CHAPTER 7: ASIAN REGIONALISM
The only thing that will redeem mankind is cooperation.
- Bertrand Russel
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, learners must be able to have a fuller understanding of the concept of Asian
Regionalism and are expected to:
1. Explain what Asian Regionalism is and its purpose;
2. Undermine the rationale behind the creation of such regional organization;
3. Understand the current issues, problems as well as prospects for the future of Asian Regionalism;
4. Recognize how Asian regionalism affects the world within the greater backdrop of Globalization;
and
5. Equip students with 21" century learning and develop higher order thinking skills that will lead
towards a deeper understanding of Asian Regionalism as well as articulate a stance how it impacts the
Philippines, the Filipino society and the individual self as a part of a global community.
The growing demand for economic integration spurred by and large by the rapid yet steady onslaught
of globalization, the threat of terrorism, the spread diseases, massive technological innovations and
geopolitical uncertainties are wo realities that face nation states. These perceived opportunities, threats and
challenge prompt nation states to bond together and forge ties and alliances built on solid, l frameworks. The
maxim that there is strength in numbers bodes well for countries that choose to become a part of
organizations that they feel could indeed boost and support their national interest may it be in the economic,
military, political or even cultural contexts.
Regionalism is fashioned out of the rationale that regional organizations an treaty and charter-based
giving them formal status in international law. This status is enhanced-critically through the recognition and
status accorded to regional organizations by the United Nations and other multilateral organizations like the
World Trade Organization. However, as Acharya (2009) opined, regional organizations also derive legitimacy
through the articulation and implementation of distinctive regional norms and practices. The Arab League, for
example, derives legitimacy through its very "Arabness", drawing on a rich common culture and history; the
states of Southeast Asia are known for their articulation of what has been called the ASEAN way, a
consensus-based approached based upon strict observance of sovereignty. In the light of paradigm changes,
the ASEAN Way has become the 'Asian Way' extending the idea to a broader and still developing concept of
East Asian regionalism (Stubbs et.al, 2005).
At the core of this chapter is a broad discussion of what Asian Regionalism is and what it stands for as
well as its ultimate value in the state of world affairs. But before proceeding, it is imperative that the concept of
Regionalism first be analyzed.
In the context of International Relations, regionalism is the manifestation or expression of a common
sense of cultural identity and purpose combined with the creation and implementation of institutions that
express a particular identity and shape collective action within a geographical region. Most of the enduring
regional blocs like the EU and the ASEAN were crafted out of a shared commonality and oneness of
aspiration. It should be noted however, that most of the regional organizations established especially after
WW II are basically anchored on economic integration. Economic regionalism refers to institutional
arrangements designed to facilitate the free flow of goods and services and to coordinate foreign economic
policies between countries in the same geographic region or nearby locale. Economic regionalism can be
viewed as a conscious attempt to manage the opportunities and constraints created by the dramatic increase
in international economic ties to foster economic growth and prosperity among its member states. Examples
of economic regionalism include free trade areas, customs unions, common markets, and economic unions
(Fawcett, 2012).
Regionalism in Asia
Many things have been said about Asia especially about its sheer size, population, resources and its
capability to dominate the global political and economic environment. Indeed, it can be said that the gravity of
world economic, political and security affairs has shifted to Asia. The Asian Development Bank even went as
far as saying that the region's economy is already similar in size to those of Europe and North America, and
its influence in the world continues to increase. The contention is that Asia is now so important to the world
economy that it must also play a larger role in global economic leadership, As such, the call for Regional
economic cooperation is essential for addressing these challenges. This is largely because of Asia's
unprecedented growth in the past few decades led by economic powerhouses Japan, China and South
Korea.
