilization used copper and bronze, and they spun and wove cotton and wool. They
also produced statues and other objects of considerable beauty, including many seals decorated with
images of animals and, in a few cases, what appear to be priests. The seals are r also decorated with a
script known as the Indus script, a pictographic writing system that has not been deciphered. The Indus
civilization is thought to have undergone a swift decline after 1800 BC, although the cause of the decline
is still unknown; theories point to extreme climatic changes or natural disasters.

The Harappan Civilization

From the beginning of the 4th millennium BC, the individuality of the early village cultures began to be
replaced by a more homogenous style of existence. By the middle of the 3 rd millennium, a uniform
culture had developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square miles, including parts of
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sind and the Makran coast.

This earliest known civilization in India, the starting point in its history, dates back to about 3000 BC. It
was thought to have been confined to the valley of the river Indus; hence the name given to it was Indus
Valley civilization. This civilization was a highly developed urban one and two of its towns, Mohenjodaro
and Harappa, represent the high watermark of the settlements. Subsequent archaeological excavations
established that the contours of this civilization were not restricted to the Indus valley but spread to a
wide area in northwestern and western India. Thus this civilization is now better known as the Harappan
civilization Mohenjodaro and Harappa are now in Pakistan and the principal sites in India include Ropar
in Punjab, Lothal in Gujarat and Kalibangan in Rajasthan.

Urban Development
The emergence of this civilization is as remarkable as its stability for nearly a thousand years. All the
cities were well planned and were built with baked bricks of the same size; the streets were laid at right
angles with an elaborate system of covered drains. There was a fairly clear division of localities and
houses were earmarked for the upper and lower strata of society. There were also public buildings, the
most famous being the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro and the vast granaries. Production of several metals
such as copper, bronze, lead and tin was also undertaken and some remnants of furnaces provide
evidence of this fact. The discovery of kilns to make bricks support the fact that burnt bricks were used
extensively in domestic and public buildings.

Occupations

Evidence also points to the use of domesticated animals, including camels, goats, water buffaloes and
fowls The Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, peas and sesamum and were probably the first to grow
and make clothes from cotton. Trade seemed to be a major activity at the Indus Valley and the sheer
quantity of seals discovered suggest that each merchant or mercantile family owned its own seal. These
seals are in various quadrangular shapes and sizes, each with a human or an animal figure carved on it.
Discoveries suggest that the Harappan civilization had extensive trade relations with the neighboring
regions in India and with distant lands in the Persian Gulf and Sumer (Iraq).

Society and Religion

The Harappan society was probably divided according to occupations and this also suggests the
existence of an organized government. The figures of deities on seals indicate that the Harappans
worshipped gods and goddesses male and female forms and has also evolved some rituals and
ceremonies No monumental sculpture survives, but a large number of human figurines have been
discovered, including a steatite bust of a man thought to be a priest,

And a striking bronze dancing girl. Countless terra-cotta statues of Mother Goddess have been
discovered suggesting that she was worshipped in nearly every home

Harappan society was dominated by a powerful priestly class that ruled from the citadel of each of the
capitals. Though there may have been specialized warriors. The priests appear to have been the maint
coordinators of fortress construction and preparation for defense. The location of granaries and artisan
dwellings near the citadels indicates that the priests may have also overseen handicraft production and
supervised both regional and long-distance trade.
The Slow Demise Of Harappan Civilization By about 1700 BC, the Harappan culture was on the decline,
due to repeated flooding of towns located on the river banks and due to ecological changes which
forced agriculture to yield to the spreading desert. Some historians do not rule out invasions by
barbarian tribes of the northwest as the cause of the decline of the Harappan civilization. When the
initial migrations of the Aryan people into India began about 1500 BC, the developed Harappan culture
had already been practically wiped out.

