Measles

Paul Gastanaduy, MD; Penina Haber, MPH; Paul A. Rota, PhD; and Manisha Patel, MD, MS

Measles is an acute, viral, infectious disease. References to

measles can be found from as early as the 7th century. The Measles
disease was described by the Persian physician Rhazes in the ● Acute viral infectious disease
10th century as “more to be dreaded than smallpox.” ● First described in 7th century
In 1846, Peter Panum described the incubation period of ● Vaccines first licensed include
measles and lifelong immunity after recovery from the disease. measles in 1963, MMR in 1971,
John Enders and Thomas Chalmers Peebles isolated the virus in and MMRV in 2005
human and monkey kidney tissue culture in 1954. The first live, ● Infection nearly universal
attenuated vaccine (Edmonston B strain) was licensed for use in during childhood in
the United States in 1963. In 1971, a combined measles, mumps, prevaccine era
and rubella (MMR) vaccine was licensed for use in the United
● Still common and often fatal
States. In 2005, a combination measles, mumps, rubella, and
in developing countries
varicella (MMRV) vaccine was licensed.

Before a vaccine was available, infection with measles virus

was nearly universal during childhood, and more than 90% of
persons were immune due to past infection by age 15 years.
Measles is still a common and often fatal disease in developing
countries. The World Health Organization estimates there were
142,300 deaths from measles globally in 2018. In the United 13
States, there have been recent outbreaks; the largest occurring
in 2019 primarily among people who were not vaccinated.

Measles Virus
Measles Virus
The measles virus is a paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus.
It is 120 to 250 nm in diameter, with a genome of single-
● Paramyxovirus (RNA)
stranded, negative sense RNA, and is closely related to the ● F (fusion) protein fuses virus
rinderpest and canine distemper viruses. Two membrane and host cell members and H
envelope proteins are important in pathogenesis. They are the (hemagglutinin) protein binds
F (fusion) protein, which is responsible for fusion of virus and virus to host receptors
host cell membranes, viral penetration, and hemolysis, and the ● One antigenic type
H (hemagglutinin) protein, which is responsible for binding of
virus to receptors on host cells.
● Rapidly inactivated by heat,
sunlight, acidic pH, ether,
There is only one antigenic type of measles virus. Although and trypsin
studies have documented antigenic changes in the H protein,
these changes do not appear to be epidemiologically important
(i.e., no change in vaccine efficacy has been observed).

Measles virus is rapidly inactivated by heat, sunlight, acidic pH, Measles Pathogenesis
ether, and trypsin. ● Primary site of infection is
alveolar macrophages or
dendritic cells
Pathogenesis
Measles is a systemic infection. The primary site of infection
● Primary viremia 2 to 3 days
is alveolar macrophages or dendritic cells. Two to three days after replication
after replication in the lung, measles virus spreads to regional ● Secondary viremia 5 to 7 days
lymphoid tissues followed by a systemic infection. Following after exposure
further viral replication in regional and distal reticuloendothelial

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 Measles
sites, a second viremia occurs 5 to 7 days after initial infection.
During this phase, infected lymphocytes and dendritic cells
migrate into the subepithelial cell layer and transmit measles to
epithelial cells. Following amplification in the epithelia, the virus
is released into the respiratory tract.

