LESSON 3

� (Sandhi)

3 .0 Perhaps the most peculiar, and initially dismaying, feature of

Sanskrit is its complex system of conditional phonological
change known as � (sandhi), or combination. Various kinds
of environmentally conditioned change occur in all languages,
but no other has so formalized and systematized them as has
Sanskrit.
3. 1 There are two basic applications of the � (sandhi) rules,
depending on the circumstances under which the sound changes
occur. Many of the same rules hold for both applications. The
first historically and morphologically more significant appli­
cation applies to the junctures of the morphemes, or meaningful
parts of words. This is called internal � (sandhi). Less,
perhaps, in historical significance, but of greater importance
for the beginner, is the external � (sandhi), which occurs at
word boundaries and between members of compounds. With­
out familiarity with the rules of external � (sandhi), it is
impossible to read or understand a Sanskrit sentence.
Therefore, while all � (sandhi) changes are of interest, it
is essential, at the outset, to learn the rules for external �
(sandhi) and a few internal � (sandhi) rules of common
application. Let's examine the rules as they apply first to vowels
and then to consonants.
3.2 External Vowel � (sandhi)
In general, the basic rule governing vowel � (sandhi), in
internal as well as external combination, is that two vowels
should not come into direct contact. That is to say, except in a
few cases (see 3.2 1 ), vowel hiatus is avoided. It is avoided by
the collapse of the two juxtaposed vocalic syllables into one.
This in turn may be accomplished in three ways: the coales­
cence of the two vowels into one, the change of the prior vowel
24
to a consonant, which then forms a single syllable with the
remaining vowel, or by the loss of one of the vowels.
3.3 Coalescence
The simplest kind of coalescence, or at any rate the easiest to
remember, involves like vowels. Any two concurrent simple
vowels of the same pair of long-short alternates (a, i, u, r),
regardless of the length of either one, coalesce to form the long
vowel of the set. Vowel length is not an issue, as any such
sequence yields a long vowel.
Examples:
31 + 31 � 311; (1iM + � + � + m � � tl�l"l-ci§d:::ftd l I
a + a � a; rarnel).a saha agacchat s1ta � ramel).a sahagacchat si:ta.
31 + 311 � 311; (1iM + � + 311"1-ci§RI + m � � t��l"l-ci§RI m ,
a + a � a; rarne!J.a saha agacchati s:tta � rame!J.a sahagacchati si:ta.
311 + 31 � 311; B1d<n + � + � � 81d41"1-ci§djliJ::tl I
a+ a� a; si:taya agacchat sumitra � si:tayagacchat sumitra.

a + a � a; sitaya agacchati rama!J � si:tayagacchati rama!J.

In the same way, any two concurrent "i" vowels, long or short,
yidd "i," and any two concurrent "u" vowels, long or short,
yield "ii."
Examples:
� + � + � � J(-ci§141RI � I
gaccharni + iti + vadati � gaccharni:ti vadati. ("I'm going,"
he says.)
� + 3"-dli � �
(supreme Kuru)
kuru + uttama � kuruttama (supreme Kuru)
3.4 Coalescence may also occur as a result of the contact of two
dissimilar vowels but only if the prior vowel is an "a" vowel (a
or a). Here again, the length of the two vowels is immaterial
to the result.
 25
Examples:
3U + � -7 'Q; llm + � -7 �
a + I -7 e; maha + Isa -7 mahda (great lord)
3l + 3" -7 3TI; � + 3"GJ" -7 �
a + u -7 o; lamba + udara -7 lambodara (pot belly)
3U + ':li -7 3l\_ ; llm + � -7 �
a + r -7 ar; maha + p�i -7 mahar�i (great sage)
3l + 'Q -7 �; 3r-l + 'QCf -7 �
a + e -7 ai; atra + eva -7 atraiva (right here)
3l + � -7 i!; � + � -7 � I
a + ai -7 ai; gaccha + aisvaryam -7 gacchaisvaryam.
(Become a sovereign.)
3U + 3TI -7 3ff ; m + � � -7 oo � 1
a + o -7 au; sa + odanam pacati -7 saudanam pacati.
(She cooks rice.)

a + au -7 au; yaccha + audumbaram -7 yacchaudumbaram.

