COMMUNICATION STUDIES

MODULE 2: LANGUAGE AND COMMUNITY

WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

Language is the ability normal human beings possess which allows them to communicate not

only with other beings but also with themselves. Language facilitates the transmission of

ideas, emotions and desires from individual to individual and the refining of the same desires

within the individual.

Language may also be defined as a system of communication between humans through

written and vocal symbols.

WHAT IS A LANGUAGE?

A language refers to a recognizable, identifiable or accepted entity used by one or more

community of speakers. For example, English, Spanish, French, Creole are languages.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE

Dynamic (always changing, not static, full of energy and ideas)

Language is always changing, allowing us to convey and understand ideas that are entirely

new. It allows us to move beyond the limited message and fixed symbols of animal

communication. New words are always being introduced and old words may sometimes take

on new meanings. Some words may become obsolete.

communicative systems, only humans have language. Therefore, language is a distinctly

human trait.

Verbal – The words and morphemes (smallest unit of meaning) that constitute language are

basically oral to aural. Sounds are produced by the mouth and then received by the ears.

Language is first spoken and then written. Speech is therefore primary while writing is

secondary. There are many languages that do not have written forms.

Systematic – This means that language is governed by rules. Since the relationship between

linguistic symbols and the things that they represent are arbitrary, languages must be highly

organized if they are to function as reliable vehicles of expression and communication.

Without these grammatical rules, it would be impossible for listeners to unravel arbitrary

symbols for the message they encode.

English – the girls are

Spanish – las niñas son

Creole – the gyal dem

Maturational – (evolutionary)

Throughout our lives, our ability to use language keeps developing. As we get older, our

vocabulary increases and we are able to use language in more complex ways.

Symbolic – (characterized by signs and symbols)

A word is a symbol that represents a person, a thing, an idea etc. Language is made up of

words but these words may be different across different languages. For example, a grown
female in English is attached to the word “woman”; however, in Spanish it is represented by

a different word “mujer” and in German it is “frau”.

Non-instinctive - (naturally acquired)

Language is partly biological and partly learnt. As a human being you can learn a specific

language according to the country in which you were born and raised as well as the social

groups to which you belong.

Language is part of our biological condition. Specific parts of the body are developed for

language. The complex anatomy of the throat and mouth allow us to modify the vibrating air

in order to make the vowels and consonants of speech. In addition, language is an activity

which is centered in the brain and is virtually inseparable from thoughts. The brain has a

built-in mechanism which gives humans the ability to acquire language.

PURPOSES OF LANGUAGE

The main purposes of language include:

1. To express emotions and desires

2. To persuade

3. To inform

4. To instruct

5. To question
 6. To provide aesthetic pleasure

FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

(1) Reflective

Language involves thinking. This is important as it allows humans to analyze the past.

Memories allow humans to remember the past. Human beings can continuously use language

to recall and recapture experiences merely for enjoyment or indulgence.

(2) Expressive

The use of speech as a release valve for emotions and feelings (pain, sorrow, joy, happiness

etc.)

The term expressive puts the focus on the speaker or the writer and not his/her intention to

communicate.

Expressive language is initially and fundamentally a release of emotions but because it is

language, the feelings of the one who produced it can be interpreted and appreciated

(aesthetic pleasure – songs, poetry etc.)

Language is used aesthetically when the main purpose is to reveal the pleasure that

comes with conveying images, word plays, rhythm etc.

It is used affectively if the main aim is not just to communicate information but to do so

in the most appropriate and respectful way. For example, “Would you be so kind as to

put the gifts on the sideboard” instead of “Put my gifts on the sideboard” or “For the

last time , put the ***** gifts on the sideboard”. McDermott (2008)
 (3) Communicative

The main purpose is for communicating information, ideas and thoughts. People manipulate

language to get across the message they want. Communicative language can be subdivided to

correspond with both function and form.

Statements – information is conveyed through statements

Commands – require some form of action from persons being spoken to

Questions – require some form of spoken response

Language is also used for oaths and curses (they convey attitudes and not information and in

themselves do not require responses.

Language is used referentially when its function is to convey information. We may find

this language in textbooks, recipes, when we give instructions etc.

(4) Identification

Social Bonding

A person may use a specific language or dialect of a language to express solidarity or

establish distance. Teenagers, for example, often coin words to establish a bond among

themselves as well as to distance themselves from an older generation. In addition, some

individuals may try to use the most standard form of a language to show that he/she is

educated and sophisticated.

Language is used phatically if its purpose is to facilitate daily social interaction.

Rituals are closely tied to religion and are normal in religious practices. The function of

language in ritual is to include the individual as a part of a social group.

VARIATIONS IN LANGUAGE

Changes in language respond to influences such as social, geographical, individual and

group. All languages have alternate words, structures and expressions which allow for

variation to indicate one’s level of closeness, distance, formality and informality. When a

person speaks to another in a close, intimate conversation the words, structures and

expressions used are not the same as those the same person would use if delivering a speech

at a graduation ceremony.

All speakers are able to express themselves according to their own linguistic idiosyncrasies.

In addition, the society demands compliance with certain standards and similar groups have

developed terms and styles of presentation which are mandatory for those who want to

participate in those groups.

REASONS FOR VARIATIONS IN LANGUAGE

Audience – A speaker may pitch his/her voice at a high or low level or decide to use certain

forms of expression depending on the perceived level of understanding of the audience.

Subject Matter – The topics or subjects being discussed will determine what form of the

language will be used. A serious matter would require a standard form, while a less serious

matter would require a non-standard form.

Writer’s or Speaker’s Attitude – The writer may think it is important to communicate the

subject matter in a warm, friendly or impersonal tone.