Measles Clinical Features

Clinical Features
● Incubation period 11 to 12 days
The incubation period of measles from exposure to prodrome
■ Exposure to rash onset averages 11 to 12 days. The time from exposure to rash onset
averages 14 days (range, averages 14 days, with a range of 7 to 21 days.
7 to 21 days)
● Prodrome lasts 2 to 4 days The prodrome lasts 2 to 4 days, with a range of 1 to 7 days.
(range, 1 to 7 days) It is characterized by fever, which increases in a stepwise
fashion often peaking as high as 103°F to 105°F, cough,
■ Stepwise increase in fever coryza, and conjunctivitis.
to 103°F–105°F
■ Cough, coryza, and Koplik spots, present on mucous membranes, are considered
conjunctivitis to be unique to measles. They occur 1 to 2 days before the
measles rash (i.e., during the prodromal period), and appear as
■ Koplik spots (on mucous
punctate blue-white spots on the bright red background of the
membranes)
buccal mucosa.
13 ● Rash
The measles rash is a maculopapular eruption that usually
■ Persists 5 to 6 days
lasts 5 to 6 days. It begins at the hairline, then involves the face
■ Begins at hairline, then and upper neck. During the next 3 days, the rash gradually
involves face and proceeds downward and outward, reaching the hands and feet.
upper neck The maculopapular lesions are generally individually distinct
■ Proceeds downward but may run together, particularly on the upper body. Initially,
and outward to hands and lesions blanch (become white or pale) with fingertip pressure.
feet By 3 to 4 days, most do not blanch with pressure. The lesions
peel off in scales in more severely involved areas. The rash fades
■ Severe areas peel
in the same order that it appears, from head to extremities.
off in scales
■ Fades in order Other symptoms of measles include anorexia and
of appearance generalized lymphadenopathy.

Complications
Measles Complications Approximately 30% of measles cases in the United States from
● Diarrhea, otitis media, 1987 to 2000 were reported to have one or more complications.
pneumonia, encephalitis, Complications include diarrhea, otitis media, pneumonia,
subacute sclerosing encephalitis, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, and death.
panencephalitis, death Complications of measles were most common among children
● Most common among children younger than age 5 years and adults.
younger than age 5 years
and adults Laboratory Testing
The most widely used methods for laboratory confirmation of
measles are detection of measles virus RNA in nasopharyngeal
aspirates, throat swabs, or urine by reverse transcriptase
polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or detection of measles
specific IgM in serum samples by enzyme immunoassay (EIA).

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Collection of both a throat swab specimen for RT-PCR and a
serum specimen for IgM detection is recommended from all
patients with clinical features compatible with measles.

Clinical specimens for viral detection should be collected

at the same time as samples taken for serologic testing. In
addition to RT-PCR for diagnosis, viral genotyping performed
by state public health laboratories or CDC can help to track the
transmission pathways of measles virus. Specimens for viral
detection should be shipped to a state public health laboratory
or CDC (at the direction of the state health department).

Laboratory testing can confirm the presence of measles

vaccine virus in a recently vaccinated and potentially
exposed individual.

Epidemiology
Measles Epidemiology
Occurrence ● Reservoir
Measles occurs throughout the world. Interruption of ■ Human
indigenous transmission of measles was declared in the
United States in the year 2000 and in other parts of the Transmission
13
●

Western Hemisphere in 2016. However, outbreaks with ■ Person-to-person via large

sustained measles virus transmission have recently occurred in respiratory droplets
Venezuela and Brazil, leading to re-establishment of endemic ■ Airborne in closed areas for
transmission in these countries and loss of measles elimination up to 2 hours
in the Americas.
● Temporal pattern
Reservoir ■ Primarily late winter
Measles is a human disease. There is no known animal reservoir, and spring
and an asymptomatic carrier state has not been documented. ● Communicability
■ 4 days before through
Transmission 4 days after rash onset
Measles transmission occurs person-to-person via large
respiratory droplets and via airborne transmission of
aerosolized droplet nuclei in closed areas (e.g., an office
examination room) for up to 2 hours after a person with
measles occupied the area.

Temporal Pattern
In endemic, temperate areas, measles disease occurs primarily
in late winter and spring.

Communicability
Measles is highly communicable, with more than 90%
secondary attack rates among exposed susceptible persons in
close-contact settings. Measles is considered transmissible from
4 days before through 4 days after rash onset.