(Give the udumbara fruit.)
Note that the complex vowels � (ai) and � (au) may be re­
garded as the "long" form of the complex vowels 'Q (e) and 3TI
(o), respectively. Since length is the maximal grade, the coa­
lescence of 3l (a) with either the short or long form yields the
long form.
3.5 Vowel Strength
Closely related to the results of the previous series of
coalescences, although not identical, is a system of vowel grade
or strength which is pervasive in Sanskrit and must be learned.
3 .6 The two grades of vowel strength are called � (gwJa) and
� (vrddhi). These grades are similar to the coalescence in
26
3.4, except that they distinguish vowel length of the strength-
ened "a" vowel. � (gw;a) increases the 31 (a) vowel, as it
were, by short 31 (a), and � (vrddhi) by 3IT (a).
3 .7 � (gwza) and � (vrddhi) apply only to the simple vowels
and are as follows:
B'R 3l , 31T �.� 3 ,31 �
svara a, a i, I u, ii r
� 31 , 31T "Q 311 31\
gw;a a, a e 0 ar
� 3IT t1 :m 31TZ
vrddhi a ai au ar
Note that the extremely common vowel 31 (a) (short) is un­
changed in � (gw;a). This is sometimes expressed by the
statement: 3l (a) is its own � (gw;a ).
This series of changes is extremely important, especially
in internal � (sandhi) processes of word derivation, and
must be learned immediately and thoroughly.
3.8 When two dissimilar vowels are juxtaposed and the first is not
an "a" vowel (long or short), the syllabic coalescence is ef­
fected by changing the first vowel into its corresponding
homorganic nonsyllabic semivowel.
3.9 The correspondences are:
�N � � (i/I � y); 3/31 � Cl (u/ii � v); �/-:;.;.. � "{_ (r/f � r)
Examples:
3liJI��If?l + � � �UJI��It=<'l�¥{_ I
agacchami + aham � agacchamy aham. (I am coming.)
� + �: � cii<kcti4S* I
jayatu + aryaputral). � jayatv aryaputral).. (May my lord be
victorious.)
� + � � ftl=Al�d't
pitr + Ipsitam � pitr Ipsitam ( . . . desired by the father)
 27

3. 1 0 Complex Vowels
The complex vowels, which are, as we can now see, vocalic
sounds that may be analyzed into other vowel sounds, betray
their complex form when juxtaposed with a vocalic sound
(simple or complex).
3. 1 1 To understand this process, it is essential to have a clear idea
of the structure of the complex vowels. Keep in mind that:
� (e) is the � (gw:za) of fiN (i/I) and represents 31 + '!;/� (a + ili)
t! ( ai) is the CJ:% ( vrddhi) of <t;lrJ (ill) and represents 3ll + <t;/� (a + i/i)
3TI (o) is the � (gw:za) of 3/� (u/ii) and represents 31 + 3/� (a + u/ii)
:m (au) is the CJ:% (vrddhi) of 3/� (u/ii) and represents 3ll + 3/� (a+u/ii)

3. 1 2 Now, when one o f these four complex vowels occurs immedi­

ately before a vowel sound and is juxtaposed with it, two
processes, as it were, take place:
a) the complex vowel is analyzed into its components, and
b) the final "i" or "u" element of that analysis is changed into
its corresponding semivowel.
3� 1 3 Clear examples from internal � (sandhi):
a. The analysis of the word � (jayatu-May he be victo­
rious; 3.9, ex. 2) is as follows: The vowel of the verbal
root � (ji-conquer, be victorious) is, for reasons to be
learned later (see 7 . 14 ), subjected to � (gw:za) in the for­
mation of the stem required here. Thus � �� (ji � je).
When the � (e) is juxtaposed with the 3l (a) of the class
marker, the following steps occur (although only the final
result is evident):
� + 31 � (3l + '!;) + 31; (31 + '!;) + 31 � 3l + <I.. + 31
e + a � (a + i) + a; (a +i) + a � a + y +a
so: � + 31 + � � � + 31 + � � �
je + a + tu � jay + a + tu � jayatu (see 7. 1 4)
28

b. In the same way, the root lj_ (bhu-to be) in forming �

(bhavatu-let it be), undergoes a parallel series of BPl
(sandhi) changes:
.Ylj_ + � � �; � + 3l � � (3l + 3) + 3l;
bhii + gw;a � bho; bho + a � bh (a + u) + a;
.Y lfC{ + 3l + � � �
bhav + a + tu � bhavatu
3. 1 4 This process, with regard to the complex vowels 3lt (o) and 3il
(au) is similar to that in external BPl (sandhi).
3. 1 5 Thus, the sequence � + 'QC! (ubhau + eva-both of them):
3llT + 3 + 'QC! � 3llT + Cl + 'QC! � �
ubha + u + eva � ubha + v + eva � ubhav eva
3. 1 6 Final 3lt (o), except as the result of another BPl (sandhi)
operation (3.35), is not common in word-final position.
3. 1 7 This process is obscured i n external BPl (sandhz) b y the im­
portant additional rule that: the <{_ (y) element of the complex
vowel 'IZ (e) is lost before a word-initial vowel other than short
31 (a) (3.20), and, in the case of 'i! (ai), before any vowel.
3. 1 8 So, in the sequence m + �: (svarge + indraJ.z Indra is in
-

