Chapter 3: Visual Analysis and Art Criticism

Objectives:

Recognize essential concepts in methods of visual analysis.

• Define the 3 types of perspective and how they impact interpretations of an artwork.
• Define the terms ‘subjective’ and ‘objective’ in relation to seeing images.
• Recognize different types of contexts and how contextual information can broaden our
understanding of art.
• Decipher symbols in artworks and other types of visual culture.
• Recognize and describe six different critical modalities that art critics use to analyze and
interpret artworks.

Introduction:

How do we analyze and interpret art? What set of circumstances must we consider in doing
so? What roles does context and perspective play in the analysis of art? And what do art critics
use as guides to interpret meaning of an artwork?

This chapter will focus on these questions. Hopefully by the end of the chapter you will gain a
deeper understanding and view of the different ways of looking at art.

PERSPECTIVE

Perspective is a point-of-view. In a way, it is regarding something through a specific filter. Each

perspective or filter has a unique characteristic that direct how something is considered. For
example, if you were analyzing an artwork in regard to gender, an aspect of identity, you might
consider how being male, female, or transgender might contribute to the experience of an
artwork. Contextual knowledge relates to perspective, in that all perspectives are shaped by
the circumstances around them that constitute a kind of background they form within.

Cultural Perspective

In order to view and analyze art based on a cultural perspective, we must understand what
culture is and how it is represented in an artist’s artwork.

Culture has a major impact on an artist’s work. As well as providing the imminent background
against which a work of art is created, it also invariably shapes what is actually produced.
Even if an individual artist has a strong antipathy to the cultural milieu in which they live, as is
often the case, they will still define themselves against that culture, challenging its norms and
standards.

When discussing an artwork through the cultural frame, we need to consider how notions of
cultural identity can inform the production of artworks. Research differing cultural attitudes
towards the visual arts, and the effects of scientific and technological innovation, politics,
and economics. Look at concepts of social and cultural identity (for example gender, religion,
race, beliefs, social norms) on artistic practices in particular places and cultures at a certain
time and over time.

The following questions may guide you in viewing and interpreting an artwork through a
cultural perspective.

• What cultural group, race, place, identity is represented?

• Is a particular social class or gender represented?
• Does the artwork represent a political stance (dissent or support, propaganda, or protest)?
• What ideology is revealed in ideas, concepts, shared beliefs?
• Are spiritual beliefs explored? Secular or religious?
• What signs and symbols reveal cultural information?
• How do these cultural and social meanings affect the art practices of this artist?

Let’s take a look at the painting on the left by

Carlos “Botong” Francisco. What can you say
about the painting?

This expansive oil painting, Muslim Betrothal,

illustrates an engagement ceremony practiced
by the Tausug tribe in the Philippines. The
painting comprises a young couple accepting
blessings from an imam as they kneel upon a
platform of bamboo. Humble scaffoldings shelter
Muslim Betrothal, Carlos “Botong” Francisco the seated wedding guests and vigorous nude
dancers who gather to celebrate the momentous
occasion.

Knowing that this painting represents the Muslim culture of wedding by the Tausug tribe, how
will you interpret the painting? Perhaps you think that the painting is only a plain representation
of the culture of the said tribe. There’s nothing wrong with it. But if we try to look at it through
the lens of the culture which it represents, we may find it a bit controversial. But why?

If you try to look at it again, you may notice the inclusion in the painting of half-naked women
dancing, along with a pig—both of which are strictly haram (forbidden) for Muslims. Thus,
although it represents the rich culture of the Tausug (in terms of their wedding ceremonies as
what is in the painting), if we look at it through their perspective, we might find it offensive to
the beliefs and practices of their people – that it does not clearly depict a Muslim betrothal or
their culture per se.
Historical Perspective

Art from the past holds clues to life in the past. By looking at a work of art's symbolism, colors,
and materials, we can learn about the culture that produced it. We also can compare artwork
which provides different perspectives, and gives us a well-rounded way of looking at events,
situations, and people. By analyzing artworks from the past and looking at their details, we
can rewind time and experience what a time period different from our own was like.