(Source: https://www.focus-economics.com/regions/eastandsouthasia/news/ESA-economic-outlook-jan-2018)
The region is home to over half the world's population, produces three tenths of global output (in terms
of purchasing power), and consistently records the world's highest economic growth rates. The Asian "miracle
as many would refer to the rapid economic transformation in the 80's did not end with the 1997/98 financial
crisis; for some countries, it marked the beginning of renewed acceleration. The question is no longer whether
Asia will be central to the 21* century economy, but rather how it will exercise its prominent role and how its
dependence on the rest of the world has decreased. Asia's economies are increasingly connected through
trade, financial transactions, direct investment, technology, labor and tourist flows, and other economic
relationships. The regional order that is present in the Asian region is spurred by the fact that there exist
patterns of similarities too great to escape scrutiny. Asia, after all, includes some of the world's wealthiest
economies and some of its poorest, large continental powers as well as small city states, continuously
independent countries and former colonies. Its strength derives from the openness, diversity, and dynamism
of its interconnected economies. The cultural ties anchored mainly on language and religions are also solid
frontiers to argue for greater cooperation on a regional platform.
The question is that must Asia continue to go on with its established patterns? Should there be more
integration? The apparent answer is yes. A more dynamic and outward-looking Asian regionalism could bring
huge benefits not just to Asia, but more importantly to the world. It could help sustain the region's growth
underpin its stability, and with the right policies-reduce inequality and address the perennial problem of
poverty. And it could help marshal a common response to major new challenges that often arise suddenly and
unexpectedly. A vibrant, integrated Asia could bring the region's immense intellectual and economic
resources to bear on these and tomorrow's challenges. And it could help power and stabilize the global
economy by boosting productivity, raising living standards, and reducing poverty everywhere. A stable,
cohesive, and productive Asia is thus in everyone's interest. Thus, regionalism is a must for Asia.
(Source: https://www.countriesnow.com/top-10-richest-countries-in-asia-list/;
https://www.brinknews.com/expanding-opportunities-for-the-urban-poor-in-east-asia-and-the-pacific/)
Some of the world's richest cities as well as some of the poorest people are found in Asia
The Imperative for Regionalism in Asia
What are the essential advantages and benefits of Regionalism in Asia? The ADB paper on Emerging
Asian Nationalism outlines some of the more integral considerations regarding the need for regionalism in
Asia.
It is held that Asian integration can result in the following:
1. Generate productivity gains, new ideas, and competition that boost economic growth and raise
incomes across the world.
2. Contribute to the efficiency and stability of global financial markets by making Asian capital markets
stronger and safer and by maximizing the productive use of Asian savings.
3. Diversity sources of global demand, helping to stabilize the world economy and diminish the risks
posed by global imbalances and downturns in other major economies.
4. Provide leadership to help sustain open global trade and financial systems.
5. Create regional mechanisms to manage health, safety, an environmental issue better, and thus
contributes to more effective global solutions of these problems.
The presumption is that for as long as Asian regionalism can sustain the same dynamism, it can boost
its role in the changing global economic and political landscape.
But what characterize Asian regionalism is its openness and accommodating nature. It should be
noted that in the 1930s, countries created preferential trade blocs in an attempt to shelter their economies
from the Great Depression. Several countries established discriminatory currency blocs with strict exchange
controls against outsiders. But the results were devastating, these arrangements led to the collapse of
international trade and financial flows, accelerating the downward spiral of economic activity. This experience
was foremost in the mind of the architects of the post-war global economic system as they adopted the
principle of nondiscrimination as a central pillar of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the
forerunner of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Many economists and policy makers remain skeptical
about regionalism because of its potentially negative impact on the multilateral trade and financial system.
One thing that can identify Asian regionalism is its disregard for protectionist blocs (ADB, 2012).
This can be seen in the very nature and existence of some regional organizations that shall be
discussed later. Asia's growing economic interdependence provides many opportunities for cooperation.
These are divided into four major areas in this analysis: (1) trade, investment, and the integration of "real"
economic activity; (2) financial integration; (3) macroeconomic policy links; and (4) shared social and
environmental concerns. The following figure illustrates specific guidelines in order to ensure that Asian
regional economic cooperation can be attained along four major themes.