heaven), the result would be:

m �: (svarga indral}.). The process might be depicted as
follows:
m + �= � c � ) cm + � + �= �
svarge + indrab � ( 1 ) (svarga +i ) + indral}. �
c�> m + <t + �= � <�> <t � 0 (tl) m �=
(2) svarga + y + indral}. � (3) y � 0 (4) svarga indra)J
Also, in the sequence � + � (tasmai + adadiit-He
gave to him), the process could be seen as:
� + � � ( �) � + � + �
tasmai + adadat � ( 1 ) tasma + i + adadat �
(�) � + <{_ + � � (�) <{_ � 0 ( tl) � �
(2) tasma + y + adadat � (3) y � 0 (4) tasma adadat
 29

3. 19 Note that when vowel hiatus (the sequence of two vowels)

occurs as a result of a � (sandhi) rule or series of �
(sandhi) rules, it is permitted to remain. In other words, in the
case of vowels, only one pass through the� (sandhi) rules
is valid. One must not subject the resultant hiatus to further
� (sandhi).
3 . 20 In the case where a final '1:! (e) immediately precedes a short 3l
(a), the '1:! (e) remains unchanged while the 3l (a), frequently
unstable in initial position (3.35), is lost.
Thus:
a +��a �
te + abruvan � te 'bruvan (They said.)
� + �� � �
bharatadese + avasat � bharatade§e 'vasat. (He lived in In­
dia.)
3.2 1 � (Pragrhya) Vowels
Certain vowels in certain restricted environments are not sub­
ject to the above rules. They are called � (pragrhya) vowels
and are as follows:
a. vowels �. � (i, i), :!, 3l (u, ii), and 'Q" (e), when they serve as
dual endings (4. 12, 27)
b. the �. � (i, i) of the pronoun 31lft (ami) (See 19. l .b)
c. the vowels of particles or interjections
Examples:
� + � + � : � � � �:
dve + kanye + agacchatal:I � dve kanye agacchatal:I. (Two girls
come.)

� +� �� �
he + aryaputra � he aryaputra (0 my lord)
3.22 Initial and Final Positions
Since external � (sandhi) applies, by definition, at the junc-
30

tures of words, it is useful to have a set of terms that describe

sounds that occur at these junctures, namely at the beginning
and end of words.
a. The terminology for sounds occurring at the beginning of
words is quite simple. Such sounds are called initial sounds
or are said to be in initial position.
b. The situation for sounds that occur at the end of words is,
however, a little more complicated. This is so because
sounds in this final position are liable to various kinds of
change depending upon whether another sound (i.e., an
initial sound of a following word) follows them, and, if
one does, upon the nature of that sound.
1. Therefore, when we refer to a sound that occurs at the
end of a word, regardless of what may or may not fol­
low it, we say that the sound is a word final or in
word final position.
11. When we refer to a word final sound that has no other
sound following it in a sentence, as at the end of a
sentence, or a single word cited by itself, we say that
the sound is in absolute final position.
111. In addition, we will also have occasion to refer to cer­
tain sounds that almost always change when they occur
in word final position. Obviously such sounds will
usually be represented in final position by other sounds.
We will call the original sounds (which are important
despite the fact that they rarely occur in final position)
original finals.
3.23 Possible Absolute Finals
Despite the large number of sounds in Sanskrit, only a surpris­
ingly small number can occur in absolute final position. This
is important because, especially with regard to consonants, ex­
ternal Bf.:'cl (sandhi) operations are performed on word-finals
with the absolute final as the point of origin.
 31
3.24 Vowels in Absolute Final Position
Any of the vowels, long or short, simple or complex, may oc­
cur in absolute final position.
3.25 Consonants in Absolute Final Position
a. Non-palatal stops
Of the stops em-s (spar5a-s) of the CFT-s (varga-s) other
than the palatal �-tiilavya), only the first (non-voiced,
non-aspirated) of each CFT (varga) is possible in absolute
final position, i.e., � (k), � (0, q__ (t), and '!{_ (p). If others of
the series (with either or both of the features of voicing
and aspiration) occur as original finals, they are replaced
by the first of the series.
Examples:
������
anu�tubh � anu�tup; suhrd � suhrt
b. Palatal stops
Palatals cannot appear in absolute final position; original
final "9._ � Cf1:._ (c � k), � � � or Cf1:._ (j � t or k).
Examples:
C:�Rt � � � � � Fcrmt � �
vac � vak; bhi�aj � bhi�ak; viraj � virat
c. Original Final "-tl.. " (-s)
The most common of the consonantal original finals, "-&:'
(-s), becomes � (visarga) ( b) in absolute final posi­
":" -

tion (see 3.26).

