JIMMA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCEINCE

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLGY
ANTHROPOLOGY
A term paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the course Anthropology.

GROUP MEMBERS:
Name ID

SECTION 6
SECOND SEMESTER
SUBMITTED TO MR. Amanuel Seifu
Jimma, January 2022

1
1. What is Anthropology? Define anthropology and its subfields and relate
anthropology to other discipline. How does it differ from other social science?
What is anthropology?
Anthropology is the study of what makes us human. Anthropology is the study of human, early
hominids and primate such as chimpanzees.
Subfields of Anthropology
Socio cultural anthropology: is concerned with social and cultural dimensions of the living
people. The largest subfield of anthropology that describes analyzes interprets and explain social
cultural and material life of contemporary human societies.
Physical/Biological anthropology: how culture and environment have influenced biological
evolution and contemporary variation.
Linguistic anthropology: is focused on the evolution of languages or tries to understand
language variation in their structure units & grammatical formation.
Archaeological anthropology: is the way of lives of past people by excavating and analyzing
the material/ physical remains they left behind.
Applied anthropology: is the application of anthropological knowledge, methods and
approaches to solving of human problem.
Anthropology relate to other discipline?
Anthropology is similar with other social science and natural science such as Biology, sociology,
psychology, political sciences, economics, history etc….
How does it differ from other social sciences?
Broad scope: anthropology studies human kind in its entirety.
Unique approach: anthropology studies and analyzes human way of life historically,
comparatively and relativistic manner.
Perspective: is fundamentally empirical naturalistic and ideographic than nomothetic one.

2. What is culture?
Introduce the concept of culture. How do anthropologists define culture? Moreover identify and
discuss its major characteristics. Culture derived from Latin word culture stemming core
meaning to cultivate generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures
that give such activities significance and importance.
Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including Arts, beliefs, and institution of a
population that are passed down from generation culture has been called “the way of life for an

2
entire society.” As such, it includes codes, manner, dress, language, religion, and visual art of
behavior. Such as laws and systems of belief.
Most anthropologist would define culture as the shared set of ( implicit and explicit) values,
ideas, concepts, and riles of behavior that allow social group to function and perpetuate itself.
Rather than simply the presence or absence of a particular attribute.
Culture is understood as the dynamic and evolving socially constructed realty that exist in the
minds of social group members. Widely accepted and the more comprehensive definition of
culture was provided by the British anthropologists Edward B. Taylor. He says that” Complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law , morals, customs and any other capacities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Some characteristics of culture
Culture is learned: culture is not inherited biologically but it is learnt socially by man in as
society. It is not an in born tendency but acquired by man from the association of others.
Example; thinking, eating, dressing, walking, behaving reading are all learnt by man.
Culture is social: it is not an individual phenomena but it is the product of society. It develops in
the society through social interaction.
Culture is shared: In order for a society to operate effectively, the guidelines must be shared by
its members. Without shared culture members of a society would be unable to communicate and
cooperates and confusion and disorder world result.
Culture Is Symbolic: A symbol’s meaning is not always obvious. However, many symbols are
powerful and often trigger behaviors or emotional states. For example, the designs and colors of
the flags of different countries represent symbolic associations with abstract ideas and concepts.
Culture Is Integrated: When we view cultures as integrated systems, we can begin to see how
particular culture traits fit into the whole system and, consequently, how they tend to make sense
within that context. A culture is a system; change in one aspect will likely generate changes in
other aspects. A good way of describing this integrated nature of culture is by using the analogy
between a culture and a living organism.
Culture Is Continuous: it is continuous process ; it is like stream which is following from one
generation to another through centuries” culture is the memory of human race.”
Culture Is Changing: it remains changing but not static cultural process undergoes changes but
with different speeds from society and generation to generation.

3
3. What are the difference between Ethnocentrism and Cultural relativism?

Cultural Relativism:
Is the view that all beliefs, customs and ethics are relative to individual with in his/her own social
context? In other word “right and wrong” are culture specific.
Cultural relativism describes a situation where there is an attitude of respect for cultural
differences rather than condemning other people's culture as
uncivilized or backward.
The degree to which an individual or a society is willing to suspend the universality of values
and value-based action ( particularly those acquired by primary socialization) in the face of
conflicting values held and acted up on by individuals or group recognized as belonging to
another in group defined social unit.

Ethnocentrism:
Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to see the behaviors, beliefs, values, and norms of one's
own group as the only right way of living and to judge others by those standards.
As such one’s believes his/her may to be the best way the one true way.
Is the belief that one’s cultural group is centrally important and superior to other?
Judging another culture by the standard of our own culture.
Is the major reason for divisions among member of d/t ethnicities, race. And religious group in
society.

4. Define the concept of marginalization identity forms and causes of

marginalization affecting different social groups and population.