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Secular Trends in the United States
Measles Secular Trends
in the United States Before 1963, approximately 500,000 cases and 500 measles
deaths were reported annually, with epidemic cycles every
● About 500,000 reported cases
2 to 3 years. However, the actual number of cases was
and 500 deaths annually
estimated at 3 to 4 million annually. More than 50% of persons
before vaccine
had measles by age 6 years, and more than 90% by age 15
■ Actual cases estimated at years. In the years following licensure of vaccine in 1963,
3 to 4 million the incidence of measles decreased by more than 95%, and
● Following vaccine licensure in 2- to 3-year epidemic cycles no longer occurred. From 1985
1963, incidence decreased through 1988, 68% of cases in school-aged children (age 5 to
by over 95% 19 years) occurred among those who had been appropriately
vaccinated – i.e., had received a single dose of measles
● Measles occurrence among
vaccine as recommended. The occurrence of measles among
vaccinated school-aged
previously vaccinated children (i.e., vaccine failure) led to a
children in the 1980s led to
recommendation for a second dose in this age group in 1989.
recommendations for a
second dose In 2019, 13 outbreaks of measles were reported, accounting for
● In 2019, 13 outbreaks reported; 663 cases; six were associated with underimmunized close-knit
underimmunized communities communities and accounted for 88% of all cases. Before 2019,
accounted for 88% of cases the highest number of measles cases following elimination
in the United States occurred in 2014 when 667 cases were
reported. Increasing incidence of measles globally contributes
13 to increased opportunities for measles importation into the
United States. Fortunately, public health measures and a long-
standing vaccination program has prevented outbreaks form
imported cases.

Among children born during 2016–2017, 90.7% received

measles, mumps, and rubella-containing vaccine by age 24
months; this was not statistically significantly different from
the coverage of 90.3% for children born during 2014–2015.

Measles Vaccines Measles Vaccines

● MMR (MMR-II) In 1963, both an inactivated (“killed”) and a live, attenuated
● MMRV (ProQuad) (Edmonston B strain) measles vaccine were licensed for use in
the United States. The inactivated vaccine was withdrawn in
1967 because it did not protect well against measles. The original
Edmonston B vaccine was withdrawn in 1975 because of a
relatively high frequency of fever and rash in recipients. A live,
further attenuated (Schwarz strain) vaccine was first introduced
in 1965, but also is no longer used in the United States. Another
live, further attenuated strain (Edmonston-Enders strain) vaccine
was licensed in 1968. These further attenuated vaccines caused
fewer reactions than the original Edmonston B vaccine. In 1971,
measles vaccine was licensed as a combined measles, mumps,
and rubella (MMR) vaccine. In 2005, a combination measles,
mumps, rubella, and varicella (MMRV) vaccine was licensed.

Measles vaccine is available as measles, mumps, and rubella

vaccine (MMR [MMR-II]) and measles, mumps, rubella, and
varicella vaccine (MMRV [ProQuad]). Both MMR and MMRV

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vaccine contain live, attenuated viruses. Single-antigen measles
vaccine is not available in the United States. The Advisory
Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends that
MMR or MMRV vaccine be used when any of the individual
components is indicated.

Characteristics
Measles Vaccine Characteristics
MMR vaccine is a lyophilized preparation of measles virus
vaccine live, an attenuated line of measles virus, derived from ● Live, attenuated vaccine
Enders’ attenuated Edmonston strain and propagated in chick ● Available as lyophilized powder
embryo cell culture; mumps virus vaccine live, the Jeryl Lynn and reconstituted with sterile,
strain of mumps virus propagated in chick embryo cell culture; preservative-free water
and rubella virus vaccine live, the Wistar RA 27/3 strain of live ● Administered by subcutaneous
attenuated rubella virus propagated in WI-38 human diploid
injection
lung fibroblasts. MMRV vaccine contains measles, mumps, and
rubella virus of equal titer and identical to those in the MMR ● Contains gelatin
vaccine. The titer of Oka varicella zoster virus is higher in MMRV ● Contains neomycin
vaccine than in single-antigen varicella vaccine, a minimum of
9,772 plaque-forming units (PFU) versus 1,350 PFU, respectively.
MMR and MMRV vaccines are supplied as a lyophilized
(freeze-dried) powder and are reconstituted with sterile,
preservative-free water. Both vaccines contain gelatin. MMR and
MMRV vaccines are administered by the subcutaneous route.
13
Each dose of MMR and MMRV vaccine contains neomycin as an
antibiotic. It contains no adjuvant or preservative.