The Vedic Aryans

Between about 1500 and 1000 B.C, as the great cities of the Indus region crumbled into ruins, nomadic
Aryan invaders from central Asia moved into the fertile Indus plains and pushed into the Ganges River
valleys to the east. It took these unruly, warlike peoples many centuries to build a civilization that rivaled
that of the Harappans. The Aryans concentrated on assaulting Harappan settlements and different Aryan
tribal groups. As peoples who depended primarily on great herds of cattle to provide their subsistence,
they had little use for the great irrigation works and advanced agricultural technology of the Indus valley
peoples. Though they conserved some Harappan beliefs and symbols, the Aryan invaders did little to
restore or replace the great cities and engineering systems of the peoples they had supplanted.

Eventually, however, many of the Aryan groups began to settle down, and increasingly they relied on
farming to support their communities. By about 700 B.C., their priests had begun to orally record the
sacred hymns and ritual incantations that had long been central to Aryan culture. In the following
centuries, strong warrior leaders built tribunal units into larger kingdoms. The emergence of priestly and
warrior elites signaled the beginning of a newpattern of civilization in South Asia. By the 6th century B.C,
the renewal of civilized life in India was marked by the emergence of great world religions, such as
Hinduism and Buddhism, and a renewal of trade, urban life, and splendid artistic and architectural
achievements The beginning of the Aryans' dominance in the region (1500 BC to 500 BC) is called the
Vedic Period. The center of Aryan society was the region between Jamna (Yamuna) and Satlaj (Sutudri)
south of the city of Ambala and by the banks of the Sarasvati River which is now a small spring. The
leader of the Aryans was called a Rajah. The Rajah was advised by a council which played a great part in
governing the tribe. The Rajahs during the Vedic Period were semi-legendary figures and not much is
known about their reign except for the frequent wars between tribes.

The Vedic Literature

The Vedas (knowledge) are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest
layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. According to orthodox Hindu
interpretation the Vedas are apauruşeya (not human compositions), being supposed to have been
directly revealed, and thus are called śruti (what is heard"). Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu prayers,
religious functions and other auspicious occasions. Vedic texts are traditionally categorized into four
classes: the Samhitas (mantras), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Also classified as "Vedic" is
certain Sutra literature, ie. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras.
1. The Samhita (collection), are collections of metric texts (mantras). There are four "Vedie" Samhitas:
the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several
recensions (sakhä). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest
layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200
BC, dating to the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in
Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000
occur in the four Samhitas. The earliest of this book is the Rig Veda, containing lyrical hymns in praise of
the gods. From their verses, the life and culture of the Aryans were reconstructed. The second Veda was
the Atharva Veda, the book of the magic formulas; the Sama Veda, the book of religious chants and the
Yajur Veda, the book of sacrificial prayers.

2. The Brahmanas are prose texts containing observations on religious rites and sacrifices. They also
include legends of the exploits of ancient kings and heroes.

3. The Aranyakas contains religious and philosophical ideas and books of instructions for the old hermits
of the forest. They contain elaborate rules for the performance of religious ceremonies

4. The Upanishads are also books f instructions given by a father to his son or the teacher to his pupil. It
also contains philosophical ideas on the universal truth

The Sanskrit Epics

The two greatest epic of ancient India were the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata is
the longest epic in world literature. This epic was written by Vyasa about 500 BC. The Mahabharata tells
the tale of the five brothers’ struggle to recover the throne from their wicked cousins. The Hindu god
Krishna helps them win the bloody battle. This epic also contains the lofty philosophical poem, Bhagavad
Gita (god’s song between Krishna and Arjuna).

The Ramayana is shorter I was written by Valmiki also about 500 BC The Ramayana is a story of Prince
Rama whose wife was abducted by Ravana, the demon god of Ceylon. Rama invaded Ceylon with an
army of monkeys and was able to rescue his wife Siva and killed his enemy. He returned to India with his
victorious army of monkeys.

