CYBERPSYCHOLOGY & BEHAVIOR

Volume 10, Number 3, 2007

© Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/cpb.2006.9944

Acquisition, Development, and Maintenance of Online

Poker Playing in a Student Sample

RICHARD T.A. WOOD, Ph.D., MARK D. GRIFFITHS, Ph.D., and JONATHAN PARKE, B.Sc.

ABSTRACT

To date there has been very little empirical research into Internet gambling and none relat-
ing to the recent rise in popularity of online poker. Given that recent reports have claimed
that students may be a vulnerable group, the aim of the current study was to establish basic
information regarding Internet poker playing behavior among the student population, in-
cluding various motivators for participation and predictors of problematic play. The study
examined a self-selected sample of student online poker players using an online survey (n 
422). Results showed that online poker playing was undertaken at least twice per week by a
third of the participants. Almost one in five of the sample (18%) was defined as a problem
gambler using the DSM-IV criteria. Findings demonstrated that problem gambling in this
population was best predicted by negative mood states after playing, gender swapping whilst
playing, and playing to escape from problems.

INTRODUCTION 1% of the Internet users were occasional Internet

gamblers (i.e., less than once a week). There was no

T O DATE there has been very little empirical re-

search into Internet gambling. Despite the
paucity of current research, there is a strong foun-
evidence from this study that Internet gambling was
in any way problematic and/or addictive. How-
ever, data from this study was carried out when In-
dation for speculating on the potential hazards of ternet gambling was in its infancy, and the situation
Internet gambling. For instance, the use of virtual has developed considerably since then.
cash, unlimited and convenient accessibility, and In Canada, a prevalence study of Internet gam-
the solitary nature of gambling on the Internet are bling among Ontario adults collected data by using
all potential risk factors for the development of a random telephone survey of 1,294 Ontario adults.5
problem gambling.1–3 Overall, 5.3% had gambled on the Internet during
As far as the authors are aware, there have been the past 12 months. Although women were more
only three published prevalence-type studies specif- likely to gamble online than males (6.3% versus
ically investigating Internet gambling. A prevalence 4.3%), the difference was not statistically significant.
survey in the United Kingdom examining Internet There were no dominant age, regional, educational,
gambling found that, of the 2,098 random people or income differences. The study did not examine
surveyed (918 male and 1,180 female), only 495 of any aspects of problem gambling.
them (24%) were Internet users.4 The results In the United States, a survey was carried out ex-
showed that not one person gambled regularly on amining gambling among 389 self-selected individ-
the Internet (i.e., once a week or more) and that only uals from university health and dental clinics.6 Em-

International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Division, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom.