Vaccination Schedule and Use Measles Vaccination Schedule

MMR vaccine or MMRV vaccine can be used to implement ● 2-dose series at age 12 through
the vaccination recommendations for prevention of measles, 15 months and at age 4 through
mumps, and rubella. MMR vaccine is licensed for use in persons 6 years
age 12 months or older. MMRV vaccine is licensed for use in
persons age 12 months through 12 years; MMRV vaccine should ● Minimum age for dose 1 is 12
not be administered to persons age 13 years or older. months
● Minimum interval from dose 1
Two doses of MMR vaccine, separated by at least 4 weeks, are to 2 is 4 weeks for MMR and 3
routinely recommended for children age 12 months or older. months for MMRV (although a
Dose 1 of MMR vaccine should be given at age 12 through 4-week interval is valid)
15 months. A second dose of MMR vaccine is recommended
● Discuss risks and benefits of
based on previous observations of the failure of some to
MMRV versus separate MMR and
generate an immune response to measles following dose 1.
VAR
Dose 2 is routinely given at age 4 through 6 years, before a child
enters kindergarten or first grade. All students entering school ■ Separate MMR and VAR
should receive 2 doses of MMR vaccine (with the first dose vaccines preferred for dose 1
administered at age 12 months or older) before enrollment. in ages 12 through 47 months
Dose 2 of MMR vaccine may be administered as soon as 4 weeks ■ MMRV preferred for dose 2
after dose 1. and dose 1 at age 48 months
or older
The minimum interval between doses of MMRV vaccine is
3 months, although when dose 2 is administered 4 weeks
following dose 1, it can be considered valid. For the first dose
of measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella vaccines at age 12

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through 47 months, either separate MMR and varicella (VAR)
vaccines, or MMRV vaccine, may be used. However, the risk of
febrile seizures is about twice as high for children receiving
MMRV vaccine versus separate MMR and VAR vaccines. Providers
who are considering administering MMRV should discuss the
benefits and risks of both vaccination options with the parents.
Unless the parent or caregiver expresses a preference for MMRV,
separate MMR vaccine and VAR vaccine should be administered
for the first dose in this age group. For the second dose of
measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella vaccines at any age and
for the first dose at age 48 months or older, the use of MMRV
generally is preferred over separate injections of its equivalent
component vaccines (i.e., MMR vaccine and VAR vaccine).

MMR Vaccination of Adults Vaccination of Adults

● Certain persons without Adults born in 1957 or later should receive at least 1 dose of
acceptable presumptive MMR vaccine unless they have documentation of vaccination
immunity: with at least 1 dose of measles, mumps, and rubella-containing
■ At least 1 dose MMR for vaccine or other acceptable presumptive evidence of immunity
unvaccinated adults to these three diseases. Except for health care personnel who
should have documented immunity, birth before 1957 generally
2 doses MMR for students
13 can be considered acceptable evidence of immunity to measles,
■

entering colleges, universities, mumps, and rubella.

technical and vocational
schools, and other post- Colleges and other post-high-school educational institutions
high-school educational are potential high-risk areas for measles, mumps, and rubella
institutions transmission because of large concentrations of persons.
■ 2 doses MMR for measles Prematriculation vaccination requirements for measles
and mumps and 1 dose MMR immunity have been shown to significantly decrease the
for rubella for healthcare risk of measles outbreaks on college campuses where such
personnel requirements are implemented and enforced. All students
entering colleges, universities, technical and vocational
● Healthcare personnel during schools, and other institutions for post-high-school
an outbreak education should receive 2 doses of MMR vaccine or have
■ 2 doses MMR for measles or other acceptable evidence of measles, mumps, and rubella
mumps outbreak and 1 dose immunity before entry.
MMR for rubella outbreak
For unvaccinated health care personnel born before 1957
who lack laboratory evidence of measles, mumps, or rubella
immunity or laboratory confirmation of disease, health care
facilities should have policies that offer 2 doses of MMR vaccine
at the appropriate interval for measles and mumps and 1 dose
of MMR vaccine for rubella, respectively. Health care facilities
should also have policies for such personnel that recommend 2
doses of MMR vaccine during an outbreak of measles or mumps
and 1 dose during an outbreak of rubella. This recommendation
is based on serologic studies indicating that among hospital
personnel born before 1957, 5% to 10% had no detectable
measles, mumps, or rubella antibody. Adequate vaccination for
health care personnel born during or after 1957 consists of 2
appropriately spaced MMR doses for measles and mumps, and
at least 1 dose of MMR for rubella.