Art reflects history in the sense of depicting a powerful means of the history of a specific time
and place. It offers a glimpse into the social, political, economic, and cultural context of an era,
as well as the perspectives and values of the
individuals who created it. Art is a representation of
significant historical events, social and political
issues, cultural values, and beliefs, and reflect the
artistic styles and techniques of a particular period.
For example, the Renaissance era saw a revival of
classical art and literature, which influenced the art
of the time. The art of the Byzantine Empire was
influenced by the fundamentals of Christianity. Art
allows us to observe how people reacted to events
and social issues and their impact on society. By
examining art from different eras, we can gain a
deeper understanding of the history of a particular
time and place. This is pretty much the basis on the
notion of how art reflects history overall.

A better understanding of art can lead to a better

Byzantine monumental Church mosaics are one of the great
understanding of history. Looking at art through a
achievements of medieval art. These are from Monreale in Sicily
from the late 12th century.
historical perspective can help us see how different
cultures have interacted and how artistic styles have changed over time. It can also give us
insight into the minds of past artists and help us appreciate art in a new light. We may not
always understand what an artist meant when they created their work, but we can still learn
from it.

To really understand a work of art, we must look at it in the context in which it was created.
That means learning about the time period, the artist's life and influences, and the historical
events that were happening at the time. Only then can we begin to appreciate the full meaning
of a piece.

For example, looking at Juan Luna’s Spoliarium may give us a glimpse of the way he saw the
situation of the country at that time. Although, we may not be sure what his true intentions
were when he made this painting, many found his painting, Spoliarium, to contain a hidden
message not many may realize.
Through a historical perspective,
we may consider Luna’s
Spoliarium to depict the inner
political and socio-cultural views,
as well as the sentiments of a
Filipino master painter. The
painting circulates around bloodied
gladiators who were once a symbol
of greatness and splendor,
however, lost, and now being
dragged like slaves. A true The Spoliarium, 1884 by Juan Luna
downfall; a great tragedy: the
gladiators actually depict our country, The Philippines, as a country which was once clad with
rich culture, but it took a turn for loss – leaving themselves to be dragged like slaves, stripped
of weaponry to fight, and garments to retain dignity. The Romans dragging the remnants of
the gladiators portray our country’s colonizers who oppressed and suppressed us of our
dignity, strength, and will. The spectators are said to represent the Filipino citizens who had
the power to do something for our country yet stayed as bystanders watching the downfall of
our nation. On the other hand, the mourning people represent the Filipinos who were still
hoping for glory. The dimly lit lamps represent the little hope the people have. Thus, the
Spoliarium have excellently portrayed the essence of the political, social, and moral lives of
the Filipino during the period of the Spaniard colonization.

Personal Perspective

How should we interpret art? Should it be primarily based on the artist’s intention when they
made the artwork? Or is it completely up to us – viewers, to make our own meaning or
interpretation of the art?

When we talk about personal perspective, we refer to the viewer’s personal taste in relation to
viewing an artwork. While it is important to know the context which influenced the artwork of
the artist, often they do not provide a clear description to enlighten the viewers in terms of
interpretation of the said art. Without having any explanation directly from the artist,
themselves, it is now up to the viewers to decide what the art means to them.

As the viewer of a work of art, then, we are often aware that we do not have full knowledge of
what the artist intended or, at times, even what the artist depicted. Not having that information,
however, is not necessarily frustrating nor does it dampen our enjoyment of the piece. Instead,
we may find the colors vibrant, or the subject intriguing, or the composition relaxing; in other
words, we may simply enjoy looking at the work of art without feeling the need for particulars
about it or the artist.

You may find that your personal response to art and artworks is affected by your experiences
or your knowledge about the basics of art. That said, knowledge of art will help us appreciate
and gain a deeper understanding of it. It is important to always take a generous stance to art
forms or artworks even if we don’t like or don’t understand them. Afterall, art is personal to
every individual.

SUBJECTIVE VS. OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS

It’s hard to decide the subjectivity of art until you define what it really is. One of the best places
to start is the Oxford English dictionary.

“The expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual
form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their
beauty or emotional power.”

Even with that definition, art is a tricky word to pin down. Perhaps it’s better to take a look at
another definition from the dictionary that evidently defines art’s subjectivity.

“The quality of being based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions.”

And if that’s the case, all art is a personal opinion, it’s all subjective. Different people react in
different ways to everything we see around us. If a dozen people are asked their opinions
about a particular piece of art, we can expect a dozen different answers. Each person will form
their opinions based on personal experience and their perspective on life. We interpret the
world independently and in our own unique ways.