The Caste System

Many of the Aryans adopted the customs of the Dravidians. This was done through intermarriage and
intermingling with the natives. The Indo-Aryans soon saw that they would be absorbed by the more
numerous Dravidians whom they considered inferior. To keep their dominant positions, the Aryans
permitted only their own people to become priests, warriors and craftsmen. These restrictions marked
the beginning of the caste system which divided the people of India into rigid social classes. With the
development of Hinduism the caste system was adopted as an integral part of the religion.

The growth of the caste system later led to the social stratification of the Aryans and the native
Dravidians. The members of each class had their own dharma – certain rights and duties, a certain place
in society. The four social classes were: 1) the Brahmins or priests; 2) the Kshatriyas or warriors; 3) the
Vaishyas consisting of merchants and farmers; and 4) the Sudras, the artisans and laborers. No one is
allowed to leave the cast into which he was born.

Below the Sudras, at the very bottom of the social order were the wretched

Untouchables, the outcasts or pariahs. These groups of unfortunates consist

Mostly of primitive Dravidians, prisoners of war, or persons reduced to slavery

for some reasons. These people lived outside the villages and were not allowed

to go inside temples or near the village wells.

As their numbers multiplied, the Indian government was faced with the stagerring problem of millions of
untouchables. In 1947, the govemment outlawed untouchability and millions of untouchables are slowly
gaining better conditions for themselves.

Hinduism

Hinduism is the first and most ancient of the major religions in India and was founded by the Indo-
Aryans. It began with the Indo-Aryans worshipping different deities of nature from whom they asked
favor. Thus, India has 300 million gods and goddesses representing natural forces and personified gods
to suit human needs. Hindus believe that these gods intercede for man; thus, favors must be won
through offerings, prayers and rituals.
As life grew complicated, the-Indo-Aryans, particularly the Brahmin,

Introduced new gods which replaced the gods of nature and founded Hinduism. As Hindu religion
developed, three manifestations of gods became prominent They are Brahman, the creator, whom the
priest consider as the “One Spirit” or “World Soul;” Vishnu, the preserver and Siva, the Destroyer. Being
one with Brahma is called Nirvana. Hinduism believes in “karma” and reincarnation or transmigration of
the

Soul. When a person died, his soul was reborn to another body. A good soul

Is reborn into a higher status, while a bad soul into a lower status or animal.

After a cycle of births and deaths, the soul of a good man is finally rewarded by

Being absorbed into Brahma, the creator and source of all happiness.

Another belief shared by Hindus is veneration of life, especially the cow,

Which is thought to embody fertility. Indians have forbidden its killing from the period f classical
Hinduism onward. In the 6th century was born a philosopher and religious reformer who

The Birth of Buddhism

Founded one of the greatest religions, Buddhism. His name was Prince Siddharta

Gautama who was born in Lumbini, Nepal. He was the son of the head of the

Sakya warrior caste, in later life he was known also as Sakyamuni (Sage of

The Sakyas). The name Gautama Buddha is a combination of the family name
Gautama and the appellation Buddha, meaning “Enlightened One.”

Buddha apparently showed an early inclination to meditation and reflection, displeasing his father, who
wanted him to be a warrior and ruler rather than a religious philosopher. Yielding to his father’s wishes,
he married at an early age and participated in the worldly life of the court. Buddha found his carefree,
self-indulgent existence dull, and after a while he left home and began wandering in search of
enlightenment. One day, according to tradition. He encountered an aged man, a sick man, and a corpse,
and he suddenly and deeply realized that suffering is the common lot of humankind. He then came upon
a mendicant monk, calm and serene, whereupon he determined to adopt his way of life and forsake
family, wealth, and power in the quest for truth. This decision, known in Buddhism as the Great
Renunciation, is celebrated by Buddhists as a turning point in history. Gautama was then 29 years old.