354
ONLINE POKER PLAYING IN A STUDENT SAMPLE 355

bedded within the questions was the South Oaks familiarity with using the Internet and students’ in-
Gambling Screen (SOGS). The study found that 90% creased freedom upon leaving home.
of the sample had gambled within the last year and The aim of the current study was to establish ba-
70% had gambled within the previous 2 months of sic information regarding Internet poker-playing
the survey. It was also reported that 31 individuals behavior among the student population, including
(8%) had gambled on the Internet at some point in various motivators for participation, monies won
their lives and 14 of them (3.6%) engaged in Inter- and lost, levels of problem gambling, and predic-
net gambling weekly. Mean scores on the SOGS tors of problematic play (i.e., an examination of the
showed that the Internet gamblers had significantly psychosocial correlates of online poker play in a stu-
higher scores than the non-Internet gamblers (7.8 dent sample). This was not a prevalence study as all
compared to 1.8). The authors concluded that In- data collected came from a self-selected sample of
ternet gamblers were significantly more likely to be students, all of whom played online poker. How-
problem gamblers than non-Internet gamblers. ever, as will be argued below, we believe that the
However, there were many limitations to the study, sample is a representative sample of available stu-
the major one being the use of a self-selected sam- dent poker players who play online.
ple in dental waiting rooms.
Over the past few years, there has been a world-
wide explosion in the participation and the popu- METHODS
larity of online poker (particularly games such as
“No Limit Texas Hold ‘em”). Possible precipitating Participants
factors for this trend might include (i) the increas-
A total of 422 participants took part in the study
ing number of celebrities endorsing and playing
(362 males and 60 females) and had a mean age of
poker, (ii) poker being shown via television (both
21 years (18–47 years; SD  3.4 years). Participants
terrestrial and cable channels) and on the Internet,
were students and self-defined as online poker play-
(iii) players can learn to play for free, (iv) players
ers. They were recruited from a university in the
can play for low stakes (as low as one cent), and (v)
Midlands area of the United Kingdom. The univer-
individuals have 24-h access and can play at any
sity attracts students from across the United King-
time, any day via the Internet.
dom, and participants originated from a wide vari-
In the United Kingdom, it has been observed that
ety of cities nationally.
the two fastest growing forms of online gambling
are online poker and online betting exchanges, and
Design, materials, and procedure
it has been speculated there are three main reasons
for the growth in these two particular sectors.3 An online survey was constructed using Auto-
Firstly, they provide excellent financial value for the form, an in-house survey generating tool (http://ess.
gambler; there is no casino house edge or book- ntu.ac.uk/autoform/). The survey contained 67
makers’ mark-up on odds. Secondly, gamblers have closed questions, including the DSM-IV diagnostic
the potential to win because there is an element of criteria for pathological gambling, and four open-
skill in making their bets. Thirdly, gamblers are able ended questions. Questions related to frequency of
to compete directly with and against other gamblers play, average wins and losses, and experience re-
instead of gambling on a pre-programmed slot ma- lating to a variety of gambling activities. Specific
chine or making a bet on a roulette wheel with fixed questions about online poker playing related to mo-
odds. However, recent research has shown that one tivations, strategies, concerns, mood states before
of the potential downsides to increased competition and after playing, and perceptions of the activity.
is that problem gamblers are significantly more Data were collected online as it has been argued that
likely to be competitive when compared to non- this medium is particularly well suited for investi-
problem gamblers.7 gating online gaming behavior.8
It is speculated that the introduction and popu- Approximately 10,000 students were contacted
larity of online poker may be an issue for concern via a university-wide email specifically asking for
regarding problematic gambling behavior. There online poker players to take part in the study. Given
have been recent press reports in the United King- that press reports claim about 5% of the U.K. pop-
dom (and elsewhere) that large numbers of univer- ulation has engaged in online poker, it was esti-
sity students may be experiencing financial prob- mated that approximately 500 students across the
lems as a direct result of playing online poker. university may have engaged in online poker. Given
Reasons for participation in online poker may in- that 422 participants responded, it was assumed
clude its wide availability to students who all have that the sample obtained was a reasonably repre-
356 WOOD ET AL.

sentative sample of available student online poker Online poker players also engaged in a wide va-
players. They were informed that all responses riety of other gambling behaviors. The most fre-
would be confidential and that their email address quent of these were sports betting (16.4% a few
would not be passed onto anyone else. Participants times a week and 4.3% every day), slot machine
who wanted to take part followed a link that led gambling (11.6% a few times a week and 1.4% every
them to the online questionnaire, where further in- day), playing the lottery (10.2% a few times a week
structions were given on how to complete it. Once and 0.9% every day), gambling on other non-online
the questionnaire was completed, the participants card games (11.8% a few times a week and 0.2%
pressed “Send,” and their responses were automat- every day), and other online card games (8.3% a few
ically sent to the research team. times a week and 0.9% every day; for overall fre-
quencies by type of gambling, see Table 1).

