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Content of intelligence

1. Definition

2. Brief history of intelligence

3. Theories of intelligence

4. Types of intelligence

5. Intelligence testing

6. Extremes of intelligence

7. References

Contents of creativity

8. What is creativity

9. Sources of Creativity

10. How to Be More Creative

11. Creativity and the Brain

12. Creativity and Mental Illness

13. Dark Creativity

14. Reference

What Is Intelligence?

It might seem useless to define such a simple word. We have all heard this word hundreds of

times and have a general understanding of its meaning. However, the concept of intelligence has

been a widely debated topic among members of the psychology community for decades.

Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract

reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to learn,
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emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment

effectively.

Definition

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary for

adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context (1997)

A Brief History of Intelligence

The study of human intelligence dates to the late 1800s when Sir Francis Galton (the

cousin of Charles Darwin) became one of the first people to study intelligence.

Galton was interested in the concept of a gifted individual, so he created a lab to measure

reaction times and other physical characteristics to test his hypothesis that intelligence is a

general mental ability that is a produce of biological evolution (hello, Darwin!).

Galton theorized that because quickness and other physical attributes were evolutionarily

advantageous, they would also provide a good indication of general mental ability (Jensen,

1982).

Thus, Galton operationalized intelligence as reaction time.

Operationalization is an important process in research that involves defining an unmeasurable

phenomenon (such as intelligence) in measurable terms (such as reaction time), allowing the

concept to be studied empirically (Crowthre-Heyck, 2005).

Galton’s study of intelligence in the laboratory setting and his theorization of the heritability of

intelligence paved the way for decades of future research and debate in this field.

Theories of Intelligence

Some researchers argue that intelligence is a general ability, whereas others make the

assertion that intelligence comprises specific skills and talents. Psychologists contend that
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intelligence is genetic, or inherited, and others claim that it is largely influenced by the

surrounding environment.

As a result, psychologists have developed several contrasting theories of intelligence as

well as individual tests that attempt to measure this very concept.

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

Thurstone (1938) challenged the concept of a g-factor. After analyzing data from 56

different mental abilities tests, he identified several primary mental abilities that comprise

intelligence, as opposed to one general factor.

The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone's model are verbal comprehension,

verbal fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, memory, and inductive

reasoning (Thurstone, as cited in Sternberg, 2003).

Mental Ability Description

Word Fluency Ability to use words quickly and

fluently in performing such tasks as rhyming,
solving anagrams, and doing crossword
puzzles.

Verbal Comprehension Ability to understand the meaning of

words, concepts, and ideas.

Numerical Ability Ability to use numbers to quickly

computer answers to problems.

Spatial Visualization Ability to visualize and manipulate

patterns and forms in space.

Perceptual Speed Ability to grasp perceptual details

quickly and accurately and to determine
similarities and differences between stimuli.

Memory Ability to recall information such as

lists or words, mathematical formulas, and
definitions.
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Inductive Reasoning Ability to derive general rules and

principles from presented information.
Although Thurstone did not reject Spearman’s idea of general intelligence altogether, he

instead theorized that intelligence consists of both general ability and a number of specific

abilities, paving the way for future research that examined the different forms of intelligence.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Just two years later, in 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of

intelligence, integrating components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory is based

on the definition of intelligence as the ability to achieve success based on your personal

standards and your sociocultural context.

According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and

practical (Sternberg, 1985).

Analytical intelligence, also called componential intelligence, refers to intelligence

applied to analyze or evaluate problems and find solutions. This is what a traditional IQ test

measure.

Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and

interesting ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation and problem-

solving.

Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily

life, when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the environment.

Adapting to the demands environment involves either utilizing knowledge gained from

experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment (adaptation), changing the

environment to suit oneself (shaping), or finding a unique environment in which to work

(selection).
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Types of Intelligence

After examining the popular competing theories of intelligence, it becomes clear that

there are many different forms of this simple concept.