If art can be interpreted differently by each viewer, the artist’s intention is irrelevant. Once the
art is in the public domain it is open to judgment and criticism, fair or otherwise and the creator
is sidelined. Without any objective criteria acting as a benchmark by which to judge, it’s a free-
for-all for anyone to state their case. We may not be equal intellectually, but we are equal
emotionally, and if art is truly subjective our emotional response is all we have to go by.

That implies that all criticism must have equal merit. Each viewer has a subjective response
and is an expert in their own way. And yet, even if we accept art as subjective there are
objective truths that we simply cannot ignore.

The truth is, that art can be objective whether we like it or not. There are objective criteria we
can all use to judge art. The most obvious objective criterion for judging artwork is whether it
accurately represents the subject or not. Most art is representational and that gives the viewer
a grounding from which to base their opinion.
 • Does the subject look real?
• Does the composition work?
• Is the color palette harmonious?

The viewer may not be aware there are certain aesthetic rules that universally please the eye.
We can judge whether a painting is beautiful or ugly and be oblivious to the objective qualities
of color theory. Color receptors in the eye physically determine what we can see, and how we
react to color combinations are instinctive.

Analyzing an artwork objectively requires the fundamental knowledge of the basic elements
of art as well as the principles involved in organizing those elements to achieve a certain effect
the artist wants to convey in his artwork. Likewise, a work of art also has objective meaning in
relation to the art that preceded it. Critics can trace art through history and find themes, styles,
and cultural influences that put works of art into context.

How about you? Do also think that art is purely subjective? Maybe you believe otherwise –
that it should only be viewed objectively? Or maybe it is a bit of both.

Art is subjective in that the viewer experiences different thoughts and emotions related to it.
However, if you accept that art has an established set of rules for creating something that’s
attractive, moving, and stimulating, it must follow that it must contain some objective criteria.

It all comes down to how you interpret art. If you accept that art is not just an idea, but a
process that requires a skillful application, then art can be viewed objectively. The feeling it
invokes is subjective.

If you believe that any idea and concept can be considered art without the need for any learned
skill, then everything is subjective.

CONTEXT

Context consists of all of the things about the artwork that might have influenced the artwork
or the maker (artist). These would include when the work was made; where it was made (both
culturally and geographically); why it was made; and possibly some other details or
information. Contextualism—looking at the cultural context of an artwork—can deepen and/or
improve our understanding of an artwork, but it may or may not change our first impressions;
and it doesn't really have an effect on formal analysis. With some additional contextual
information about the time, the culture, and the maker/artist of an artwork, we can become
more informed. All artworks exist in a context—more accurately, all artworks exist in multiple
contexts.
Historical Context

Art history doesn’t consist in simply listing all the art movements and placing them on a
timeline. It is the study of objects of art considered within their time period. Art historians
analyze visual arts’ meaning (painting, sculpture, architecture) at the time they were created.
Also, another of art history’s mission is to establishes authorial origins of artworks, i.e.,
discovering who created a particular artwork, when, when and for what reason.

Art is a valuable part of the world’s history, and it is incredibly flexible. It flows throughout time,
constantly evolving with changes in environments and cultures. Many innovators lead the way
for these changes, and they are responsible for creating entire movements that push the
boundaries of the medium. Here are the nine most influential art movements throughout
history.

Renaissance Art

Early human art was engravings and cave paintings. With the advent of tools and paper, art
became much more complex. However, art was limited to utilitarian or religious purposes. This
would characterize art for centuries and give insight into the civilizations of the time.

During the Renaissance, artists transcended artistic boundaries.

Art pieces emphasized the individual element, and this can be
easily seen in the emphasis on nudity at the time. Nudity existed
in art previously, but the Renaissance saw nude depictions
evolve into something much more lifelike and three-dimensional.
This period lasted for two centuries, from around 1400 to 1600.

Notable artists in this period were Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci,

Michelangelo, and Donatello. They were incredibly talented, and
because of their skill, they were often commissioned by the
Roman Empire to create art for places of worship. Many of these
commissioned pieces would go on to become their most popular
works. Some of the most famous Renaissance works are
Michelangelo’s David and Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa.

Baroque Art

This period comes directly after the Renaissance and highlights

the beauty of movement. Works during this period are especially
rich in composition, highlighted by a depth of color and contrasts.
This movement was prominent from 1600 to 1750, but many
movements after showed Baroque influence. Baroque art is very
dynamic and plays with shadows and highlights.