RESULTS Acquisition of online poker playing and

reasons for playing
Gambling frequency, money won/lost, and other
All participants were asked when they first
types of gambling
started playing online poker. Results showed that
Results indicated that online poker players var- two-thirds (66%) had started playing in the 12
ied in their frequency of online poker play. Around months preceding participation in the survey. Just
a third of online poker players engaged in the ac- less than a fifth of the sample had been playing on-
tivity rarely (32.9%), a third occasionally (37.9%), line poker for over one and a half years (18.9%). The
and a third frequently (22.3% a few days a week and majority of participants (62%) reported that they
6.9% every day; Table 1). first started playing online poker because their
Overall, the most frequent amount that partici- friends were playing, 23% because they watched
pants reported winning per month playing online poker on television, 11.4% because they were of-
poker was £10–50 (46.9%), followed by less than £10 fered a free go by a spam email or through a pop
(38.6%), £51–100 (6.9%), £101–200 (4.3%), £201–500 up, and 3.6% because they had responded to an ad-
(0.9%), and more than £500 (2.4%). The most fre- vertisement.
quent amount that participants reported losing per Online poker players gave many different rea-
month playing online poker was less than £10 sons why they engaged in the activity, including
(53.3%), followed by £10–50 (38.2%), £51–100 (5.0%), relaxation (13% always/frequently, 56% rarely/
£101–200 (2.1%), £201–500 (0.7%), and more than never), excitement (51% always/frequently, 17%
£500 (0.7%). rarely/never), winning money (50.5% always/fre-

TABLE 1. FREQUENCY OF PLAY ON ALL GAMBLING ACTIVITIES BY PARTICIPANTS (N  422)

Rarely Occasionally Frequently

(few times a (few times a (few times a Every
Gambling activity Never year) month) week) day

Online poker 0.% 32.9% 37.9% 22.3% 6.9%

Offline poker (casino 15.9% 31.3% 39.1% 13.0% 0.7%
or with friends)
National lottery 20.6% 34.1% 34.1% 10.2% 0.9
Other card games 23.2% 31.8% 32.9% 11.8% 0.2%
(not online)
Sports betting 22.5% 27.5% 29.4% 16.4% 4.3%
Slot machines 27.7% 31.0% 28.2% 11.6% 1.4%
Scratchcards 40.8% 38.2% 18.2% 2.1% 0.7%
Other online card 44.5% 28.0% 18.2% 8.3% 0.9%
Virtual roulette 58.3% 25.4% 12.8% 3.3% 0.2%
(betting shops)
Roulette (in casino) 50.0% 31.3% 15.2% 3.6% 0.%
Spread betting 76.8% 14.7% 7.6% 0.7% 0.2%
Bingo 80.3% 16.4% 2.6% 0.5% 0.2%
ONLINE POKER PLAYING IN A STUDENT SAMPLE 357

quently, 24% rarely, never), socializing (8% always/ probable pathological gamblers (i.e., they endorsed
frequently, 76% rarely/never), escaping problems four or more of nine categories of the DSM-IV cri-
(6% always/frequently, 82% rarely/never), reliev- teria for pathological gambling). A further 30% (n 
ing boredom (28% always/frequently, 33% rarely/ 126) may have had some gambling problems as they
never), developing skills (27.5% always/frequently, endorsed two or three categories of the DSM-IV cri-
45% rarely/never), and feeling lucky (7% always/ teria, and 52% (n  220) were non-problem-gam-
frequently, 72.5% rarely/never). More players re- blers on the basis of endorsing none or one of the
ported that online poker was mainly a game of skill categories of DSM-IV criteria. Statistical analysis
(38%) than mainly a game of chance (32%), or that later in this section is performed on these three sub-
it was equally skill and chance based (30%). groups of online poker players. For the purposes of
this paper, the three groups are operationally de-
Gender swapping fined, according to how they scored on the DSM-IV
category criteria, as social gamblers (SGs), gamblers
More female players (20% of females) reported
with some problems (SPGs), and problem gamblers
swapping gender when playing compared to males
(PGs).
(12%), although this gender difference was not sta-
There was no significant association between the
tistically significant. Typical reasons that female
severity of the gambling behavior, as measured by
participants gave as to why they did this were that
the DSM-IV, and when participants reported that
they believed males would not take them seriously
they first started playing online poker (2  9.2,
if they knew they were playing against a woman. It
d.f.  10, p  0.513). As expected, there was a sig-
also gave them a greater sense of security as a lone
nificant association between the severity of the gam-
woman in a predominantly male arena.
bling behavior, as measured by the DSM-IV, and the
Males agreed that females were not taken as se-
frequency of online poker playing behavior (2 
riously as males, but believed that pretending to be
922.9, d.f.  6, p  0.001; Table 2).
female would give them a strategic psychological
There was a significant association between the
advantage. Different male players reported that the
severity of the gambler (as measured by the num-
advantage arose for one of two reasons. One sug-
ber of categories endorsed on the DSM-IV criteria)
gested reason was that they believed other male
and whether or not they believed they would be
players were less aggressive, in their play, toward
more likely to take part in other online gambling
female players. The other reason given by some
since playing online poker (2  47.2, d.f.  8, p 
males was that they believed other male players felt
0.001). Fifty percent of the gamblers who reported
that they could intimidate female players, and so
some problems indicated they would be most likely
they could lure those males into a false sense of se-
to play other online games, compared to 45% of
curity, thus allowing them to potentially win more
problem gamblers, and 27% of social gamblers. Us-
money.
ing the stepwise method of multiple regression a
significant model emerged (F12,398  31.7, p 
Problem gambling in online poker players
0.0001; adjusted R2  0.473). Significant variables
Results indicated that 18% (n  76) of the re- that predicted problem gambling, as measured by
spondents (66 male; 10 female) were classified as DSM-IV scores included increased negative mood