Wandering as a mendicant over northern India, Buddha first investigated Hinduism. He took instruction
from some famous Brahman teachers, but he found the Hindu caste system repellent and Hindu
asceticism futile. He continued his search, attracting but later losing five followers. One day, while sitting
under a Bo tree near Gaya, in what is now Buddh Gaya in the state of Bihar, he experienced the Great
Enlightenment, which revealed the way of salvation from suffering. Shortly afterward he preached his
first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares (now Varanasi). This sermon, the text of which is preserved,
contains the gist of Buddhism Many scholars regard it as comparable, in its tone of moral elevation and
historical importance, to Jesus Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.

Buddha Statue

The five disciples rejoined Buddha at Benares. Accompanied by them. He traveled through the valley of
the Ganges River, teaching his doctrines. Gathering followers, and establishing monastic communities
that admitted anyone regardless of caste. He returned briefly to his native town and converted his
father, his wife, and other members of his family to his beliefs. After 45 years of missionary activity
Buddha died in Kusinagara, Nepal, as a result of eating contaminated pork. He was about 80 years old.

Buddha taught all men the “Four Noble Truth,” as follows: 1) man’s life is filled with suffering. 2) man’s
suffering is caused by his selfish desires; 3) man can end his suffering by conquering his selfish. Desires;
and 4) the attainment of Nirvana (perfect happiness) through the Eight Fold Path: right belief, right
aspiration, right speech, right conduct right livelihood, right effort, right remembrance, and right
meditation.

Buddha was one of the greatest human beings, a man of noble character, penetrating vision, warm
compassion, and profound thought. Not only did he establish a great new religion, but his revolt against
Hindu hedonism, asceticism, extreme spiritualism, and the caste system deeply influenced Hinduism
itself. His rejection of metaphysical speculation and his logical thinking introduced an important
scientific strain heretofore lacking in Oriental thought. Buddha's teachings have influenced the lives of
millions of people for nearly 2500 years.

In the course of its propagation, Buddhism split into two sects: the Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle), who
adheres to Buddha's original teachings and the Mahayana (Greater Vehicle), where Buddhism has been
modified and elevated Buddha as a god. The Hinayana exists today in Nepal and Ceylon and the
Mahayana in China, Tibet, Korea, Japan, Thailand and Malaysia.

Ancient Buddhist Temple

This Buddhist temple, known as the Great Stupa, was constructed between the 3rd century BC and the
early 1st century AD.

The Invasion of India and the Rise of Dynasties

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

After having gone through this lesson, the students will be able to:

Discuss the Persian and Greek invasion of India; Make an account for the rise of several Hindu dynasties;
and Discuss the impressions made by the Persian and Greek sion in India

OVERVIEW

By about the 7th century BC, territories combined and grew, giving rise to larger kingdoms that stretched
from what is now Afghanistan to what is now the state of Bihär. Cities became important during this
time, and, shortly thereafter, systems of writing developed. Reform schools of Hinduism emerged,
challenging the orthodox practices of the Vedic tradition and presenting alternative religious world
views. Two of those schools developed into separate religions: Buddhism and

Jainism
By the 6th century BC, Indian civilization was firmly centered at the eastern end of the Gangetic Plain (in
the area of present-day Bihar) and certain kings became increasingly powerful. In the 6 th century BC the
Kingdom of Magadha conquered and absorbed neighboring kingdoms, giving rise to India’s first empire.
At the head of the Magadha state was a hereditary monarch in charge of a centralized administration.
The state regularly collected revenues and was protected by a standing army. This empire continued to
expand, extending in the 4th century BC into central India and as far as the eastern coast.

The Persian Invasion of India

At the end of the 6th century BC, Darius the Great sent a Persian army to India and conquered the Aryan
kingdoms of the Indus Valley. As a result of this conquest, the Persians introduced Aramaic writing and
other Persian culture. The Persians also introduced Zoroastrianism under the name of Parseeism. After
nearly 200 years of rule, the Persian Empire declined and the conquered Hindu states regained their
independence.