The Conversion of Saint Paul,

Caravaggio
You can see this style in works such as Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s sculpture, The Ecstasy of Saint
Teresa, Diego Velázquez’s Las Meninas, and Caravaggio’s The Conversion of Saint Paul.
The Catholic Church saturated the Baroque movement with inspiration, so many pieces are
explicitly religious or have religious underpinnings.

Rococo Art

This movement was not as long-lived as its predecessors, lasting

from about 1699 to 1780, but was incredibly influential. Many
movements that came after shared similar tendencies. For
example, previous movements experimented with contrasting
lights and darks and the depth of the human profile. Rococo
centers around theatrical art that evokes emotion rather than
depicting a subject.

The Rococo movement began as a reactionary movement in

France against King Louis XIV’s intensely rigid and formal styles,
and it would soon take off in other European countries. The
Rococo style influenced not only paintings and sculptures, but
Jean-Honoré Fragonard also furniture, fashion, and silverware.
The Meeting (from the Loves of the
Shepherds), 1771-1773

Romanticism

Previous art movements stayed somewhat within the

boundaries of rationality, but Romanticism took things to
the extreme. This movement emphasized imagination
and dramatization of events to create a mood rather than
simply depicting an object or event. What makes the
Romantic era so unique is that many artists ventured
outside to attempt plein air painting, where they showed
reverence for nature and the world around them.

This period ran from around 1750 to 1850, and in that

short time, it made major waves within the art world.
Some of the most famous works from this movement are Eugene Delacroix, Liberty Leading the
Caspar David Friedrich’s Wanderer above the Sea and People
Eugène Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People.
Realism

This period marks the introduction of modern art.

Realism began in France around the 1840s, and it
initially was meant to capture the everyday life of
subjects, rather than posting for the artist in their
best clothes. Realism art decreased in the 1900s,
but the movement created the foundation for many
to come in the following century.

This movement also saw the subject matter

transition from aristocracy to all individuals
throughout all social classes. Artists used many
earth tones to portray people and events as they Jean-François Millet’s The Gleaners
were. Jean-François Millet’s The Gleaners and
Édouard Manet’s Olympia are some of the most
recognizable pieces from this movement.

Impressionism

Impressionism ran around the same time as Realism,

from 1865 to 1885. Impressionist artists sought to capture
their subject’s immediate impression of a moment, and
they did so with quick brushstrokes. While some
impressionist art seems unfinished, the artist has
successfully captured what it is to view or be in the
moment of something. The most famous impressionist
artist is Claude Monet, with works such as The Water Lily
The Water Lily Pond, 1899 by Claude Monet
Pond and Woman with a Parasol.

Post-Impressionism

This period was critical in creating the foundation for personal

expression after Impressionism declined in 1910.
Impressionism captured momentary feelings, but post-
impressionism elevated this. Personal feelings concerning
the outside world would be used, achieving an abstract form
of art.

The most well-known post-impressionist painter is Vincent

van Gogh. His works such as The Starry Night and his self-
portrait illustrate his search for personal expression.
Vincent van Gogh, Self-Portrait with Grey
Felt Hat, 1887
Surrealism

Though surreal art predates the Surrealist movement, this

art style peaked from 1916 to 1950. This movement sought
to put the paint on the canvas and rejected rationality.
Surrealism transcended traditional art as well, and
philosophy expanded in this period as well. Philosophers
and artists alike questioned the cultural conventions and
the accepted norms of the time. Artists like Salvador Dalí
and Max Ernst took imagination to the extreme with their
The Persistence of Memory, Salvador
works.
Dali

Postmodernism

The postmodern art movement took root in the mid-20th

century and continues today. Postmodernism influenced
Dadaism and abstract expressionism, but it’s more so a
rejection of art rules and traditions.

The movement attempts to reclassify what patrons

understand as art. Notable proponents of the movement
were Jackson Pollock, Jeff Koons, and Marcel Duchamp.
Jackson Pollock: Number 1A, 1948

Knowing the context from when an art was made, the culture, beliefs, events, or
situations of that specific time in history, provides us with a better and broader understanding
of the artwork. It is important to know the historical events which have prompted the
development of art as well as the art movements which greatly influenced the way we see and
understand art.

Personal Context

What was the artist feeling when they made the artwork? What does the artist want to
represent? What is the story behind the artwork?

These are the questions only the artist can answer directly. While we mentioned before that
art is a personal experience, and we are free to make our own interpretation of it, it is still
important to consider the context which greatly impacted the artist artwork. This is the personal
context of the artist or the artist’s background.