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Persons who travel outside the United States are at increased
risk of exposure to measles. Measles is endemic or epidemic MMR Vaccination of Travelers
in many countries throughout the world. Although proof of ● Adequate vaccination for
immunization is not required for entry into the United States persons traveling outside the
or any other country, persons traveling or living abroad should United States
have evidence of measles immunity. Adequate vaccination of ■ 1 dose MMR for children age
persons who travel outside the United States is 1 dose of MMR 6 through 11 months
vaccine for children age 6 through 11 months and 2 doses of
an age-appropriate measles-, mumps-, and rubella-containing ■ 2 doses of age appropriate
vaccine for children age 12 months and older and adults. MMR or MMRV for children
age 12 months and older
and adults
Revaccination
Revaccination is recommended for certain persons. The
following groups should be considered unvaccinated and
should receive at least 1 dose of measles vaccine: 1) persons
vaccinated before their first birthday, 2) persons vaccinated
with killed measles vaccine, 3) persons vaccinated from 1963
through 1967 with an unknown type of vaccine, 4) persons
who received immune globulin (IG) in addition to a further
attenuated strain or vaccine of unknown type, and 5) persons
with perinatal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
who were vaccinated before establishment of effective
antiretroviral therapy (ART) and who do not have evidence of
13
current severe immunosuppression.

Measles-, mumps-, or rubella- virus-containing vaccine

administered prior to age 12 months (e.g., for international
travel) should not be counted as part of the 2-dose series.
Children vaccinated before age 12 months should be
revaccinated with 2 doses of appropriately spaced MMR or
MMRV vaccine, the first dose administered when the child is
age 12 through 15 months (12 months if the child remains
in an area where disease risk is high) and the second dose at
least 4 weeks later.

Persons who experienced perinatal HIV infection who may have

received MMR vaccine prior to the establishment of effective
combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) should be revaccinated
with 2 appropriately spaced doses of MMR (i.e., the dose does
not count) unless they have other acceptable current evidence Measles Immunity
of immunity. MMR series should be administered once effective ● Born before 1957
cART has been established for at least 6 months and there is no ● Serologic evidence of measles
evidence of severe immunosuppression.
immunity (equivocal tests are
considered negative)
Measles Immunity ● Laboratory confirmation
Generally, persons can be considered immune to measles of disease
if they were born before 1957, have serologic evidence of
measles immunity (equivocal test results should be considered ● Documentation of adequate
negative), or laboratory confirmation of disease, or have vaccination for measles
documentation of adequate vaccination for measles.

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Immunogenicity and Vaccine Efficacy
Measles Vaccine Efficacy
Measles antibodies develop in approximately 95% of children
● Antibodies develop in vaccinated at age 12 months. Seroconversion rates are similar
approximately 95% of children for single-antigen measles, MMR vaccine, and MMRV vaccine.
vaccinated at age 12 months Approximately 2% to 7% of children who receive only 1 dose of
and over 99% of children who MMR vaccine fail to respond to it, i.e., they experience primary
receive 2 doses vaccine failure. MMR vaccine failure can occur because of
● Immunity long-term and passive antibody in the vaccine recipient, immaturity of the
probably lifelong in immune system, damaged vaccine, or other reasons. Most
most persons persons who fail to respond to the first dose will respond
to a second dose. Studies indicate that more than 99% of
persons who receive 2 doses of measles vaccine (with the first
dose administered no earlier than the first birthday) develop
serologic evidence of measles immunity.