d. Nasals
"-l(' (-m) and "--::r' ' ( -n) are extremely common in abso­
lute final position but are subject to a number of important
changes (see 3.46).
32
e. Original Final "-z" ( -r)
Original final "-"{' ( -r) becomes " : ( -1)) and behaves in
"

some environments like final "-�· (-s) (see 3.40).

f. Original Final Consonant Clusters
Original final consonant clusters are reduced to the first
consonant of the cluster.
Example:
���
gacchant � gacchan
3.26 � (Sandhi) of Original Final "-&. '' (-s)
By far the most confusing aspect of nonvocalic � (sandhi)
and the one most essential to grasp quickly and thoroughly
concerns the phonological permutations of original final "-�·
(-s), which may be replaced with the postvocalic aspiration
called � (visarga) " (1)) or with the semivowel ""{' (r).
:"

The treatment of this sound in the various final positions is a

little complex. However, it is especially important to learn, as
"-�· (-s) is among the most common original final sounds in
the language.
3.27 Treatment of final � (visarga) is, like almost everything in
Sanskrit grammar, systematic and elegant and should cause
little diffic ulty if learned as such.
3.28 Treatment of original final "-�· (-s) varies broadly according
to whether or not the "-�· (-s) follows an "31" (a) vowel or a
non-"31'' (a) vowel. The treatment of the final "-�' ( -s) in each
of these cases then further depends upon the consonant or vowel
that follows; whether or not that sound is voiced or voiceless,
and in the case of a voiceless consonant, the � (varga) to
which it belongs.
3.29 "- &._ (-s) Following Any Vowel but 3l (a) or 3lT (a)
"

a. Original final "-�· (-s) becomes fcR:pf (visarga) in abso­

lute final position.
 33
Example:
� � 3lfu: agnis � agnib (fire)
b. Final "-"&:' ( -s) before any voiced initial (i.e., any vowel or
any voiced consonant) becomes "\' (r).
Examples:
�+� ��
agnis + iva � agnir iva (like fire)
�+ ���
vi�Qos + ayudham � vi�Qor ayudham (Vi�Qu 's weapon.)
.. + -;nf@ 0 + 311@) � J1Rt'1fffa
gatis + nasti (na + asti) � gatir nasti (no way)
� + � � ri:
hares + gaus � barer gaub (Hari's cow)
There is no exception to this rule, but if the following ini­
tial voiced sound happens to be an "\' (r), then to avoid
the sequence "rr," there is a further change whereby the
first "\' (r), the result of the change "'&:' (s) � "\' (r), is
lost, and in compensation the preceding vowel, if short, is
lengthened.
Example:
� + iRffi � � + iRffi � 3lflr (0) + iRffi �
agnis + rocate � agnir + rocate � agni (e) + rocate �
3Bfi iRffi I
agni rocate (Fire shines.)
c. Original final "'&:' (-s) before non-voiced initials again var­
ies according to two categories of following initiaL The
categories are:
1. Stops (�-s-sparsa-s) of the three Cf3f-s (varga-s)
homorganic with the three non-voiced sibilants
34
�S-il$man-s). The sibilants are "�' (s), "\I(' (�).
and "B:' (s), and they correspond to the palatal (�
tiilavya), retroflex ( �-miirdhanya), and dental
�-dantya) classes. Non-voiced stops (�-s­
spada-s) of these Cf.f-s (varga-s), then, are the
following six:
""C(' (c); "�' (eh);
"�' ( t ); "�' ( th);
"�' (t); "�' (th).
u . A l l other non-voiced consonants (including the sibi­

lants themselves).
3.30 In the first case, original final "-(\' ( -s) becomes the sibilant
corresponding to the CFT ( varga) of the following initial.
Examples:
�. + � � � �
haris + calati � haris calati. (Hari goes.)
� + � � �tSofl�iW'll
vi�IJ.os + chaya � vi�IJ.OS chaya (Vi�IJ.u's shadow)
� + ilq;i � � � � l
haris + tikarp karoti � hari � tikarp karoti. (Hari writes a com­
mentary.)
� + �lfO'(: � �lfO'(: I
agnis + tik�IJ.aQ � agnis tik�IJ.aQ (no change) (Fire is fierce.)
a. Of these six stops (�-s-spada-s) only ""Cl'' (ea), "W'
(cha), and "-a'' (ta) are really common in word-initial posi­
tion. Therefore, the most frequently encountered changes
are "(\' � "�' (s � s) and ·�· � "(\' (s � s) (no change).
Still, if one is aware of the correspondences here, the
changes are easy to master.
3.3 1 Original final "-(\' (-s) before all other non voiced word-ini­
-

tial phonemes is changed to � (visarga).