In the analysis of art through the artist’s personal context, the following are some of the things
we should consider:
• The impact the artist’s feelings, emotions and physical abilities had on the making of the
artwork.
• The wider influences of location, landscape, weather, geography, etc. that influenced the
making of the artwork.
• The wider set of beliefs that the artist shares with their community; their heritage, faith,
culture and the influence this may have had in the making of the artwork.
• The influence other creative artists, authors, musicians, thinkers have had in shaping the
ideas held by the artist that may have influenced the artwork.

Louise Bourgeois and her giant spider sculpture, Maman at Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain.

What do you think of the gigantic spider sculpture, Maman? How did it make you feel?

Perhaps, a little background about the artist will help you understand the sculpture better.

Louise Bourgeois was a French-American artist. Even though her work includes painting,
performance, drawing and engraving she is best known for her sculpture and installation art.
In her sculptures she used different materials as wood, bronze, latex, or marble; they could
be whether intimate or monumental. Her work is very personal and with frequent references
to her painful childhood.

Throughout the almost seven decades of her artistic career, Louise Bourgeois created an
innovative corpus of work that met some of the leading avant-garde movements of the 20th
century as Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism, Postminimalism; but she never gave up her
own creative vision. She also explored a variety of themes over the course of her long career
including domesticity and the family, sexuality, and the body, as well as death and the
subconscious. Her work has much in common with the feminist art too.

Now, let’s focus on her artwork. What could be the meaning behind Maman?

Maman is probably her best-known sculpture. The title is the French word for “mother”.

The spider emerges in her work for the first time in many drawings made by the artist during
the 40s, also it was a central image in her work in the late 1990. Maman alludes to the strength
of her mother, with the metaphors of spinning, weaving, nurture, and protection.
“The Spider is an ode to my mother. She was my best friend. Like a spider, my mother was a
weaver. My family was in the business of tapestry restoration, and my mother was in charge
of the workshop. Like spiders, my mother was very clever. Spiders are friendly presences
that eat mosquitoes. We know that mosquitoes spread diseases and are therefore
unwanted. So, spiders are helpful and protective, just like my mother.”

What was your first impression of the sculpture? Did it change when you learned the context
behind the sculpture? How does the artist’s personal context affect the way you view or
understand the artwork?

Viewing Context

Context also has something to do with the viewing experience. The context of display or where
we encounter an image or artwork is crucial to the meanings it accrues. (Rose 127). Consider,
how is the experience viewing a masterwork, like a painting by Caravaggio, hanging in a
museum versus seeing a digital representation of the same painting on a personal computer
in one’s home-- different? You go to a museum specifically with the intention to view artwork.
Are their specific social practices you engage in a museum that impact your experience? For
example, we typically comport ourselves quietly in a museum, looking intently as we move
from one artwork to the next. Presumably, this social practice is intended to encourage
contemplation. There are also texts on the walls of museums like an artwork’s title, and
sometimes captions. Reading these may direct our experience of the artwork. Being in front
of the actual work, rather than a copy, imbues the work with certain aura as the object the
artist actually touched and created. At home, we are in a more casual setting without specific
conventions of behavior. Though we are looking at the same artwork, we know we are looking
at a copy. The context of where and how an image or artwork is received can impact what
affect it has on us.

SYMBOLISM AND ICONOGRAPHY IN ARTWORKS

Symbolism

Symbolism initially developed as a French literary movement in the 1880s, gaining popular
credence with the publication in 1886 of Jean Moréas’ manifesto in Le Figaro. Reacting
against the rationalism and materialism that had come to dominate Western European culture,
Moréas proclaimed the validity of pure subjectivity and the expression of an idea over a
realistic description of the natural world. This philosophy, which would incorporate the poet
Stéphane Mallarmé’s conviction that reality was best expressed through poetry because it
paralleled nature rather than replicating it, became a central tenet of the movement. In
Mallarmé’s words, “To name an object is to suppress three-quarters of the enjoyment to be
found in the poem… suggestion, that is the dream.”

Though it began as a literary concept, Symbolism was soon identified with the artwork of a
younger generation of painters who were similarly rejecting the conventions of Naturalism.
Symbolist painters believed that art should reflect an emotion or idea rather than represent
the natural world in the objective, quasi-scientific manner embodied by Realism and
Impressionism. Returning to the personal expressivity advocated by the Romantics earlier in
the nineteenth century, they felt that the symbolic value or meaning of a work of art stemmed
from the re-creation of emotional experiences in the viewer through color, line, and
composition. In painting, Symbolism represents a synthesis of form and feeling, of reality and
the artist’s inner subjectivity.