TABLE 2. ASSOCIATION BETWEEN FREQUENCY OF ONLINE POKER PLAY

AND DSM-IV SCORE IN PARTICIPANTS (N  422)

Occasionally Frequently
Rarely (once or (few times a (few times a
twice a year) year) week) Every day

Social gamblers 38.2% 40.9% 16.8% 4.1%

(n  220)
Gamblers with 23.0% 40.5% 25.4% 11.1%
some problems
(n  126)
Problem gamblers 34.2% 25.0% 32.9% 7.9%
(n  76)
358 WOOD ET AL.

TABLE 3. PREDICTORS OF PROBLEM GAMBLING IN ONLINE

POKER PLAYERS (N  422) BASED ON DSM-IV SCORES

Predictor variable Beta p

Feel happy after playing (feel less happy) 0.353 0.001

Gender swap when playing (more likely to) 0.275 0.001
Play to escape 0.172 0.001
Play roulette in casino 0.116 0.006
Chance versus skill 0.139 0.001
Play virtual roulette (in betting shops) 0.126 0.002
Feel satisfied after play (feel less satisfied) 0.141 0.002
Personal skill rating 0.134 0.001
Feel guilty after playing 0.121 0.002
Play in casino tournaments 0.082 0.043
Play cards with friends (less likely to) 0.129 0.003
Play privately for cash 0.094 0.036

states after playing (i.e., unhappy, dissatisfied, among SPGs. However, it should be noted that PGs
guilty) playing to escape problems, increased gen- were significantly more likely than other gamblers
der swapping (e.g., males pretending to be females to report gambling to escape from problems, and
when playing), the belief that online poker was playing because they felt lucky. Problem gamblers
about both chance and skill equally, rating them- were most likely to report that they had pretended
selves as having an average level of skill, increased to be a different gender when playing online poker
playing of virtual roulette in betting shops, in- (38%), compared to gamblers with some problems
creased playing of roulette in casinos, increased (9.5%) and social gamblers (7%).
playing of private card games for cash, and de- There were significant differences in the amounts
creased playing socially with friends. These and that were reported as won each month according to
other significant predictors are outlined in Table 3. the severity of gambling behavior (2  31.27, d.f. 
The reasons for playing online poker differed in 12, p  0.002). Problem gamblers reported winning
frequency across the three subgroups (Table 4). more per month than either SPGs, or SGs. There
Gambling for excitement and to win money were were also significant differences in the amount of
the most popular reasons given for playing online money that were reported as lost each month ac-
poker across all categories of players (SGs, SPGs, cording to the severity of gambling behavior (2 
and PGs). This motivation was most apparent 64.34, d.f.  12, p  0.001). Problem gamblers re-

TABLE 4. REASONS FOR PLAYING ONLINE POKER BY PARTICIPANTS (N  422)

Social gamblers Gamblers with some Probable pathological
(n  220) problems (n  126) gamblers (n  76)

Reasons for playing Rarely or Frequently Rarely or Frequently Rarely or Frequently Chi
online poker occasionally or always occasionally or always occasionally or always Square df p