 35
Examples:
� + � � �: � 1
haris + pasyati � haril). pasyati. (Hari sees.)
� + � � �: � 1
haris + khanati � haril). khanati. (Hari digs.)
3.32 Original Final "B," (s) after "3f' (a) Vowels
The changes of final "t(' (s) after "3f' (a) and " 3ll' ' (a) are
peculiar in several ways, and, since the morphological end­
ings "-3RT:' (-as) and "-31Tt(' (-as) are of extremely common
occurrence, it is important to learn the forms these endings
take before the various kinds of word-initial phonemes.
3.33 Original final "t(' (s) after "3f' (a) and " 3ll' ' (a) behaves in the
same way as original final "t(' (s) after other vowels in abso­
lute final position and before non-voiced initials.
Examples:
WR\ + � � (111: � I
ramas + pasyati � ramal) pasyati. (Rama sees.)
WR\ + m + � � (111: BRrt � 1
ramas + sitarp pasyati � ramal) sitarp pa§yati. (Rama sees Sita.)
WR\ + � � � 1
ramas + calati � ramas calati. (Rama goes.)
3.34 Original final "-3RT:' (-as) before voiced initials undergoes one
of two transformations depending upon whether the initial is
a. any voiced consonant or the vowel (short) "3f' (a), or
b. any vowel other than (short) " 3f' (a).
3.35 Before voiced consonants or a short "31" (a), original final
"-3R(' (-as) changes to 311 (-o), while a following initial
"- "

short "31" (a) is, additionally, lost.

Examples:
WR\ + � � wtl � l
ramas + gacchati � ramo gacchati. (Rama goes.)
36
� + -rnf: � � -rnf:
pasyatas + rajflal) � pasyato rajflal).
(While the king watches . . . )
� + � � � S<lll_ l
ramas + ayam � ramo 'yam. (He is Rama.)
�+ � � � �
pasyatas + arjunasya � pasyato 'rjunasya
(While Arjuna watches . . . )
3.36 Before any vowel but short "31" (a), original final 31t( (-as)
"- '

becomes "31'' (a), and the vowel hiatus remains unchanged.

Examples:
� + '3C!fil � � '3C!fil
ramas + uvaca � rama uvaca (Rama said.)
�+� fcw<n � � � fcw<n
buddhas + iva vidyaya � buddha iva vidyaya (like the
Buddha in wisdom)
3.37 One further restriction on the conditioning of original final
"-3Rt' (-as) needs to be memorized. This is a restriction not
only with regard to phonological environment but a restriction
to two specific lexical items.
3.38 Original final "-3Rt' (-as), when it ends either of the common
nominative singular masculine pronouns B (sal)) or "�:"
" :"

(e�al)) (see 5.5), becomes "31'' (a) before any consonant, voiced
or unvoiced.
Examples:
m={_ + � � B cpur:
sas + lq�l).as � sa lq�l).al). (He is Kr�l).a.)
� + � + 31f@ � � � sf@ I
e�as + sukas + asti � e�a suko 'sti. (That is a parrot.)
 37

3.39 The treatment of original final "3WJ." (-as) is quite simple: "3WI.:'
(-as) becomes " 31T" (-a) before any voiced word-initial (vowel
or consonant) without exception.
Examples:
� <fim:J. Jl-c0Pd fC!atMlifi'{ �
hatas viras gacchanti svargalokam �
� I
cfuT Jl-c0Pd fC!at&lifi'{
hata vira gacchanti svargalokam. (Slain heroes go to heaven.)
3.40 Original Final "- 31\_ (-ar)
"

In addition to the very common original final "- 3R1.:' (-as), there
occur, in only a very few words, in s tance s of original final
"-�· ( -ar). Original final " -�· ( -ar) before non-voiced con­
sonants and in absolute final position beh aves like final
"-3Rl,"(-as) (see 3.29.c). Before voiced sounds, except "-\'
( -r), it remains. Don't forget, Sanskrit does not allow the con­
sonantal sequence R (rr) (3.29.b).
a. There are a few instances in the language where
final "-\' (-r) is preceded by a vowel other than "31"
(a). The rules for these are the same as those for
"-�· (-ar).
b. Final "-�· ( -ar) should not be confused with "-3Rt'
(-as) despite the fact that 1) original final "�' (s) (only
after a non "31 " (a) vowel) becomes "\' (r) before an
initial voiced sound and 2) original final "-�· (-ar)
becomes "-31:" (-ab), "-�· (-a8), "-311!( ' (-a�). or
"-3RI.:' (-as), in the same environments as does origi­
nal final "-3RI.:' (-as).
REMEMBER: Before voiced initials, original finals "- 3R(' ( ­

as) and "3Wt' (-as) never become "-�· ( -ar) and "-31R'' ( -ar),
while original final "-31\'' (-ar) never becomes "- 3TI" (-o).
Original final "-�· ( -ar) is virtually restricted to the two ad­
verbs � (puna r-again ), and � (pratar-in the morning).
38