Iconography

The term comes from the Greek word ikon meaning image. An icon was originally a picture of
Christ on a panel used as an object of devotion in the orthodox Greek Church from at least
the seventh century on. Hence the term icon has come to be attached to any object or image
that is outstanding or has a special meaning attached to it.

An iconography is a particular range or system of types of images used by an artist or artists

to convey particular meanings. For example, in Christian religious painting there is an
iconography of images such as the lamb which represents Christ, or the dove which
represents the Holy Spirit. In the iconography of classical myth however, the presence of a
dove would suggest that any woman also present would be the goddess Aphrodite or Venus,
so the meanings of particular images can depend on context.

In the eighteenth century William Blake invented a complex personal iconography to illustrate
his vision of man and God, and much scholarship has been devoted to interpreting it. In the
twentieth century the iconography of Pablo Picasso’s work is mostly autobiographical, while
Joseph Beuys developed an iconography of substances such as felt, fat and honey, to express
his ideas about life and society. Iconography (or iconology) is also the academic discipline of
the study of images in art and their meanings.

Example of Iconography in Art

In the context of art, iconography refers to the images and symbols used in a work of art.
Iconography provides insight into the cultural and historical context of a work of art, as well as
its symbolism and theme.

• A red poppy is an icon for remembering those killed in wars, especially in World War I.
Poppies are worn as a way of sharing in the grief felt for those lost in war.
 • Lotus flowers are common symbolic imagery in Asian art. Because these flowers open
every morning and close every evening, they are viewed as symbols of birth and
rebirth.
• Red is considered to be symbolic of death, so it is incorporated into works of art with
themes associated with death and dying.
• The shape of a heart is widely used to symbolize love and romance.
• There are several symbols for peace, including the peace sign and holding the first two
fingers in a "V" shape. In ancient times the olive branch was used, as well as the dove.
• Andy Warhol's work tends to include real-life cultural symbols. For example, he is
known for painting Campbell's Soup Cans and Marilyn Monroe.
• The distinctive brushstrokes of Monet, Pissarro and other impressionist painters
quickly convey the style and period in which their work was completed.
• The well-known work of art Whistler's Mother is recognized as being symbolic of the
Great Depression, largely due to iconography (black apparel, stark surroundings, sad
expression) focused on the hardship of the times.
• Young children are often included in works of art as symbols of innocence, purity, and
new life.

Iconography provides a shortcut way to communicate. Over time an icon can become an easy
way to describe a large idea in a very abbreviated way.

CRITICAL MODALITIES

Art critics are often dismissed as pretentious, or for looking at things “too deeply.” There is
an existing cliché of the self-proclaimed expert overthinking a minimalist artwork, and this
parody has been used as an attempt to undermine both contemporary art and art theory. It
can seem easy to view art and its consumption as frivolous. And sure, there may be existing
self-important critics that may purposefully complicate their ideas or make art seem
inaccessible. But, these types of people exist in most spheres of society, and that should not
undermine an entire practice.

An art critics’ main goal is simply to observe the aesthetics, concepts, and/or context of an
artwork in order to form an opinion and/or come to a conclusion. While there is no
unanimously accepted definition of art, let’s define it here as a visual entity created with an
intent of expression. This act of expression is often presented and shared with others, who
then form opinions on it. Art criticism is an important facet in the process of creating, sharing,
and understanding art. Here are six different critical modalities art critics use as compasses
to interpret meaning:
Structural Criticism

Structuralism is based on the notion that our concept of reality is expressed through language
and related systems of communication. On a larger scale, visualize culture as a structure
whose foundation is language, speech, and other forms of communication. When this
approach is applied to the visual arts, the world of art becomes a collective human
construction, where a single work needs to be judged within the framework supported by the
whole structure of art. This structure is still based in language and knowledge and how we
communicate ideas.

Structural criticism was originally a linguistic theory, but then became a template for analyzing
culture, literary texts, film, as well as art. As it goes, to fully understand something (say art),
we have to understand the structures around it. However, as structural criticism needs an
understanding of particular things in terms of their relationship to the “language” or the
“grammar”, providing an objective view or analysis of a visual art proves to be quite difficult.
Although it would provide a lot of use in literary arts and other forms of art that is formed on
language.