The Greek Invasion

In 326 BC, Alexander the Great, after conquering Persia, moved east and conquered Northern India. He
fought his way into the Indus Valley and in less than two years of campaign, he annexed the little
kingdoms in the region to his vast empire. Alexander wanted to push and continue his conquest up to
China or Southeast Asia but was forced to turn back because of the unwillingness of his tired and weary
soldiers. He returned to Persia in 324 BC and a year later, he died.

Upon his death, the different colonies conquered by Alexander did not last long. The short reign of the
Macedonians in India strengthened the unity of the Indians.

However, through Alexander’s conquests, India came into contact with the Greek culture of the west.
The Greek influence made a subtle impress on Indian art and mythology. On the other hand, the west
learned much about Indian science and mathematics particularly the decimal system of notation and the
concept of the zero. In time, trade between India and Europe flourished.

The Rise of Indian Dynasties

The Mauryan Dynasty

After Alexander’s death, a strong Hindu leader named Changdragupta came into power and founded the
first Hindu empire, the Mauryan Empire. In 322 BC, he seized the throne of Magadha, a leading kingdom
in Northern Indiat and proclaimed himself Emperor. After establishing his capital at Pataliputra near the
modern city of Patna, Changdragupta expanded his kingdom covering the whole Indo-Gangetic Plain.

In 298 BC, Changdragupta stepped down from the throne and became a monk. Bindusara, the son of
Changdragupta, took the throne and continued the policies of his father. In 273 BC, Asoka, Bindusara’s
son became the King Asoka was known to be the greatest ruler of the Mauryan dynasty. Early in his
reign, he waged an aggressive military campaign against neighboring states like Andhra Pradesh (Orissa)
and Kalinga in the south. The terrible carnage that accompanied the conquest of Kalinga left in Asoka’s
mind a deep feeling of disgust against violence. He turned back and embraced Buddhism. His conversion
to Buddhism helped him in his decision to renounce war.

In order to promote the teachings of Buddhism, he sent missionaries to Ceylon, Syria, Burma and other
cities in Greece. Thus, Asoka transformed Buddhism from a small Indian sect to a great religion. When
Asoka died in 232 BC, the Mauryan Empire made a decline

Internal decay set in and foreign invaders began to break up the vast empire.

The confusion that followed marked the beginning of the so-called Dark Age

Of India.

The Sunga and Kanva Dynasties

The Mauryan Dynasty was replaced by the Sunga Dynasty in 183 BC. General Pushamitra Sunga became
king and restored the Vedic tradition. They persecuted their Buddhist subjects at one time or another
and many of whom migrated elsewhere. After the fall of the Sunga Dynasty and the short-lived Kanva
Dynasty (73-30BC) there followed another period of chaos.

The Kushan Dynasty

With the downfall of the Sunga Dynasty, other tribes continued to conquer India. One of these was the
Yueh-chih who were forced out of Mongolia in 175 BC by the Huns. Eventually, the Yueh-chih came
under a strong leader. Kadphises I (25-30 AD), who led them in overthrowing the Sacae in Kabul. He then
founded the Kushan Dynasty. At the height of their power, the Kushans ruled Northern India as far south
as the Narvada River. The greatest Kushan ruler was Kanishka, who ruled from 120-122 AD. Like Asoka,
Kanishka was a patron of Buddha and the arts. His death eventually led to the downfall of the Kushan
Dynasty as all his successors were weaklings

The Gupta Dynasty

In 321 AD, Chandragupta I rose from power. At the zenith of its power, the Gupta empire covered all of
Northern India, and while it is not so extensive as the empire of Asoka, it achieved a high degree of
stability and prosperity. The Gupta era is known as the Golden Age of Hinduism as the Hindu religion
gained popular favor and soon triumphed over Buddhism through the patronage of the Gupta rulers.