Asian Regional Organizations
The discussion that follows focuses on some of the most prominent and enduring organizations that
emerged in the Asian region. In Asia, what we have is an alphabet soup of sorts, with names like ASEAN
(Association of Southeast Asian Nations), APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation), APT (ASEAN Plus
Three), EAS (East Asian Summit), APC (Asia Pacific community, with a small "e") and EAC (East Asian
Community) all crowding conversations about Asia's present and future regional architecture. (Acharva,
2010). But the more compelling arguments asks whether these institutions mere talk-shops, or are they
genuine forces for stability and security? We shall discuss them one by one in order to gain a better
understanding of each.
I. ASEAN
The ASEAN also known as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations is a
regional grouping of nation states predominantly occupying the South East Asian
locale. It can be regarded as a regional intergovernmental organization comprising
ten Southeast Asian countries which seeks to promote intergovernmental
cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational and
socio-cultural integration amongst its members and other Asian countries, as well
as with the rest of the world. ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in
Bangkok, Thailand, with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok
https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-
Declaration) by the Founding Fathers of ASEAN, namely Indonesia, Malaysia,
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Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam then joined on 7
January 1984, Viet Nam on 28 July 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on 23 July
1997, and Cambodia on 30 April 1999, making up what is today the ten Member States of ASEAN.
Aims and Purposes
As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are:
1. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through
joint endeavors in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a prosperous
and peaceful community of Southeast Asian Nations;
2. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the
relationship among countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter;
3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the
economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields;
4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities in the educational,
professional, technical and administrative spheres;
5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and industries, the
expansion of their trade, including the study of the problems of international commodity trade, the
improvement of their transportation and communications facilities and the raising of the living standards of
their peoples;
6. To promote Southeast Asian studies; and
7. To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional organizations
with similar aims and purposes, and explore all avenues for even closer cooperation among themselves.
Fundamental Principles
In their relations with one another, the ASEAN Member States have adopted the following
fundamental principles, as contained in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) of 1976:
1. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity
of all nations;
2. The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion or
coercion;
3. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
4. Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;
5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
6. Effective cooperation among themselves.
Asean Community
The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted by the ASEAN Leaders on the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN, agreed
on a shared vision of ASEAN as a concert of Southeast Asian nations, outward looking, living in peace,
stability and prosperity, bonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring
societies.
(Source: https://www.reportingasean.net/asean-journalists-strive-promote-regional-identity/cartoon/)
ASEAN covers a land area of 4.4 million square roughly around 3% of the total land area of Earth.
ASEAN territorial waters cover important in terms of sea lanes and fisheries. Member countries have a
combined population of approximately 640 million people, 8.8% of the world's population, more than EU28,
though in terms of land, a bit smaller. In 2015, the organization's combined nominal GDP had grown to more
than USD $2.8 trillion. If ASEAN were a single entity, it would rank as the sixth largest economy in the world.
behind the United States, China, Japan, France and Germany ASEAN shares land borders with India, China,
Bangladesh, East Timor and Papua New Guinea, and maritime borders with India, China, Palau and
Australia. Both East Timor and Papua New Guinea are backed by certain ASEAN members for their
membership in the organization.
Being a global powerhouse ASEAN is known for its diverse range of instruments and treaties which
enhances cooperation, recognition and unity in numerous aspects, internally, regionally and internationally.
The ASEAN Summit today serves as a prominent regional (Asia) and international (worldwide) conference,
with world leaders attending its related summits and meetings to discuss about various problems and global
issues, strengthening cooperation, and making decisions. The summit has been praised by world leaders for
its success and ability to produce results on a global level.
It should also be noted that ASEAN has established itself as the central platform for Asian integrations
and cooperation, working with other Asian countries to promote unity, prosperity, development and
sustainability of the region, as well as working on solutions to resolve disputes and problems in the region.
While mainly focusing on Asia-Pacific, ASEAN also maintained communications with other parts of the world,
to better promote world peace and stability. The organization has a global reputation of promoting goodwill
and diplomacy among countries, shutting out any opinion or decision considered biased while carrying the
principle of non-interference and mutual respect (www.asean.org.ph).