Deconstructive Criticism

Deconstruction goes one step further and posits that any work of art can have many meanings
attached to it, none of which is limited by a particular language or experience outside the work
itself. In other words, the critic must reveal (deconstruct) the structured world in order to knock
out any underpinnings of stereotypes, preconceptions, or myths that get in the way of true
meaning. Taking the perspective of a deconstructive critic, we would view a portrait of Marilyn
Monroe by pop artist Andy Warhol as an imaginary construct of what is real. As a popular
culture icon, Marilyn Monroe the movie star was ubiquitous: in film, magazines, television and
photographs. But Marilyn Monroe the person committed suicide in 1962 at the height of her
stardom. In truth, the bright lights and celebrity of her Hollywood persona eclipsed the real
Marilyn, someone who was troubled, confused and alone. Warhol’s many portraits of her –
each one made from the same publicity photograph–perpetuate the myth and cult of celebrity.

Andy Warhol, Marilyn Monroe (Marilyn) 1967 FS II.22-31

Formalist Criticism

Formalism describes the critical position that the most important aspect of a work of art is its
form – the way it is made and its purely visual aspects – rather than its narrative content or
its relationship to the visible world. In painting therefore, a formalist critic would focus
exclusively on the qualities of color, brushwork, form, line and composition.

Formalism doesn't really care about what goes on outside the actual space of the work but
finds meaning in its use of materials. It allows a more reasoned discussion of abstract and
nonrepresentational art because we can approach them on their own terms, where the
subject matter becomes the medium instead of something it represents. This is a good way
to approach artworks from cultures we are not familiar with, though it has the tendency to
make them purely decorative and devalue any deeper meaning. It also allows a kind of
training in visual seeing, so it is still used in all studio arts and art appreciation courses.

How do we analyze and interpret an artwork using the formalist criticism?

The first question we can ask in front of an artwork is: What do I see? What is it made of?
And how is it realized? In viewing the artwork through formalism, we have to provide an
objective, accurate pure description of the object.

• You can ask yourself what kind of object it is, what genre; if it represents something
figuratively or abstractly, observing its overall style.
• You can investigate the composition and the form: shape (e.g., geometric,
curvilinear, angular, decorative, three-dimensional), size (is it small or large size? is it
a choice forced by the limits of the display or not?), orientation (horizontally or
vertically oriented)
• the use of the space: the system of arrangement (is it symmetrical? Is there a focal
point or emphasis on specific parts?), perspective (linear perspective, aerial
perspective, atmospheric perspective), space viewpoint, sense of full and voids, and
rhythm.
• You can observe its colors: palette and hues (cool, warm), intensity (bright, pure, dull,
glossy, or grainy…), transparency or opacity, value, colors effects, and choices (e.g.,
complementary colors)
• Observe the texture (is it flat or tactile? Has it other surface qualities?)
• You can analyze the study of light (chiaroscuro, tonal modelling, light sourcing,
atmosphere) or the type of lines (horizontal, vertical, implied lines, chaotic,
underdrawings, contour, or leading lines)

Ideological Criticism

Ideology is the study of ideas, systems of thought and systems of belief. Images are used to
convey messages, and often to obscure the truth (in art, in advertising, on the news, etc.). An
ideological approach involves a critique of power relations and particularly the way power is
constructed and conveyed by symbolic forms of various kinds, from everyday linguistic
utterances to complex images and texts.
An ideological approach generally follows a critique along political lines, so the academic or
critic applying the ideological approach will generally be biased.

As it is most concerned with the relationship between art and structures of power, it infers that
art is embedded in a social, economic, and political structure that determines its final meaning.
Born of the writings of Karl Marx, ideological
criticism translates art and artifacts as
symbols that reflect political ideals and
reinforce one version of reality over another.
A literal example of this perspective would
view the Lincoln Memorial in Washington,
D.C. as a testament to a political system that
oppressed people because of race yet
summoned the political will to set them free
in the process of ending a Civil War.

Psychoanalytic Criticism

Psychoanalytic criticism is the way we should look at artwork if we feel it is only about personal
expression. The purest form of this criticism ranks the work of untrained and mentally ill artists
as being just as important as any other art. It is in this way that the artist “inside” is more
important than any other reason the art happens or the effect the art has. When discussing
Vincent van Gogh, you will often hear people allude to his mental state more than his actual
artwork, experience, or career. This is a good example of psychoanalytic criticism. One of the
problems in this type of criticism is that the critic is usually discussing issues the artist
themselves may be totally unaware of (or deny).