Learn these words with the original final "-\' ( -r) so as to a void
confusion.
Examples:
S1'Z + S1'Z � "f{: "f{:
punar + punar � punal:I pun$ (again and again),
but S1'Z + S1'Z + � + � � "f{: g'1cd'1ctH.\PQ
punar +punar +danavan +hanti � pun$ punar danavan hanti
(Again and again he kills the demons.)
� + 3l(J(�ts4Rt � !OIId((J(�ts4Rt
pratar + agami�yati � pratar agami�yati
(He will come in the morning.)
3.4 1 General Principles of Consonant � (Sandhi)
Just as the avoidance of vowel hiatus serves as a general prin­
ciple of vowel � (sandhi), so an overriding principle of
much consonantal Bf.:'q (sandhi) is the avoidance, to a great
extent, of the contact of markedly dissimilar consonants. Such
contact, where it occurs, is often mitigated by the alteration of
at least one feature of one or sometimes both of the juxtaposed
sounds.
3.4 2 Assimilation in External Bf.:'q (Sandhi) of Final m (Spar.Sa)
Sounds
The alteration of one or more features of a sound to make it
more like another sound is known as assimilation. When a
sound assimilates to a following sound, the assimilation is said
to be regressive. When a sound assimilates to a preceding
sound, the assimilation is said to be progressive. External
consonant � (sandhi) generally involves assimilation with
respect to the feature of voicing. The assimilation is generally
regressive.
3.43 In general, a non-voiced final m (sparsa) of any CfJf (varga)
becomes the voiced (non-aspirate) of the same Cfdf (varga)
before a voiced initial (FcR-svara or �-vyaiijana). In
general, such finals are unchanged before non-voiced initials.
 39
Examples:
� + 11cffcr + �: � � �:
krodhat + bhavati + sarpmohal:t � krodhad bhavati sarpmohaJ:t.
(Confusion comes from anger.)
� + �: � �: I
asit + asural) � asid asural). (There was a demon.)
� + �: � Blilt:ktlfir4w:r: I
sarpmohat + smrtivibhramal) � sarpmohat smrtivibhramal).
(Loss of memory arises from confusion.)
3.44 A very important exception is that final "q_'' (-t), when it pre­
cedes an initial � (spar.Sa) of the palatal class (�talavya
or "CC' --ea �-varga) or retroflex class �-murdhanya
" '

or "C:"- ta �-varga) becomes a de-aspirated � (spar.Sa)

of the same class as the initial and is voiced or non-voiced just
as in 3.43.
Examples:
mt + fi4<tl�Rt � aR-:q<t\�Rt 1
tat + cikir�ati � tac cikir�ati. (He wants to do that.)
mi_ + � � av'51tilkt I
tat + jahati � tajjahati. (He abandons that.)
3.45 An important corollary of this requires special attention. Final
"q:' (-t), when it precedes initial "-�· ( -s), (the palatal sibi­
lant), becomes ""9:' (c) and the following "�' (s) becomes "�'
(eh).
Examples:
mt + 'fCIT + � + � + � : �
tat + srutva + kupitas + abhavat + sivaJ:t �
� � �: I
tac chrutva kupito 'bhavac chivaJ:t
(Upon hearing that, Siva became enraged.)
40

3.46 External BPl (Sandhi) of Nasals

Nasals, whether the first or second of a pair of juxtaposed con­
sonants, constitute exceptions to the above rule in that such
consonant contacts generally entail more thorough assimila­
tion than in the case of non-nasal contacts. In external
consonant contact involving a nasal, assimilation may affect
not only the voicing of a � (sparfa) but also its mode and
even the point of articulation (oral/nasal and �varga).
3 .47 Thus, any word-final stop before a word-initial nasal becomes
the nasal of its proper � (varga).
Examples:
� + lfl + � � � � I
etat + ma + kuru � etan ma kuru. (Don't do that!)
� + ll<i: � �:
vak + mayal) � vafimayal) (consisting of speech)
3 .48 � (Sandhi) of Absolute Final Nasals
Absolute final nasals are subject to a number of rules of vary­
ing importance for the beginner.
3.49 By far the most important and most commonly invoked rule
concerns absolute final 1{ (-m), one of the most frequent
"- '

finals in the language. Final "-1{' (-m) becomes �8'l'R

(anusviira) " · (-q1) before any following initial consonant
"

(voiced or u nvoiced) .