I. APEC -Asia Pacific Eco
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a regional
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economic forum established in 1989 to leverage the growing
interdependence of the Asia Pacific. APEC's 21 members aim to create
greater prosperity for the people of the region by promoting balanced,
inclusive, sustainable, innovative and secure growth and by
accelerating regional economic integration. APEC ensures that goods,
services, investment and people move easily across borders. Members
facilitate this trade through faster customs procedures at borders; more
favorable business climates behind the border; and aligning regulations
and standards across the region. For example, APEC's initiatives to synchronize regulatory systems are a key
step to integrating the Asia-Pacific economy. A product can be more easily exported with just one set of
common standards across all economies. APEC works to help all residents of the Asia-Pacific participate in
the growing economy. For example, APEC projects provide digital skills training for rural communities and
help indigenous women export their products abroad. Recognizing the impacts of climate change, APEC
members also implement initiatives to increase energy efficiency and promote sustainable management of
forest and marine resources. The forum adapts to allow members to deal with important new challenges to
the region's economic well-being. This includes ensuring disaster resilience, planning for pandemics, and
addressing terrorism.
APEC's 21 member economies are Australia; Brunei Darussalam; Canada; Chile; People's Republic of
China; Hong Kong, China; Indonesia; Japan; Republic of Korea; Malaysia; Mexico; New Zealand; Papua New
Guinea; Peru; The Philippines; The Russian Federation; Singapore; Chinese Taipei; Thailand; United States
of America; Viet Nam. APEC operates as a cooperative, multilateral economic and trade forum. Member
economies participate on the basis of open dialogue and respect for views of all participants. In APEC, all
economies have an equal say and decision-making is reached by consensus. There are no binding
commitments or treaty obligations. Commitments are undertaken on a voluntary basis and capacity building
projects help members implement APEC initiatives.
APEC's structure is based on both a "bottom-up" and "top-down" approach. Four core committees and
their respective working groups provide strategic policy recommendations to APEC Leaders and Ministers
who annually set the vision for overarching goals and initiatives. The working groups are then tasked with
implementing these initiatives through a variety of APEC-funded projects. Members also take individual and
collective actions to carry out APEC initiatives in their individual economies with the assistance of APEC
capacity building projects.
The 21 APEC member economies jointly work towards the realization of free and open trade and
investment in the Asia-Pacific by 2020 and the establishment of greater regional community to address the
economic and social dimensions of development-a commitment made by APEC Leaders in 1994 known as
the Bogor Goals (apec.org).
III. East Asian Summit (EAS)
The East Asia Summit is a unique Leaders-led forum of 18 countries of the Asia-Pacific region formed
to further the objectives of regional peace, security and prosperity. It has evolved as a forum for strategic
dialogue and cooperation on political, security and economic issues of common regional concern and plays
an important role in the regional architecture. Established in 2005, EAS allows the principal players in the
Asia-Pacific region to discuss issues of common interest and concern, in an open and transparent manner, at
the highest level. The membership of EAS consists of ten ASEAN Member States (i.e. Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines and Vietnam),
Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation and the USA. EAS is an
initiative of ASEAN and is based on the premise of the centrality of ASEAN.
The concept of an East Asia Grouping was first promoted in 1991 by the then Malaysian Prime
Minister, Mahathir bin Mohamad. The final report of the East Asian Study Group in 2002, established by the
ASEAN+3 countries (i.e. China, Japan and ROK), recommended EAS as an ASEAN led development limited
to the ASEAN +3 countries. However, the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting (AMM) held in Vientiane on July 26,
2005 welcomed the participation of ASEAN, China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Australia, India and New
Zealand, in the first EAS. USA and the Russian Federation were formally included as members of the EAS at
the 6th EAS held in Bali, Indonesia on 19 November 2011.
IV. APT ASEAN Plus Three
ASEAN+3 cooperation began in December 1997 and
institutionalized in 1999 when the Leaders issued a Joint
Statement on East Asia Cooperation at their Third
ASEAN+3 Summit in Manila. The ASEAN+3 leaders
expressed greater resolve and confidence in further
strengthening and deepening East Asia cooperation at
various levels and in various areas, including energy,
transport, and information and communications
technology (ICT). ASEAN agreed to strengthen
partnership with the People's Republic of China (PRC),
the Republic of Korea (Korea) and Japan to address
mutual issues and concerns in energy security, natural
gas development, oil market studies, oil stockpiling, and
renewable energy.