On one hand, Spearman claims that intelligence is generalizable across many different

areas of life, and on the other hand, psychologists such as Thurstone, Gardener, and Sternberg

hold that intelligence is like a tree with many different branches, each representing a specific

form of intelligence.

To make matters even more interesting, let us throw a few more types of intelligence into

the mix!

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions,

to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional

information to guide thinking and behavior” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

Emotional intelligence is important in our everyday lives since we experience one

emotion or another every second of our lives. You may not associate emotions and intelligence

with one another, but they are very related.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to

reason and problem-solve based on them. The four key components of emotional Intelligence are

(i) self-awareness, (ii) self-management, (iii) social awareness, and (iv) relationship

management.
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In other words, if you are high in emotional intelligence, you can accurately perceive

emotions in yourself and others (such as reading facial expressions), use emotions to help

facilitate thinking, understand the meaning behind your emotions (why are you feeling this

way?), and know how to manage your emotions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).

Fluid intelligence is the ability to problem solve in novel situations without referencing

prior knowledge but using logic and abstract thinking. Fluid intelligence can be applied to any

novel problem because no specific prior knowledge is required (Cattell, 1963). As you grow

older fluid increases and then starts to decrease in the late 20s.

Crystallized intelligence refers to the use of previously acquired knowledge, such as

specific facts learned in school or specific motor skills or muscle memory (Cattell, 1963). As you

grow older and accumulate knowledge, crystallized intelligence increases.

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The Cattell-Horn (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence suggests that

intelligence is composed of a few different abilities that interact and work together to produce

overall individual intelligence

For example, if you are taking a hard math test, you rely on your crystallized intelligence

to process the numbers and meaning of the questions, but you may use fluid intelligence to work

through the novel problem and arrive at the correct solution. It is also possible that fluid

intelligence can become crystallized intelligence.

The novel solutions you create when relying on fluid intelligence can, over time, develop

into crystallized intelligence after they are incorporated into long-term memory.

This illustrates some of the ways in which different forms of intelligence overlap and

interact with one another, revealing its dynamic nature.

Intelligence Testing

Binet-Simon Scale

During the early 1900s, the French government enlisted the help of psychologist Alfred

Binet to understand which children were going to be slower learners and thus require more

assistance in the classroom (Binet et al., 1912).

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As a result, he and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began to develop a specific set of

questions that focused on areas such as memory and problem-solving skills.

They tested these questions on groups of students aged three to twelve to help standardize

the measure (Binet et al., 1912). Binet realized that some children could answer advanced

questions that their older peers could.

As a result, he created the concept of a mental age, or how well an individual performs

intellectually relative to the average performance at that age (Cherry, 2020).

Binet finalized the scale, known as the Binet-Simon scale, that became the basis for the

intelligence tests still used today.

The Binet-Simon scale of 1905 comprised 30 items designed to measure judgment,

comprehension, and reasoning which Binet deemed the key characteristics of intelligence.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

When the Binet-Simon scale made its way over to the United States, Stanford

psychologist Lewis Terman adapted the test for American students, and published the Stanford-

Binet Intelligence Scale in 1916 (Cherry, 2020).

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The Stanford-Binet Scale is a contemporary assessment which measures intelligence

according to five features of cognitive ability, including fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative

reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory. Both verbal and nonverbal responses

are measured.

This test used a single number, referred to as the intelligence quotient (IQ) to indicate an

individual’s score.

The test's average score is 100, and any score from 90 to 109 is considered in the average

intelligence range. Scores from 110 to 119 are considered High Average. Superior scores range

from 120 to 129 and anything over 130 is considered Very Superior.

To calculate IQ, the student’s mental age is divided by his or her actual (or chronological)

age, and this result is multiplied by 100. If your mental age is equal to your chronological age,

you will have an IQ of 100, or average. If, however, your mental age is, say, 12, but your

chronological age is only 10, you will have an above-average IQ of 120.

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Extremes of Intelligence

IQ scores are normally distributed (Moore et al., 2013). That is, 95% of the population

has IQ scores between 70 and 130. But what about the other 5%?