Although the titer of vaccine-induced antibodies is lower than

that following natural disease, both serologic and epidemiologic
evidence indicate that vaccine-induced immunity appears
to be long-term and probably lifelong in most persons. Most
vaccinated persons who appear to lose antibody show an
anamnestic immune response upon revaccination, indicating
that they are probably still immune.
13
Although revaccination can increase antibody titer in some
persons, available data indicate that the increased titer may
not be sustained. Some studies indicate that waning immunity
may occur after successful vaccination, but this appears
to occur rarely and to play only a minor role in measles
transmission and outbreaks.
Measles Vaccine Contraindications
● Contraindication Contraindications and Precautions
■ Severe allergic reaction to Vaccination
to vaccine component or As with other vaccines, a history of a severe allergic reaction
following a prior dose (anaphylaxis) to a vaccine component or following a prior
■ Severe immunocompromise dose is a contraindication to further doses. Moderate or severe
■ Systemic high-dose acute illness (with or without fever) in a patient is considered a
corticosteroid therapy for 14 precaution to vaccination, although persons with minor illness
days or more may be vaccinated.
■ HIV infection, regardless of MMR and MMRV vaccines both contain minute amounts of
immunocompetence status* neomycin and gelatin. Persons with alpha-gal allergy may
■ Family history of congenital wish to consult their physician before receiving a vaccine that
or heredity immunodeficiency contains gelatin.
in first-degree relatives
Severe immunocompromise (e.g., from hematologic and solid
■ Pregnancy tumors, receipt of chemotherapy, congenital immunodeficiency,
*MMRV only long-term immunosuppressive therapy or patients with
HIV infection who are severely immunocompromised) is a
contraindication for MMR and MMRV vaccination. If the person’s
level of immunocompetence is uncertain, the decision to
vaccinate should be made by the health care provider that
prescribed the immunosuppressive medication for those

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 Measles
patients whom immunocompromise is due to medication.
Patients who have not received chemotherapy for at least 3 Measles Vaccine Precautions
months, whose disease remains in remission, and who have ● Precaution
restored immunocompetence, may receive MMR or MMRV ■ Moderate or severe acute
vaccine. Healthy, susceptible close contacts of severely illness
immunocompromised persons should be vaccinated.
■ Alpha-gal allergy (consult
Persons receiving systemic high-dose corticosteroid therapy with physician)
(2 milligrams per kilogram of body weight or more per day or ■ Receipt of antibody-
20 milligrams or more per day of prednisone) for 14 days or containing blood products
more should not receive MMR or MMRV vaccine because of (wait 3 to 11 months
concern about vaccine safety. MMR or MMRV should not be to vaccinate)
administered for at least 1 month after cessation of systemic
■ History of thrombocytopenic
high-dose corticosteroid therapy. Although persons receiving
purpura or thrombocytopenia
high doses of systemic corticosteroids daily or on alternate
days for less than 14 days generally can receive MMR or MMRV ■ Need for tuberculin skin
immediately after cessation of treatment, some experts prefer testing or interferon-gamma
waiting until 2 weeks after completion of therapy. release assay testing
■ Simultaneous use of aspirin or
Available data indicate that vaccination with MMR has not aspirin-containing products*
been associated with severe or unusual adverse reactions in
HIV-infected persons who are not severely immunosuppressed, ■ Personal or family history of
although antibody responses have been variable. MMR seizures of any etiology*
13
vaccine is recommended for susceptible HIV-infected ■ Receipt of specific antiviral
persons age 12 months or older with no evidence of current drugs 24 hours before
severe immunosuppression (“no evidence of current severe vaccination*
immunosuppression” is defined as CD4 percentages greater *MMRV only
than or equal to 15% for 6 months or longer for persons age 5
years or younger; and CD4 percentages greater than or equal
to 15% and CD4 count greater than or equal to 200 cells/mm3
for 6 months or longer for persons older than age 5 years).
MMR vaccine is not recommended for HIV-infected persons
with evidence of severe immunosuppression.

MMRV is not approved for and should not be administered to a

person known to be infected with HIV.

A family history of congenital or hereditary immunodeficiency

in first-degree relatives (e.g., parents and siblings) is a
contraindication for MMR or MMRV vaccine, unless the immune
competence of the potential vaccine recipient has been
substantiated clinically or verified by a laboratory.