ASEAN Plus Three (APT) can be considered as a forum
that functions as a coordinator of co-operation between
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the
three East Asia nations of China, Japan, and South
Korea. Government leaders, ministers, and senior
officials from the 10 members of the ASEAN and the
three Northeast Asian states consult on an increasing
range of issues. The APT is the latest development of East
Asian regional co-operation (www.asean. org).
Issues and Concerns of Asian Regionalism
(Source:
https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/economy
/632857/focus-on-asean-3-and-asean-6/story/)
Asia's bright economic prospects provide a supportive environment for regional cooperation. But building an
Asian economic community is a long-term undertaking, and the economic climate cannot be expected to
remain consistently favorable. Some risks are known. Global demand and financial stability are important to
Asia and could be compromised by a deepening credit crisis; a falling dollar; a sudden unwinding of current
account imbalances; and/or rapidly rising energy, food, and other commodity prices. Other shocks, including
adverse effects of global warming, could become more severe over time. In Asia as well, after a long period of
economic expansion (in some countries stretching back nearly two decades), there are bound to be financial
reversals and economic slowdowns due to business cycles whether they originate in the region or elsewhere,
and to longer term challenges such as excess savings and population ageing (ADB Emerging Asian
Nationalism, 2012).
New health or security threats could make the flow of people and goods more difficult and expensive.
Environmental damage could result in radical changes in economic policies. Social instability could generate
tensions and uncertainty that overwhelm economic progress. Many of these risks can be diminished with
adequate foresight and cooperation, and some strategies for doing so are addressed by this study. But not all
risks can be known, and the unexpected often has the greatest impact. Unanticipated developments could set
Asian regionalism back-or accelerate it. The 1997/98 financial crisis stimulated greater regional cooperation
and a greater commitment to integration. Asian governments now realize more clearly that they face a wide
range of common challenges-such as financial contagion as well as deadly diseases like severe acute
respiratory syndrome (SARS) and avian flu-and have much to gain from her addressing them jointly. In some
respects, regional cooperation is a form of insurance (ADB Emerging Asian Nationalism, 2012).
It is also important to highlight some of the criticisms that are usually hurled against Asian regionalism.
The first among these is that they have not played a role in the major and longstanding regional conflicts,
especially those that are holdovers from the Cold War period, such as the PRC-Taiwan conflict, or those
between North and South Korea, and India and Pakistan. Neither have they mattered in the management of
maritime territorial disputes, such as the Spratly Islands dispute involving China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia,
Philippines, and Brunei. Similarly, territorial disputes between China and Japan over the Senkaku/Daoyutai
islands, or between Korea and Japan over Takeshima/Tokdo islands, have not been addressed by any of the
regional groupings. A second criticism relates to their failure to make use of available instruments of conflict
prevention and resolution. For example, the ASEAN Regional Forum has not moved beyond its confidence-
building mode to a preventive diplomacy mode, as was clearly envisaged when it was set up in 1994. ASEAN
itself has yet to us its dispute-settlement mechanism to resolve bilateral territorial disputes, as that between
Cambodia and Thailand over the Preah Vihear temple, of the Singapore-Malaysia dispute over Pedra
Branca/Palau Batuh Putih in the South, China Sea. In the last two cases, the parties have relied instead on
the International Court of Justice.
Third, the failure of regional trust-building, which is supposed to have been brought about by regional
groups like the ASEAN is reflected in the emergence of what seems to be a significant arms race across the
region. China investing massively in its military, increasing its defense budget by double-digs percentages
year after year, while also building a blue-water navy. Japan has effectively crossed the 1,000-nautical mile
limit for its naval operational radius. A naval competition for dominance in the Indian Ocean may be emerging
between India and China. In Southeast Asia, countries like Singapore and Malaysia ate engaged in
competitive arms acquisitions. Fourth, on the economic front, there has been no regional free-trade area
under the auspices of APEC, which was created partly with that objective in mind. Instead, bilateral trade
arrangements have flourished, thereby undercutting the rationale for wider regional arrangements.