Individuals who fall outside this range represent the extremes of intelligence.

Those who have an IQ above 130 are gifted (Lally & French, 2018), such as Christopher

Langan, an American horse rancher, who has an IQ score around 200 (Gladwell, 2008).

Those individuals who have scores below 70 do so because of an intellectual disability,

marked by substantial developmental delays, including motor, cognitive, and speech delaySome

of the time, these disabilities are the product of genetic mutations.

Down syndrome, for example, resulting from extra genetic material from or a complete extra

copy of the 21st chromosome, is a common genetic cause of an intellectual disability (Breslin,

2014). As such, many individuals with down syndrome have below average IQ scores (Breslin,

2014).

Savant syndrome is another example of an extreme of intelligence. Despite having

significant mental disabilities, these individuals demonstrate certain abilities in some fields that
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are far above average, such as incredible memorization, rapid mathematical or calendar

calculation ability, or advanced musical talent (Treffert, 2009).

The fact that these individuals who may be lacking in certain areas such as social

interaction and communication make up for it in other remarkable areas, further illustrates the

complexity of intelligence and what this concept means today, as well as how we must consider

all individuals when determining how to perceive, measure, and recognize intelligence in our

society.

Creativity
What is creativity

Creativity encompasses the ability to discover new and original ideas, connections, and

solutions to problems. It is a part of our drive as humans—fostering resilience, sparking joy, and

providing opportunities for self-actualization.

An act of creativity can be grand and inspiring, such as crafting a beautiful painting or

designing an innovative company. But an idea need not be artistic or world-changing to count as

creative. Life requires daily acts of ingenuity and novel workarounds; in this sense, everyone

possesses some amount of creativity.

Sources of Creativity
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There are many pieces to the puzzle of creativity, including a balance between controlled,

deliberate thought and spontaneous play and imagination. Personality plays a role, as well as

biology and life experience.

But everyone possesses some measure of creativity, even if they do not realize it. Life is

full of small moments that require the latest ideas or surprising solutions. A choice that you do

not think twice about—how you cook a fried egg or the route you take to work—someone else

might find delightfully original.

Why are some people more creative than others?

Creative people embody complexity; they show tendencies of thought and action that are

segregated in others, according to the pioneering creativity researcher Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.

They balance intense energy with quiet rest, playfulness with discipline, fantasy with reality, and

passion for their work with objectivity.

Which personality traits are linked to creativity?

The trait of Openness to Experience correlates with creativity, encompassing a receptivity to

current ideas and experiences. People who are low in openness prefer routines and familiarity,

while those who are high in openness revel in novelty, whether that is meeting new people,

processing different emotions, or traveling to exotic destinations. Accumulating these

experiences and perspectives can help the brain forge creative new connections. other

characteristics that are linked to creativity include curiosity, positivity, energy, persistence, and

intrinsic motivation.
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How to Be More Creative

Many people feel that they have no or extremely limited creative ability—even some who work

in creative fields—and it is true that certain individuals are more creative than others.

Fortunately, however, creativity can be acquired and honed at any age or experience level.

Innovation is not some divine gift; it is the skilled application of knowledge in new and exciting

ways. It requires changing your normal routine, stepping outside of typical comfort zones, and

paying attention to the present moment.

When learning added information, taking a break—either by sleeping or simply enjoying a

distraction—is another way of allowing the unconscious mind to process the data in novel and

surprising ways. This often lays the groundwork for a creative insight or breakthrough.

How can I become more creative?

Various lines of research have converged around common insights that provide steps to be more

creative:

1. Aim for output: Creative geniuses often produce their best works at their times of

greatest output. Some pieces may miss the mark, but the quantity of output makes it likely that

other pieces will yield great creativity.

2. Be willing to go deep: In the realm of artistic creativity, pioneers often spend time in

solitude, feel emotions and sensations deeply, and aren’t afraid to self-reflect.
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3. Be open and playful: The personality trait most tied to creativity is Openness to

Experience—whether that be intellectual, aesthetic, or emotional.