LEVELS OF FORMALITY/REGISTERS

1. Frozen – This is used for print and declarations in which no direct response from a

reader or listener is expected. Wedding vows, Miranda Rights, Oaths are some

examples of frozen language.

2. Formal – This is used in socially formal contexts such as business meetings,

banquets, conversation between strangers, ceremonial occasions and graduation

ceremonies.

3. Consultative – This is where the speaker supplies background information, assuming

that it is necessary for full comprehension by a listener who is expected to participate

continuously. There is usually a series of questions and answers to facilitate this.

Tutors, doctors, lawyers commonly use this register.

4. Casual – This is informal and used for conversation between friendly acquaintances,

peers or friends. There is the use of “insider” language so ellipsis (…) is often used.

This means that not every detail of the conversation has to be explicitly stated for

those in the “in-group” to understand. Persons who are not part of the “in-group” may

feel as though the speakers are talking over their heads.

5. Intimate – This register is private and used for communication between persons who

are very close and employs minimal sentence structure and jargons which may be

restricted and understood only by such persons. This is evident in conversations

between lovers, close family and friends.

There are several varieties of language.

a. Standard English – This is the variety used for education and other formal or official

purposes.

b. Jargon – This is the specialized or technical language used by a specific group of

people for example, lawyers, doctors, information technology specialists etc. The

members are adept at the use of the specialized terms but outsiders will have difficulty

understanding them.

SPEECH-RELATED VARIETIES

a. Colloquial English – this is the accepted or spoken idiom. It is the kind of language

used in casual conversations especially among people who are familiar with each

other. (Examples, kind of, thingy etc.)

b. Slangs – These are popular and fashionable words and phrases used mostly by young

people. They may be either old words that have been given new meaning or newly

coined words. Slangs usually change rapidly. A popular slang today may outlive its

usefulness in a few months. Some are able to stay trendy for longer periods.

Examples of slangs: This have a buzz! Chap you get chap! Cool etc.
NON-STANDARD VARIETY

a. Dialect – This is a variety of language that is regarded as the typical speech of the

uneducated, rural people. It can also be regarded as a variety that reflects social and

geographical location. Dialect contrasts with the standard language. Dialect does not

only relate to Jamaica and Jamaican’s use of language but refers to a particular variety

of language spoken by one group of persons that differs noticeable from the variety or

varieties of the same language spoken by another group of people.

b. Creole – This is a dialect or language which results from the contact between

colonizers and colonized people.

c. Vernacular – This is the language or dialect spoken by the ordinary/lay people in a

country.

Other important terms to note:

1. Code – This is used to refer to a language. Jamaican Creole and Standard English are

two codes used in Jamaica.

2. Code switching – The term used to refer to the act of moving between language

varieties when you speak (going back and forth between Jamaican Creole and

Standard English, for example).

3. Lingua franca – This is a bridge language between two groups/ people who do not

have a common language.

4. Pidgin – This is a grammatically simplified form of a language with some elements

taken from local languages used for communication between people who do not have

a common language.

5. Idiolect – This refers to the speech habits that are peculiar to a particular person.
DIALECTAL VARIATION

This refers to spoken and written differences in the use of language within a speech

community. This variation can be located on the Creole continuum. This is a spectrum of

language variation linking the more standard form of the linguistic range to the Creole form.

There are different forms of language spoken in the Caribbean. These include:

1. Foreign English – This form is seen when locals try to imitate the words and accents

of foreigners. People who live in tourist areas or those whose work put them in

proximity to tourists may start speaking with a foreign accent (“twanging”).

2. Radio and Television English – This is the variety heard in the media (news or

television/radio programmes).

3. Erudite English – This variety is usually used by educated/intellectual people or

those who want to make a statement about how “bright” they are. This variety is

marked by the use of lofty language/unfamiliar (“big”) words.

4. Colloquial English – This is the kind of language used in informal, everyday

conversations.

5. Rasta English – This is the variety used by Rastafarians. Words and expressions such

as I an’ I, Jah, empress, ovastan’ are features of this variety.

6. Profane English – This is the use of profanities (curse words/ bad words) or obscene

language for example, rahtid, rass, backside.

The language situation in the Caribbean is diverse and heavily influenced by the region’s

history. Territories are usually classified and categorized by labels associated with the four

European powers which dominated the region during the colonial period.

1. English-speaking: Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago, St. Kitts and Nevis, Barbados,

Bahamas etc.

2. French-speaking: Haiti, Martinique, French Guiana, Guadeloupe

3. Spanish-speaking: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic

4. Dutch-speaking: Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao (ABC islands), Suriname

PERIODS OF MIGRATION IN THE CARIBBEAN

The different periods of migration and subsequent contact between Africans and Europeans

have been instrumental in shaping the language situation that exists in the Caribbean today.

1. Pre-Plantation Period (late 1400/15th century)

In the late 15th - early 16th century Columbus brought slaves in low volumes to replace the

indigeneous populations that were annihilated. These slaves originated from the northern

parts of Africa, Senegal and Gambia. The Portuguese and the Spaniards were the dominant

forces in trade at this time. There was not yet an interest in sugar during this period.
 2. Period of Large-Scale Plantation

In this period:

a. Sugar became king - Sugar was a valuable commodity at this time so there was

heightened interest in its production. This led to the establishment of large sugar

plantations across the Caribbean.

b. Africans were brought in large numbers to work on sugar plantations.

c. This period lasted for over 300 years thus resulting in the emergence of the Creole

language.

3. Post-Emancipation Period

During this period:

a. The plantations began to suffer from shortage of labour as a result of the slaves being

freed.

b. Planters went to India and China and workers were brought back to the Caribbean as

indentured servants.

c. Some Europeans (poor Germans, Irish, Scottish in some cases petty criminals)were

used for labour as well.