The time of the Gupta Empire has been called the golden age of Indian civilization because of the
period’s great flowering of literature, art, and science. In literature, the dramas and poems of Kalidasa,
who wrote the romantic drama Sakuntala, are especially well known. The Puranas, a collection of myths
and philosophical dialogues, was begun around 400 AD. These remain today the basic source for the
tales of the gods who are now central to Hinduism Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddess Shakti. During this era
India’s level of science and technology was probably higher than that of Europe. The use of the zero and
the decimal system of numerals, later transmitted to Europe by the Arabs, was a major contribution to
modern mathematics

About the middle of the 6th century, the Huns from Central Asia broke through the northwestern passes
of India and infiltrated Northern India As a result of this invasion, the Gupta Empire broke up into
warring kingdoms. For century. Northern India lay into chaos and confusion. However, at the beginning
of the 7th century, a Gupta prince named Harsha drove away the Huns and restored unity in the empire.
Harsha was a wise and benevolent ruler, and although a Buddhist, has showed much toleration for the
other religion. Harsha revived the glory of the Gupta dynasty, but with his death the Gupta Empire fell.

The Rajput Kingdom in the North Again, for the next five centuries, India was plunged into anarchy and
chaos. Many kingdoms rose and fell from the ruins of the Gupta Empire with none of them strong
enough to unite the states into an empire In 860, a group of allied kingdoms were established by the
Rajput clans in the area east of the Indus. The Rajputs called their land Rajputans. Nevertheless, until the
Mohammedans came in the 12th century, no really strong power appeared during this long period of
political confusion and instability.
The Muslim and Mongol Invaders

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

After having gone through this lesson, the students will be able to: Trace the beginning of
Mohammedanism in India; Identify the different Muslim Kingdoms established in India; and

Discuss the contributions of India to civilization.

OVERVIEW

Islam was brought to India by the Muslims from the Persian Gulf in 711 AD Several Muslim invasions
took Islam into the heart of India up to Delhi. By the 14 th century, Islamic kings ruled over a kingdom as
large as Asoka’s Maurya Empire.

The Muslim conquerors introduced Muslim in the urban areas. They destroyed Hindu temples and
persecuted the Brahmans. However, they had little effect on the Hindu masses in the villages that were
left alone as long as they paid their taxes.

The Islamization of India

Muhammad of Ghur (died 1206), also called Muizuddin Muhammad ibn Sam or Shihabuddin
Muhammad Ghari, Muslim conqueror of northern India. In 1173 Muhammad rose to control the Turkish
Ghurid Empire, centered in what is now west central Afghanistan. Finding his ambitions to control
Central Asia blocked by other Turkish-influenced states, he embarked on into northern India, which was
then largely Hindu. Between 1175 and 1186 he yearly raids overran the regions of Sind and Punjab,
although he was defeated in an attempt to subdue Gujarät. In 1191 he was dealt a major defeat by a
confederation of Indian princes in present-day Haryana State. However, Muhammad fought the princes
again at the same site the next year and won a convincing victory. In 1193 his armies pushed as far as
Bihär in northeastern India (on the present day border with Nepal), thus making Muhammad the
dominant power in northern India.

Muhammad returned to the Ghurid capital of Ghazni to direct operations against other Turks, leaving his
general, Qutubuddin Aybak, in charge of conquests in India. Qutubuddin continued to push east and
south. Another of his generals, Bakhtiyar Khalji, overran Bihar and in 1202 conquered Bengal.
Meanwhile, Mahammad suffered several defeats in Central Asia at the hands of his Turkish enemies,
which prompted rebellions against him in Punjab. He returned to India and crushed the rebels, but on
his way back to Ghazni was assassinated. The Ghurids’ control of Afghanistan collapsed, but In 1206
Qutubuddin Aybak, one of Muhammad of Ghur’s generals, founded the Delhi Sultanate with its capital
at Delhi and began the Slave dynasty.