4. Capture your ideas: Remember to record thoughts as they arise so they aren't forgotten.

5. Adopt or hire outside perspectives: It can be difficult to innovate if you become

trapped in the rules and language of your domain of expertise.

6. Feel free to procrastinate: If you are motivated to solve a problem, procrastinating,

exercising, or sleeping on it can lead to divergent thinking and more possibilities.

Creativity and the Brain

Creative thinking involves making new connections between different ideas, which is

accomplished by cultivating divergent thinking skills and deliberately exposing yourself to new

experiences and to learning. While research psychologists are interested in tapping innovative

thinking, clinical psychologists sometimes encourage patients to use artistic expression to

confront difficult feelings.

Three key networks operate as a team to spark creativity in the brain, research suggests. The

default mode network helps generate ideas, the executive control network evaluates them and

propels them forward, and the salience network identifies which ideas are relevant and

important. These networks may also influence one another via other feedback loops; for instance,

the executive control network might tune the way the salience network scans internally,

depending on the task at hand.

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Creativity and Mental Illness

From Vincent van Gogh to Sylvia Plath and Winston Churchill, individuals with mental

illness have unleashed intellectual and artistic genius throughout history. The connection has

fascinated psychologists and everyday individuals alike. What biological theories might explain

the overlap? And what evolutionary advantages might these individuals possess?

Mental illness

Psychotic Spectrum disorders, including bipolar disorder, schizotypy, and schizophrenia,

are disproportionately diagnosed in highly creative individuals (they've been most often

measured in artists, musicians, and writers) or in their first-degree relatives.

But this connection can be confounded by the degree of giftedness at play. While creative

types are more mentally stable than are non-creatives, the correlation reverses in the presence of

exceptional creativity. Extraordinarily creative individuals are more likely to exhibit

psychopathology than are noncreative people, according to University of California at Davis

psychologist Dean Keith Simonton. He dubs this concept the "Mad Genius Paradox."

Why do genius and mental illness often overlap?

An inability to filter out irrelevant information is a hallmark of both creative ideation and

disordered thought. The state, known as reduced latent inhibition, allows more information to

reach awareness, which can in turn foster associations between unrelated concepts. The barrage

accounts for both the nonsensical ideas seen in psychosis and for novel thinking.
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One hypothesis for the mystery between genius and mental illness is rooted in the

diametric theory, an idea put forth by sociologist Christopher Badcock and evolutionary biologist

Bernard Crespi to explain how autism and schizophrenia are poles on one cognitive continuum.

(In this theory, paternal gene expression pushes towards mechanistic thinking—autism at its

most extreme—and maternal genes produce mentalizing traits—psychosis at its most extreme.)

The theory makes a key prediction—that epoch-making mind, including John Nash's and

Isaac Newton's, exhibit both hyper mechanistic and hyper mentalizing extremes. These men were

both autistic and schizophrenic—double outliers. True genius in some realms, especially

mathematics and science, could represent that unique overlap.

Dark Creativity

Creativity is typically seen as a socially beneficial trait. But some people use their

imagination in pursuit of antisocial ends—what is sometimes termed “dark creativity” or

“malevolent creativity.”

A fraud artist who devises a novel or foolproof scheme for luring his victims is exercising

creativity. But as it is being deployed to harm others and enrich himself, most observers would

find his scheme objectionable, no matter how imaginative.

In recent years, researchers have sought a greater understanding of how darkness and

creativity interrelate. Some studies have found that creativity is associated with narcissism;

others have identified a link between higher creativity and reduced honesty and humility. In one

study, dispositional creativity was found to predict unethical behavior.

Creativity may be better conceived as neither inherently positive nor inherently negative.

Instead, it may be best to assess motivations and outcomes when judging the value of any

creative act.
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Reference of intelligence article:

Ruhl, C. (2020, July 16). Intelligence: definition, theories, and testing. Simply

Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/intelligence.html

Reference of creativity article:

Creativity | Psychology Today