To relax 47.2% 13.7% 61.9% 14.3% 47.4% 10.5% 14.139 8 0.078

For excitement 49.6% 45.5% 37.3% 61.1% 28.9% 52.6% 39.218 8 0.001*
To win money 43.7% 38.7% 28.5% 67.4% 23.6% 56.6% 40.702 8 0.001*
To socialize 35.0% 8.2% 46.9% 5.6% 43.5% 10.6% 10.350 8 0.241
To escape problems 20.5% 3.2% 33.4% 6.4% 38.2% 15.8% 40.635 8 0.001*
To relieve boredom 61.0% 24.6% 54.0% 36.5% 51.3% 23.6% 14.554 8 0.068
To develop skills 47.8% 23.6% 38.95% 37.3% 28.9% 22.4% 22.434 8 0.004*
Because I feel lucky 35.0% 3.6% 47.6% 6.4% 36.9% 15.8% 26.735 8 0.001*

*Statistically significant.
ONLINE POKER PLAYING IN A STUDENT SAMPLE 359

ported losing more money per month than either Exposure to online poker playing may be relatively
SPGs or SGs. Problem gamblers were significantly frequent compared to non-student populations.
more likely to report always or frequently spending Also, it is likely that students have more familiarity
more than they intended when playing online poker with using the Internet than the general population,
(30.2%), followed by SPGs (7.1%), and SGs (2.3%; and it is also that case that university students in
2  86.5, d.f.  8, p  0.001). the United Kingdom are much more likely to have
Internet access at home than the general popula-
tion.9 Therefore, it could be concluded that the ac-
DISCUSSION quisition of poker playing behavior is more likely
among a student population than the general pop-
This study attempted to examine the acquisition, ulation due to factors such as accessibility, social in-
maintenance, and development of online poker fluence, and financial motivation.
playing in a self-selected group of students (and It was interesting to note the practise of gender
therefore cannot be considered a prevalence study). swapping and the different motivations of those
However, the sample is likely to be a reasonably male and females who did this. Whereas, for males
representative sample of online poker players in a it was a tactical move to give them a strategic ad-
student population if the prevalence of student on- vantage, for females it was much more about ac-
line poker gambling matches that of the general ceptance or privacy in what they perceived to be a
U.K. population (i.e., 5%, based on press reports) as male-dominated environment. Similar findings
just under 5% of all targeted students responded to have been reported in relation to online game play-
the survey on the basis that they had played online ing.10 Data from this study highlights that these tac-
poker. The study identified that almost half of the tics are also used in online poker games, although
sample could be classified as exhibiting some gam- it may be the traditional male domination of this ac-
bling problems (SPG  30%; PG  18%), although tivity (i.e., poker), rather than the medium (i.e., the
it should be noted that the sample was drawn from Internet), that precipitates gender swapping in fe-
a self-selected sample of online poker players and males. It has been argued that the Internet would
not the general population. However, considering make gambling more acceptable for women because
that all the participants were students at just one the Internet is seen as less alienating and stigmatis-
U.K. university, this could still be considered a ing medium when compared to gambling environ-
somewhat worrying figure. Furthermore, online ments such as casinos and betting shops.5
poker playing appeared to be just one of a number As expected, those who exhibited gambling prob-
of gambling activities that most participants en- lems reported that they played more frequently
gaged in on a regular basis. With almost 30% of stu- than social gamblers. However, more participants
dents from this sample playing poker at least twice who reported some gambling problems (two to
a week, the speculation that online poker playing is three categories on DSM-IV) reported playing on-
a popular pastime amongst students was con- line poker everyday compared to problem gam-
firmed. blers. Also as expected, those who were classified
It was also interesting that more of the players in as problem gamblers were more likely to report los-
our sample viewed online poker as mostly a game ing larger sums of money than any of the other gam-
of skill rather than either mostly chance based or an blers. Problem gamblers were more likely than so-
equal combination of both skill and chance. If stu- cial gamblers to also play roulette in a casino, play
dents enjoy playing poker and feel that they pos- virtual roulette in betting shops, play poker in
sess the requisite skills to be successful, then one casino tournaments, and play cards privately for
might expect that they will attempt to use this pas- cash. However, they were less likely to play poker
time, at least in part, as an attempt to resolve their socially with friends.
financial constraints. Gambling to win money was The best predictor of problem gambling in the
the most common reason claimed by participants study was a negative correlation with feeling happy
for playing poker across all categories of player (SG, after playing although this was most likely a con-
SPG, and PG). Further research is needed to exam- sequence of the gambling itself. Other affective pre-
ine in detail the perceptions of skill and control in dictors were reduced satisfaction after playing, and
relation to online poker playing. feeling guilty after playing. Although these nega-
Online poker playing appears to be an important tive states were consequences of gambling, they
social activity for some students, and 62% of the stu- could conceivably facilitate a need to modify mood
dents in our study claimed that they started play- (hence continued gambling), either in response to
ing through an introduction to the game by friends. underlying psychological states (e.g., depression,
360 WOOD ET AL.