The rulers of the slave dynasty ruthlessly put doven rebellions of their subject and further strengthened
Muslim domination in the Hindustan

The Delhi Sultanate engaged in constant warfare during its 300-year reign, subduing intermittent
rebellions of the nobles of the Bengal region, repelling incursions of Mongols to the northwest, and
conquering and looting Hindu kingdoms as far south as Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Beginning with the Slave
dynasty, the sultanate was ruled by a succession of five dynasties before it was finally overthrown by the
Mughal emperor Humayun in 1556

Other Moslem Dynasties

In 1290, a new dynasty, the Khalji (1200-1320) overthrew the Slave

Dynasty. It lasted for only thirty (30) years, but within this relatively short span of time, it extended
Moslem supremacy to the Deccan. In 1320, another dynasty, the Tughluq (1320-1414) seized control of
the Sultanate of Delhi. The following years of Tughluq rule were marked by

Internal dissention and revolts against the Sultanate.

In 1398 the Mongol conqueror Timur the Tartar (Tamerlane) invaded India,

Sacking Delhi and massacring its inhabitants. Tamerlane withdrew from India

Shortly after the sack of Delhi, leaving the remnants of the empire to Mahmud

Tughluq, who as last of the Tughluqs ruled from 1399 to 1413. The anarchy
That followed the sacking of Northern India brought about the downfall of the

Tughluq Dynasty. Mahmud was succeeded by the Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451),

Under which the Delhi Sultanate shrank to virtually nothing.

The Lodi dynasty (1451-1526), of Afghan origin, later revived the rule of Delhi over much of north India,
although it was unable to give its rule a firm military and financial foundation. The rest of India remained
under the rule of other kings, some Muslim and some Hindu. The greatest of these polities was the
Hindu empire of Vijayanagar, which existed from 1336 to 1565, centered in what is now Karnataka.

Many Indians converted to Islam during this era. One of the areas where a great majority of the
population became Muslim was in the Punjab region, which by the end of the Delhi Sultanate had been
under the continuous rule of Muslim kings for more than 500 years. Muslims did marry Hindus (the
founder of the Khalji dynasty was the offspring of one such marriage), and Hindus did convert to Islam In
general, Muslim kings were far from tolerant, even despising their Hindu subjects, but there is no record
of forced mass conversions. The region that is now Bangladesh also became overwhelmingly Muslim
during this period. This area had been mainly Buddhist before the Muslims arrived. Even in south India,
where the Hindu revival inspired by the works of Shankara and others had its greatest influence, a small
minority of people became Muslim. The Rise of the Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was founded in
1526 by Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane. It is famous for its extent (it covered most of the Indian
subcontinent) and for the heights that music, literature, art, and especially architecture reached under
its rulers. The Mughal Empire was born when Babur, with the use of superior artillery, defeated the far
larger army of the Lodis at Panipat. near Delhi Babur's kingdom stretched from beyond Afghanistan to
the Bengal region along the Gangetic Plain. His son Humayun, however, lost the kingdom to Bihar-based
Sher Khan Sur (later Sher Shah) and fled to Persia (now Iran). Humayun recaptured Delhi in 1555, shortly
before his death. This event marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mogul
Empire in India. The Reign of Akbar The greatest Mogul of India was Akbar the Great (1556-1605),
grandson of Babur. Although Akbar's long reign was marked by continuous wars of conquest, he was
able to bring nearly all of India under Moslem control. Int spite of his military aggressions, Akbar proved
to be a kind and wise emperor. He gave India one of the best governments in her long history. Laws
were humanized, taxes were reduced and all religions were tolerated. Although illiterate, Akbar
matched the learning of his father and grandfather, both of whose courts were enriched by Persian arts
and letters, and surpassed them in wisdom. He brought under his control the Hindu Rajput kings who
ruled just south and west of Agra by defeating them in battle, and offering them alliances cemented by
marriage extending religious tolerance, (Akbar married two Rajput princesses, including the mother of
his son and ssor, Jahangir) and positions of successor, ions power in his army and administration As an
observant Muslim, Akbar brought to his court adherents to various sects of Islam, as well as priests of
other faiths, including Christians, to hear them present their beliefs. European visitors to the Mughal
court became even more frequent in the succeeding reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Europeans were
allowed to establish trading posts at the periphery of the empire and beyond. but they never became
influential at court.