Marginalization has been defined as a complex process of relegating specific group people to the
lower of outer edge of society. It effectively pushes these groups of people to the margin of
society economically, politically, culturally & socially following the policy of exclusion.
Marginalization is both a condition and process that prevents individual. Individual and groups
from full participation in social, economic and political life enjoyed by the wider society.
There are marginalized social groups in every society and culture. Women, children, older
people, and people with disabilities are among marginalized groups across the world.

4
 Marginalized occupational groups
According to anthropological findings, there are occupational marginalized groups in many parts
of Ethiopia. The following are marginalized occupational groups in our country: tanners, potters
(craft-workers), weavers and ironsmiths. Craft-workers such as potters and tanners are
considered as impure and excluded from social interactions, ownership of economic resources
(e.g., land), and participation in associations and celebrations.
Marginalization of despised occupational groups is manifested in many ways in different parts of
Ethiopia. Dena Freeman and Alula Pankhurst (2001), well-known anthropologists, identified
different forms of marginalization targeting minority occupational groups. Some of them are
Spatial Marginalization: Craft-workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages, near to forests, on
poor land, around steep slopes. They are segregated at market places (they sell their goods at the
outskirts of markets). When they walk along the road, they are expected to give way for others
and walk on the lower side of the road.
Economic Marginalization: Craft-workers are excluded from certain economic activities
including production and exchanges. In some cultures they are not allowed to cultivate crops.
They have a limited access to land and land ownership.
Social Marginalization: Craft-workers are excluded from intermarriage, they do not share burial
places with others; they are excluded from membership of associations such as iddirs. When
marginalized groups are allowed to participate in social events, they must sit on the floor
separately-sometimes outside the house or near the door.
Cultural Marginalization: is manifested in negative stereotyping such as the following:
Occupational minorities are labeled as impure and polluting; they are accused of eating animals
that have died without being slaughtered; Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable,
lacking morality, respect and shame.

4. Identify the major theories of ethnicity and describe their main arguments
regarding the nature, characteristics and silent feature of ethnicity.
There are four main theoretical approaches that underpin the study of ethnicity these are;
The Primordial Model of Ethnicity: Ethnicity is fixed at birth. Ethnic identification is based on
deep, ‘primordial’ attachments to a group or culture
Instrumentalist (Situational) Theory of Ethnicity: Ethnicity, based on people’s “historical”
and “symbolic” memory. Is something created and used and exploited by leaders and others in
the pragmatic pursuit of their own interests.
Social Constructivist Theory of Ethnicity: Ethnic identity is not something people “possess”
but something they “construct” in specific social and historical contexts to further their own
interests. It is therefore fluid and subjective.

5
Primordialism holds that ethnicity has existed at all times of human history and that modern
ethnic groups have historical roots far into the past with an understanding of humanity as being
divided into primordially existing groups rooted by kinship and biological heritage.
Constructivism sees the primordialist views as basically flawed, and holds that ethnic groups are
only products of human social interaction, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as
valid social constructs in societies. Instrumentalism is a perspective towards ethnicity that sees
ethnic classification as a mechanism of social stratification or as the basis for a social hierarchy.

5. Identify customary systems of governance & conflict resolution institution

of the various peoples of Ethiopia and analyze the strength & limitations of
indigenous institute conflict resolution.
Indigenous systems of governance have been used to maintain social order across Ethiopian
regions. The role of indigenous governance was indispensable before the advent of the modern
state system. Some examples of indigenous systems of governance
The Oromo Gadaa
The Gaada of the Oromo is one of the well-studies indigenous systems of governance. Scholars
have been studying the Oromo Gaada since the 1950s.
The Gadaa system is ‘an age grading institution of the Oromo that has a complex system of
administration, law making and dispute settlement’ (Pankhurst and Getachew 2008, xiv). The
Gadaa is a highly celebrated institution of governance and dispute settlement among the Oromo
people. Gadaa is widely mentioned as an egalitarian (democratic) system of governance. In the
Gadaa system, political power is transferred from one generation set (Luuba) to other every eight
years. Gaada officials such as the Abba Gaada and Abba Seera(father of law) serve for eight
years and leave their position to the new generation of Gadaa officials.
The Gedeo Baalle
The Gedeo of southern Ethiopia have an indigenous system of governance called Baalle. The
Baalle and the Gaada system of the Oromo have some similarities. The role of religion is high in
the two indigenous systems of governance. Moreover, the customary law of the Gedeo is called
Seera. The Ya’a, the general assembly, is the highest body of the Gedeo indigenous system of
governance.
The Baalle is a complex system which has three administrative hierarchies: Abba Gada, Roga
(traditional leader next the Abba Gada), and two levels of council of elders known as Hulla
Hayyicha and Songo Hayyicha. The Abba Gada is the leader of the Baalle. The Baalle system
has a body of laws called Seera. Conflicts are resolved by the Songo hayyicha at village level.
When disputes are not settled at the village level, cases can be referred to first to the Hulla
Hayyicha and finally to the Abba Gada.