A history of thrombocytopenic purpura or thrombocytopenia

is a precaution for MMR and MMRV vaccine. Such persons
may be at increased risk for developing clinically significant
thrombocytopenia after MMR or MMRV vaccination.

Simultaneous use of aspirin or aspirin-containing products is a

precaution for MMRV vaccine due to the varicella component.
The manufacturer recommends that vaccine recipients avoid
the use of salicylates for 6 weeks after receiving MMRV vaccine
because of the association between aspirin use and Reye
syndrome following chickenpox.

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 Measles
A personal or family (i.e., sibling or parent) history of seizures
of any etiology is a precaution for MMRV vaccine but not MMR.
Children with a personal or family history of seizures of any
etiology should ideally be vaccinated with separate MMR and
VAR vaccines because the risks for using MMRV vaccine in this
group of children generally outweigh the benefits.

MMR vaccine may be administered to egg-allergic persons

without prior routine skin testing or the use of special protocols.

Spacing Considerations
The effect of the administration of antibody-containing blood
products (e.g., immune globulin, whole blood or packed
red blood cells, or intravenous immune globulin) on the
response to MMR or MMRV vaccine is unknown. Because of the
potential inhibition of the response to vaccination by passively
transferred antibodies, neither MMR vaccine nor MMRV
vaccine (nor VAR vaccine) should be administered for 3 to 11
months after receipt of antibody-containing blood products.
The interval between the antibody-containing blood product
and receipt of MMR or MMRV vaccine is determined by the
type of product administered. Antibody-containing products
13 should not be given for 2 weeks following vaccination unless
the benefits exceed those of the vaccine. In such cases, vaccine
recipients should either be revaccinated later at the appropriate
intervals (ranging 3 to 11 months) or tested for immunity and
revaccinated if seronegative.

Need for tuberculin skin testing or interferon-gamma release

assay (IGRA) testing is a precaution for MMR and MMRV
vaccine. Measles vaccine (and possibly mumps, rubella, and
varicella vaccines) may transiently suppress the response
to tuberculin skin test (TST) in a person infected with
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. TST and measles-containing
vaccine may be administered at the same visit if necessary.
Simultaneously administering TST and measles-containing
vaccine does not interfere with reading the TST result at
48 to 72 hours and ensures that the person has received
measles vaccine. If the measles-containing vaccine has been
administered recently, TST screening should be delayed for at
least 4 weeks after vaccination.

Receipt of specific antiviral drugs (e.g., acyclovir, famciclovir,

or valacyclovir) 24 hours before vaccination is a precaution for
MMRV vaccine due to the varicella component. These drugs
should be avoided for 14 days after vaccination.

Vaccination in Pregnancy
Pregnancy is a contraindication for MMR or MMRV vaccine.
Pregnancy should be avoided for 4 weeks following MMR or
MMRV vaccine. Close contact with a pregnant woman is not a
contraindication to MMR or MMRV vaccination of the contact.

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 Measles
If a pregnant woman inadvertently receives MMR or MMRV
vaccine, termination of pregnancy is not recommended because Measles Vaccine Safety
the risk to the fetus appears to be extremely low. Instead, MMR
individual counseling for these women is recommended.
● Fever of 103°F (39.4°C)
or higher
Vaccine Safety ■ 5%–15%
Studies have shown MMR and MMRV vaccines are safe and ● Rash
well-tolerated. The National Academy of Medicine, formerly
■ 5%
called the Institute of Medicine, reviewed the evidence
between MMR vaccination and certain adverse events. The ● Febrile seizures
experts determined that evidence supports a causal relation ■ 1 in every 3,000 to 4,000
between MMR vaccination and anaphylaxis, febrile seizures, doses
thrombocytopenic purpura, transient arthralgia, and measles
● Anaphylactic reactions
inclusion body encephalitis in persons with demonstrated
immunodeficiencies. ■ 1.8 to 14.4 cases per million
doses
Most adverse events reported following MMR vaccination ● Arthralgias and other joint
(such as fever and rash) are attributable to the measles symptoms
component. After MMR vaccination, 5% to 15% of susceptible
persons develop a temperature of 103°F (39.4°C) or higher, ■ 25% (adult women)
usually occurring 7 to 12 days after vaccination and generally MMRV
lasting 1 or 2 days. Most persons with fever do not have other
● Fever of 102°F or higher
13
symptoms. MMR vaccine is associated with a very small risk
of febrile seizures; approximately one case for every 3,000 ■ 21.5%
to 4,000 doses of MMR vaccine administered. The febrile ● Febrile seizures
seizures typically occur 6 to 14 days after vaccination and do
not appear to be associated with any long-term sequelae.
■ 1 additional per 2,300 to
Children with a personal or family history of febrile seizures or 2,600 children age 12
family history of epilepsy might be at increased risk for febrile through 23 months
seizures after MMR vaccination.