Since its establishment in the early 1890s by Sigmund

Freud (1856-1939), psychoanalysis has run a parallel
track to the study of art. In essence, both art theory and
psychoanalysis are the study of images – real and
imagined – for the sake of rooting out a deeper meaning.
Until Freud’s theories of the unconscious mind,
however, the study of art history and the discussion of
images was almost exclusively in reference to the
finished product of the image. It was not until 1910 that
Freud wrote the first account of psychological art theory,
and with the bridging of the gap between art criticism
and psychoanalysis, scholars began the discussion of
art as a process of revealing unconscious motivations
and hidden meanings.

In 1910 Sigmund Freud published an essay called

Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood, in
The Virgin and Child with St. Anne,
which events from Leonardo’s youth are interpreted as
Leonardo da Vinci, 1503
motivation for his paintings creating the first known
work of art historical psychoanalysis. The essay in part discusses Leonardo’s painting The
Virgin and Child with St. Anne; Freud suggests that because Leonardo was “illegitimate” and
raised briefly by his biological mother before being adopted by his father’s wife, the painting
depicting two mothers was of particular significance to the artist. As an example of the
unconscious manifesting in the art, both the Virgin Mary and her mother, Saint Anne, are
painted to look similar in age, when in fact there should be a generation between them.

This type of investigation sparked the development of psychoanalytic methodology in terms of

art, and can be divided into three frequently overlapping categories: psychobiography, or the
study of the artist’s life as specifically influential to their work; psycho-iconography, which is
evident in the use of conventional symbolism but also interpreted with the artist’s motivations
in mind; and the origin of creativity, having to do with the artistic process and how the artist
arrived at the choices they made through various influences. While the polarizing effect of the
highly subjective practice of psychoanalysis of art drew heated debates between art scholars
in its early years, the impetus of this method has always been unifying. Freud loved art: his
concept of ideational mimetics posits that original artwork offers an exchange of energy
between the viewer and the art, often referred to as the aura, and that this energy is paramount
to the human condition. The effect of art, according to Freud, was fundamental to empathy,
and a necessary part of any civilized society.

Feminist Criticism

Feminist criticism began in the 1970s as a response to the neglect of women artists over time
and in historical writings. This form of criticism is specific to viewing art as an example of
gender bias in historical western European culture and views all work as a manifestation of
this bias. Feminist criticism created whole movements in the art world (specifically
performance-based art) and has changed over the last few years to include all
underrepresented groups. Feminist artists sought to rewrite a falsely male-dominated art
history, change the contemporary world around them through their art, intervene in the
established art world, and challenge the existing art canon. Feminist Art created opportunities
and spaces that previously did not exist for women and minority artists, as well as paved the
path for the Identity and Activist Art genres of the 1980s. However, the contributions and
influences of women artists from a number of countries should not be overlooked, such as
German Dadaist Hannah Höch and Mexican Surrealist Frida Kahlo, whose powerful works
have served as a source of inspiration for Feminist artists around the world since the early
twentieth century.

Feminist artists often embraced alternative materials that were connected to the female
gender to create their work, such as textiles, or other media previously little used by men such
as performance and video, which did not have the same historically male-dominated
precedent that painting, and sculpture carried. By expressing themselves through these non-
traditional means, women sought to expand the definition of fine art, and to incorporate a wider
variety of artistic perspectives.

Feminist Art does not geographically discriminate but rather connects female voices
worldwide. Notable Feminist artists over the movement’s decades-long lifespan have spanned
the globe representing a diverse array of countries including America, Britain, Latin America,
Eastern Europe, the Middle East and more as women continue to fight for equal rights and
visibility within their distinct cultural landscapes.

Since the 1990s, Feminist Art and discourse has taken on an “intersectional” approach, as
many Feminist artists explore not only their gender identity through their art, but also their
racial, queer, (dis)-abled, and other aspects of identity that inform who they are in the world.

Feminism acts as a lens through which to view and critique art with consideration for negative
biases towards women, how the meaning of that information affects culture, and the way in
which people are influenced as a result.
References:

Myers, Nicole. “Symbolism.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/symb/hd_symb.htm (August 2007)

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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Book%3A_Introduction_to_Art_Design_Context_and_Me
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https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/i/iconography

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