Other Mogul Rulers

Akbar was succeeded by his son Jahangir, who ruled from 1605-1627. Although Jahangir was a gifted
man, his success was limited by his indolence, his addiction excessive drink and streak of cruelty in his
nature. Shah Jahan (1627-1658), Akbar’s grandson, patronized the arts, and during his reign, he built the
famous Taj Mahal, as a mausoleum for his favorite wife,

Muntaz Mahal

Aurangzeb, the son of Shah Jahan, seized the throne from his father in 1658 and was the last of the
great Moguls. He was a fanatical Moslem and his oppression of all who held other beliefs produced
discontent. The Rajput rulers, once loyal to the Mogul Empire, rebelled against Aurangzeb, leading into a
costly war.

In 1686 and 1687 Aurangzeb conquered the Muslim kingdoms of Bijapur and Golkonda, which
controlled the northern half of the Deccan Plateau. But his attempt to subdue the Hindu Maratha
Confederacy was ultimately unsuccessful, and the Mughal armies suffered numerous defeats.
Aurangzeb’s growing religious intolerance also undermined the stability of the empire. In 1697 he
reimposed a poll tax on non-Muslims, abolished during Akbar’s rule. Disaffection over such
discriminatory policies, along with the now-crushing tax burden, led to widespread rebellion at the end
of Aurangzeb’s reign.

The Mughal Empire was founded in 1526. At its height, about 1700, it encompassed most of the Indian
subcontinent. Mughal rulers developed a stable, centralized form of government that served as a model
for later Indian rulers. The empire declined in the 1700s and was officially abolished by the British in
1858.

After 49 years of rule, Aurangzeb died greatly disillusioned by the revolts

That rocked the country. The Mogul Empire broke up into individual states. Ancient Hindu Health
Practices

India’s medical system, Ayurveda, meaning “Knowledge of Life” began about 2,400 years ago and
reached its basic present form by 500 A.D. It is mainly based on the Charake Samhita and Susruta
Samhita texts, traditionally acribed to the Physician Charaka (1000 B.C.) and the surgeon Susruta.

In Ayurvedic medicine, illness is seen as an imbalance of the body’s main

Humours; bile, phlegm, and wind. They are treated with herbs, minerals, operations, ritual chants and
offerings. The six tastes in Ayurvedic medicine represent the healing properties of herbs or minerals:
liquorice is bitter and sweet; honey is sweet and astringent,

Asafetida resin from giant fennel is pungent; rock salt is salty, rauwolfia root is

Bitter, myrrh gum is both bitter and pungent and the sixth taste, sour.

Indian lore identifies seven chakras as centers for focusing and distributing the body’s spiritual power.
They are sited along the spinal column from the top of the head to the base of the spine. Each chakra is
linked to specific glands and body organs. If the chakras are imbalance or damage, illness results.
Medicines, massage, yoga and chants rebalance the chakras and restore health. Nowhere in the Ancient
world were surgery is as sophisticated as in India.

Through amputation punishment, surgeons were able to gain experience and

Practice in cosmetic surgery. For internal surgery, black ants which secrete an

Acid with strong antiseptic qualities, were used as clips instead of stitches.

The Moslem Influence Upon India

The Moguls brought into India the Persian culture which gradually merged with the ancient native
culture. The Persian influences are reflected in Hindu architecture and painting. A new style combining
features of Hindu and Moslem architecture is seen in the mosques which have massive and imposing
gateway, slanting walls and which usually lack the minarets characteristic of Moslem mosques
elsewhere in the world. The upper castes in India adopted the Moslem practices of keeping their women
in harem. Many low caste Hindus and untouchables embraced the new religion because
Mohammedanism recognized no caste system.