MMR vaccine may cause a transient rash in approximately

5% of vaccine recipients, usually appearing 7 to 10 days after
vaccination. Laboratory testing can confirm the presence of
measles or mumps vaccine virus in a recently vaccinated and
potentially exposed individual.

Allergic reactions following the administration of MMR vaccine

are rare. Most of these are minor and consist of a wheal and
flare or urticaria at the injection site. Immediate, anaphylactic
reactions to MMR vaccine occur in 1.8 to 14.4 cases per
million doses.

Arthralgias and other joint symptoms are reported in up

to 25% of adult women following MMR vaccination and
are associated with the rubella component. Transient
lymphadenopathy sometimes occurs following receipt of
MMR or other rubella-containing vaccine, and parotitis has
been reported rarely (less than 1%) following receipt of MMR
or other mumps-containing vaccine.

Rarely, MMR vaccine may cause thrombocytopenia within

two months after vaccination. The clinical course of these

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cases is usually transient and benign, although hemorrhage
occurs rarely. Based on case reports, the risk for MMR vaccine-
associated thrombocytopenia may be higher for persons who
have previously had immune thrombocytopenic purpura,
particularly for those who had thrombocytopenic purpura after
an earlier dose of MMR vaccine.

Measles inclusion body encephalitis has been documented

after measles vaccination in persons with immune deficiencies.
The illness is also known to occur within 1 year after initial
infection with wild-type measles virus and has a high death
rate. In the cases after MMR vaccination, the time from
vaccination to development of measles inclusion body
encephalitis was 4–9 months, consistent with development
of measles inclusion body encephalitis after infection with
wild-type measles virus.

In MMRV vaccine prelicensure studies conducted among

children age 12 to 23 months, fever (reported as abnormal or
elevated greater than or equal to 102°F oral equivalent) was
observed 5 to 12 days after vaccination in 21.5% of MMRV
vaccine recipients compared with 14.9% of MMR vaccine and
13 VAR vaccine recipients. Two postlicensure studies indicated that
one additional febrile seizure per 2,300 to 2,600 children age
12 through 23 months occurred 5 to 12 days after the first dose
of MMRV vaccine, compared with children who had received
the first dose of MMR vaccine and VAR vaccine administered as
separate injections at the same visit. Data from postlicensure
studies do not suggest that this increased risk exists for children
age 4 to 6 years receiving the second dose of MMRV vaccine.

Multiple studies, as well as a National Academy of Medicine

Vaccine Safety Review, refute a causal relationship between
autism and MMR vaccine or between inflammatory bowel
disease and MMR vaccine.

Vaccine Storage and Handling

For MMR-II and Proquad storage and handling specifics, refer
to the manufacturer. For complete information on storage and
handling best practices and recommendations, please refer
to CDC’s Vaccine Storage and Handling Toolkit, www.cdc.gov/
vaccines/hcp/admin/storage/toolkit/storage-handling-toolkit.pdf.

Surveillance and Reporting for Measles

For information on guidance for state and local health
department staff who are involved in surveillance activities for
vaccine-preventable diseases, please consult the Manual for the
Surveillance of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, www.cdc.gov/
vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chapters.html.

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Acknowledgements
The editors would like to acknowledge Jennifer Hamborsky and NOTES
Valerie Morelli for their contributions to this chapter.

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