Examples:
Wl&. + � + � � � cR � I
ramas + vanam + gacchati � ramo vanaq1 gacchati.
(Rama goes to the forest.)
� + � + 'l:fOfcl -7 � p 'l:fOfcl I
r�i:Q.am + pustakam + pathati � r�iQ.aqi pustakaq1 pathati.
(He reads the sages' book.)
There are no exceptions to this rule.
 41
3 .50 Treatment of Absolute Final "-�" (-n)
"-�· (-n), also a common final, is the subject of the following
changes.
3.5 1 Final "-�· ( -n) before a non-voiced stop (�spada) of the
three "sibilant" �-s (vargas -s) (see 3.29.c) becomes �
(anusviira) (111) . In addition, the sibilant homorganic with
" · ,

the following initial is inserted between the new final (111 ) and
the initial.
Examples:
� + � + � + � + mll -7
kasmin + cit + nagare + avasat + raja -7
� Sct8S::J >iitl l
kasmi111s cin nagare 'vasad raj a . (The king lived in a city.)
� + � + �: -7 lf_'!:Clfh:'!l >iitkt �: I
miirkhan + tyajati + PaiJ.Qital) -7 miirkh3.qls tyajati paQc;lital)..
(A wise man leaves fools alone.)
3.52 Final "-�· (-n) before a voiced initial of the � (tiilavya) or
� (miirdhanya) �-s (varga-s) becomes the nasal of the
q7f (varga) in question.
Example:
� + � + �: -7 d}1ctiQo>iit'!lJlO::S::: : I
danav an + jayati + indrab -7 danavaii jayatindral).
(lndra conquers the demons.)
3.53 Final "-1:.: ' ( -n) before initial "�' (s) becomes "3(' (ii), and the
··�· (s) become s "�' (eh) (cf. 3.45).
Example :
� + � + � -7 �((Qo\:§<S>GJQo�OTikt I
madhuran + sabdan + sp:10ti -7 madhuraii chabdaii chrooti.
(He hears sweet sounds.)
3 .54 Final "-1:.:' (-n) before initial "�' (l) becomes " (111) (�­
" ·

anusviira ), and an additional "�' (I) is inserted before the

original one.
42
Example:
� + � + � + �: �
uttaman + lokan + labhate + dharmajiiab �
3"dlik·MlCfilc-C"J� �: I
uttamaq1l lokaq1l labhate dharmajiiai).
(A knower of dharma attains to excellent worlds.)
3.55 Final "�' ( -fi.), "UJ:: ' (-IJ), and "1:' (-n) are written as doubled
when they occur after a short vowel and precede any initial
vowel.
Examples:
� + 311JI,.B>RI � �ctiiiJI,.B>RI I
stuvan + agacchati � stuvann agacchati (He comes praising.)

�+� � � �
hasan + iva � hasann iva (as though laughing)
3.56 Initial � (h) after a final m (sparsa) becomes the voiced
" '

aspirated � (sparsa) of the crf (varga) of the preceding

final.
Example:
� + � + -.:cfu": � � -.:cfu": I
etat + harati + caurai) � etad (3.43) dharati caurai).
(The thief carries that away.)
�+� + � � "Cilf.T'q � I
vak + hi + devata � vagghi devata. (For speech is a divinity.)
3.57 Internal � (Sandhi)
Most of the above rules apply to external � (sandhi) situa­
tions. Some, especially those concerning vowel � (sandhi)
are applicable to internal � (sandhl) as well. In the case of
consonantal � (sandhz) , however, the rules for external and
 43
internal B8l (sandhi) often differ considerably. Internal B8l
(sandhi) rules are complex and, moreover, in order to be prop­
erly understood, depend upon knowledge of a great variety of
different morphological units and processes. Therefore, it is
better to leave discussion of most particular internal B8l (san­
dhi) rules for consonants to be dealt with as they arise in our
survey of the various grammatical categories and forms of
Sanskrit. Before proceeding to that survey, however, we may
consider two simple but important and very common internal
B8l (sandhi) changes. These are the changes of the � �
(dantya ii$man) "&:' (s) and nasal "1:.:' (n) to the � �
(miirdhanya ii$man) "'t!f' (�) and nasal "UJ:' (IJ.), respectively.
3.58 The dental � (ii$man) "&:' (s)-ifnot in wordfinal position
or followed by the 3Ff:� (antal.zstha) '"{'' (r)-is changed to
"'t!f' (�) if immediately preceded in a word by any vowel other
than the "31'' (a) vowels or by the consonants "�' (k) or ""{' (r).
Examples:
� (sidati-he sits), but � (vi$idati-he sinks down)