Fifth, while the region is regularly visited by natural calamities, there is no standing regional
humanitarian and disaster assistance mechanism in place, despite periodic attempts to create one.
Transnational threats such as illegal migration, terrorism, and pandemics continue to be dealt with on an ad
hoc or bilateral basis, without significant multilateral action. While there have been statements and
declarations addressing such challenges - such as the ASEAN Counterterrorism Convention, the East Asian
disease surveillance framework and a tsunami early warning system - joint action is neither automatic nor
assured. There is also no regional peacekeeping force or even a more-limited stand-by arrangement.
Finally, on human rights and social issues, Asia continues to lag behind other regions, including Africa
and Latin America, not to mention Europe, in developing regional human rights promotion and protection
mechanisms. The recently created ASEAN Inter-Governmental Commission of Human Rights is merely a
body for the "promotion" rather than "protection" of human rights, lacking any enforcement authority. Asian
regional institutions have not undertaken any significant social agenda, like the development of social safety
nets to protect people impoverished by economic downturns. Neither have they addressed the vital issues of
environmental degradation, climate change and energy security. Multilateral agreements and action have also
not succeeded in preventing forest fires in Indonesia, or competition for energy resources between India and
China. Climate change efforts, limited at best at any level, are pursued mainly at the global, rather than
regional level (Acharya, 2010).
Asian regional groups are not problem-solving or law-enforcing mechanisms, but norm-making and
socializing agents. In this respect, they do conform to the general model of international organizations, which
generally lack coercive enforcement power, but act as instruments of socialization and legitimating actors.
Asian institutions need to move beyond the ASEAN Way of informal, strictly consensus-driven cooperation, to
adopt greater institutionalization and legalization. Asia's institutions continue to be based on the ASEAN
model, which espouses a strong attachment to sovereignty and non-interference and avoids formal and
legalistic approaches to problem-solving. ASEAN has taken an important first step in this direction by adopting
an ASEAN Charter, but it remains to be seen whether ASEAN members can and will take up the challenge of
complying with the obligations of ASEAN's numerous treaties and agreements. The ARF, APEC and ASEAN-
Plus-Three, as well as the fledgling East Asian Summit, could also benefit from developing greater
institutionalization and fostering a culture of honoring treaty obligations.
Finally, Asian regional institutions should widen their focus to embrace transnational issues, and move
beyond being forums for consultations and dialogue to become instruments for problem-solving. Without
needing to go as far as NATO, the EU or the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, they
should nonetheless develop collective mechanisms for disaster management, peacekeeping, and protection
of human rights and environment (Lee, 2014).
Asian Regionalism and the Philippines
The Philippines has always been an active player in regional blocs that have been established since
the time of the defunct South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) up until the current regional groupings,
particularly ASEAN, APT and APEC. The Philippines firmly believes in establishing close ties with its
neighbors and pursue friendship, amity and cooperation as embodied in its Constitution. We remain to be
steadfast to the ideals and vision of One Asean and gives utmost importance to the tenets of economic
integration, the pursuit of peace in the region and socio-cultural cooperation.
(Source: https://ac.upd.edu.ph/index.php/news-announcements/1005-asean-50-challenges-unity-centrality-
baviera)
The Philippines remains to be an important founding member of the ASEAN having hosted several
summits recently. However, an important flashpoint of consideration remains to be the issue of the standing
claims of the PRC as well as several ASEAN states to the West Philippine Sea. The current administration of
Pres. Rodrigo Duterte aims for peaceful and cooperative resolution of the Spratly's debacle by forging more
cooperative and open ties with PRC.
Reference Book:
Coronacion, D. & Clilung, F. (2018). Convergence: A College Textbook in Contemporary World. Books
Atbp. Publishing Corp.