6
Dere Woga of the Gamo
The Gamo are among Omotic peoples of southern Ethiopia. Unlike their neighboring people
such as Wolayta and Dawro, the Gamo did not have a centralized political system. The Gamo
people were organized into several local administrations locally known as deres. The indigenous
system of governance embraces the dere woga (customary law) and the dubusha assemblies. The
highest body of the indigenous governance is the dere dubusha, a general assembly that is
responsible to make and revise customary laws, resolve major disputes that cannot be solved at
the lower levels. The dubushas assembly has three hierarchies: 1) the dere dubusha (at the top),
sub-dere dubusha (at the middle), and guta/neighborhood dubusha (at the village level).
Conflict resolution and peacemaking
Abbo Gereb is one of the indigenous institutions that address inter-ethnic conflicts. It is a dispute
resolution institution in Rayya and Wajirat district, Southern Tigray. Abbo Gereb, literally means
the father of the river Gerewo. Abbo Gereb serves to settle disputes between individuals or
groups from highland Tigray and lowland Afar. Conflict between the two groups often arise
because of dispute over grazing land or water resources, particularly in dry season. When
conflict arises between parties from two ethnic groups, notable elders from Tigray and Afar
come together to resolve the dispute and restore peaceful relations. Most of the elders involved in
inter-ethnic conflict resolutions are bilingual: speaking Tigrigna and Afar.
Women’s role in conflict resolution and peacemaking
In some societies, women use their own institutions to exercise power, protect their rights, and
actively participate in peacemaking activities.
Women’s peacemaking sticks
Sidama women have two instrument of power. The yakka-womens associations or unity
group(yakka leader qaritte). The siqqo is a stick that symbolizes peace and women honor. Oromo
women also have a peace stick called Sinqee. Sinqee serves the purpose of protecting women’s
rights and making peace.
Don Kachel: Agnuak women peacemaking institution
Agnuak women have a peacemaking institution known as Don Kachel. It is a peace-making
movement initiated by Jaye, a group of wise and elderly Agnuak women. The Jaye start a peace-
making movement based on information gathered through women’s networking. The Jaye gather
information about potential conflicts from different sources, including gossips spread in the
community.
Women’s institution of reconciliation: Raya-Azebo, Tigray
Elderly and highly respected women in a village in Raya-Azebo, Tigray established a
reconciliation institution called the Debarte. The Debarte plays an important role in avoiding
harms associated with the culture of revenge.

7
 Strengths and limitations of customary justice systems/institutions
Strengths of customary justice institutions
 Incur limited cost in terms of time and resources/money; elders do not request payment
for their services; fines and compensation are relatively small;
 Conflict resolution process is held in public spaces in the community; different parties
(victims, offenders and community members) participate in the process; decisions are
communicated in public;
 Decisions are easily enforced through community-based sanctions including social
exclusion; compliance ensured through blessings and the threat of curses;
 Customary systems aimed at restoring community cohesion, social relations, collective
spirit and social solidarity.
 Rely on respect for elders, the tradition of forgiveness, transferring compensations,
embedded in indigenous beliefs,
Limitations of customary justice institutions

 Limitations related to protecting and safeguarding women’s rights. Indigenous justice

institutions are dominated by men. For example, the council of elders is not open to
elderly women. Women are excluded from participation at customary courts and
assemblies with a few exceptions.

7. Define the concept of indigenous knowledge and describe its significance

with regard to that challenge that are indigenous knowledge is facing and
suggest viable.

IKS is defined as technical insight of wisdom gained and developed by people in a particular
locality through years of careful observation and experimentation with the phenomena around
them. IKS is embodied in culture and is described as an integrated pattern of human knowledge,
beliefs and behavior. It consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions,
tools, techniques, artifacts, rituals, ceremonies, folklores and gender.
Regarding the challenges and limitations of IK, Amare (2009) states the following:
Although the knowledge of indigenous communities has been found to be very useful, the,
exploitation of natural resources, and increased competition for employment, has set off a
problematic chain of events. This modernization has influenced indigenous traditional spread of
industrialization threatens the preservation and continued development of IK systems (Sherpa,
2005). Industrialization, along with its attendant processes of urbanization African which

8
generates IK and practices can break down. Added to this is the commercial society in many
ways and Ethiopia is no exception.
IK can also be eroded by wider economic and social forces. Pressure on indigenous peoples to
integrate with larger societies is often great and, as they become more integrated, the social
structures pressure by multinational agrochemical companies eager to break into new markets
(Thrupp, 1989). As Grenier (1998) puts it: “the growth of national and international markets, the
imposition of educational and religious systems and the impact of various development processes
are leading more and more to the “homogenization” of the world’s cultures. Consequently,
indigenous beliefs, values, customs, know-how and practices may be altered and the resulting
knowledge base incomplete.