-� ( -su-locative plural ending): � (kanyasu-among

maidens), but � (deve$u-among gods)
-fB (-si-second person singular ending): � (atsi-you eat),
but � (bhunak$i-you eat)
-B! (-sya-future tense marker): � (dasyati-he will give),
but � (bhavi$yati-he will be)
3.59 If the � (dantya) nasal "�' (n) is preceded in a word by the
� � (miirdhanya ii$man) "!{' (�). the 3Rl:� (dntal.zstha)
"�' (r), or the vowels ":ji" (r) or � (f), and if no �
" '

(talavya), � (miirdhanya), or� (dantya) consonant (ex­

cept the � 3Rl = �� [talavya antal.zstha] "<{' [ y] ) intervenes
between the two, then the "�' (n) is changed to "UJ:' (IJ.) if it is
immediately followed by a vowel, semivowel, or nasal.
44
3.60 This alarmingly conditional rule may seem to be a bit complex
for such a seemingly minor change, and perhaps it is. Still,
since the change is quite common, it is necessary to know the
rule in order to spell many words correctly. For the moment, it
will suffice to remember that "�' (n) when preceded by "\' (r),
"1!1_" (�), or "=li'' (r) is retroflexed in many environments and
that the change, therefore, is a common one.
Examples:
rr:J (riima) + "Q";:r (ena-instrumental singular ending) �
� (riime!Jll-bY Rama)
� ( brahman-the Absolute) + 3lT(a-instrumental singu­
lar ending) � � (brahmm;ii-by the Absolute)
3.6 1 The operation of these two rules (3.59 and 3.60), in fact, ac­
counts for the great majority of the occurrences of the sounds
"�' (�) and "UJ:' (I).) in S anskrit .

EXERCISES

A. Write out in Roman the following sequences supplying the

proper � (sandhi) where necessary. Transliterate into
J:cl"'IIJitl (devaniigari). The words in the section are cited in
absolute final form, except for those that have original final "{_
(r). These sections are graded, you need only perform �
(sandhi) relevant to the section numbers.
1 . Exercises for 3. 1 -3.9
pasyami indram
atra asit
yada abhavat
s!ta icchati
parama ISvaral)
yatha Ipsitam
maha r�il)
sa eva
 45
iti aha
smi urmila
2. Exercises for 3 . 1 0-3.20
vane asti iti uktam
tasmai adadat pustakam
bhojanarp tau ubhau icchatab
tasmai eva aharp pustakarp dadami
kau api grhe asate
3. Exercises for 3.26-3.40
asvab agacchati eva iti uktam
dhanul) udaharat
punar punar manu�ab avadat
deval) iicul)
raghul) roditi
deval) jalpanti evarn
munel) agacchati
visvamitrab ati�that
ramab lak�maJ.Iab tatha vane avasatam
gatab asmi aharn
gata asmi aham
sab kr�J.Iab
4. Exercises for entire lesson:
ekasmin ea
sagarab iva
asti uttarasyam disi
tatab tu
etasmin gate eva sati
� at mukhab
maha uraga
naga indra
etat eva
bhavan sardiila
tau ubhau
46
tau antarik�agau
asmin granthe
sal) avasat vane
e�al:l puru�ab vanam gacchati
kaman labhate indravat
santapuru�at bhayam na asti lake
maitreyyai adadal:l tvam yajnavalkya
deval:l ea asural:l ea yuddham kurvanti iti uktam
B. Read the following passages aloud and memorize them. They
will serve as valuable mnemonic devices for recurrent Bf.:'c:l
(sandhi) problems. Write out the sentences in � (niigari).
1 . sarvaq1 khalv idaq1 brahma (u + i --7 vi). (All this is in­
deed Brahman.)
2. mana eva manu�yal)ilip karal)aip bandhamok�ayol:l (as +
non-"a" vowel). (The mind alone is the cause of men's
bondage or liberation.)
3. prasadasikhare 'pi na kako garu<;layate (e + a; -as + voiced
consonant). (Even on the pinnacle of a palace a crow does
not become an eagle.)
4. te hi no divasa gatal:l ("ab" + voiced consonant). (Those
days are gone.)
5. so 'ham (as + a). (I am he!)
6. dharmak�etra ity arabhyate bhagavad-gi:ta (e + non-"a"
vowel; i + a; t + g). ("On the field of the dharma," so
begins the Bhagavadgitii.)