anxiety) and/or in direct response to increased could relate to features such as preoccupation, chas-
losses (i.e., cognitive regret and chasing). This ing losses, and needing to gamble with more and
would then explain why gambling to escape from more money to achieve a desired level of excite-
problems was also another major predictor of prob- ment. In themselves, these categories could simply
lem gambling behavior in the study. Previous stud- indicate that a person is a very keen online poker
ies have noted how adolescent problem gamblers player rather than someone who has problems. Un-
use their gambling behavior to dissociate and es- less they are experiencing some kind of problem,
cape from problems in their lives.11,12 then it is conceivable that there is no problem, par-
Overall, the findings suggest that problem gam- ticularly if they are not actually losing large sums
bling is frequently rooted in a response to “block of money. This ambiguity is a general weakness of
out” negative mood states, as suggested by Jacob’s research in which problem gambling is defined and
General Theory of Addictions.13 It also indicates understood through purely quantitative measures.
that a sub-group of emotionally vulnerable problem Further qualitative research of online poker players
gamblers use their gambling behavior as a means is needed to examine in detail the phases of their
of modifying mood states and/or to meet specific gambling problem. Furthermore, longitudinal re-
psychological needs, as noted by the “pathway search is needed to determine how many online
model” of problem gambling.14 More recently, these poker players pass through a distinct stage whereby
influences have been theoretically integrated and their behavior can be accurately understood as
explained further through a grounded theory of “somewhat problematic.”
problem gambling as an escape-based coping strat- There were significant differences in the reasons
egy.15 given for playing online poker depending upon the
Those with some symptoms of problem gambling severity of the participant’s gambling problems.
were most likely to report that online poker play- SPGs were more likely than either SGs or PGs to re-
ing was purely a game of skill rather than chance. port that they played to win money. PGs were more
Problem gamblers were the least likely sub-group likely than other gamblers to report that they played
to report that poker was a game of mainly skill, and to escape problems, and this could indicate a real-
this may reflect their experiences of losing more ization that winning money was not (or was no
money playing online poker than those with less se- longer) their primary motivation to continue gam-
vere problems, or no problems. Similarly, problem bling. Similarly, SPGs were most likely to report that
gamblers were least likely to rate themselves as they found online poker exciting. PGs may have de-
above average skill when playing online poker, and veloped a tolerance to the excitement that they first
again this could relate to the realization that their experienced when gambling, which would explain
playing had resulted in significant financial losses. why it was not as exciting for them. However, PGs
Therefore, it appeared that those with the most se- were more likely than SPGs or SGs to report that
vere gambling problems had the least mispercep- they played online poker when they felt lucky,
tions about both the nature of the activity and their which could conceivably contribute to an illusion of
own skill rating. Therefore, it may be that such mis- control over their gambling behavior. Therefore, in
perceptions only facilitate the onset of problem the face of continued losses, PGs may account for
gambling and that over time, and as the severity of their losing as “bad luck,” considering it to be a
gambling behavior increases, so the gambler real- streak that will eventually change for the better.
izes, after sustaining considerable losses, that online Similarly, the finding that PGs were more likely to
poker is not as skill based as they originally thought. swap gender whilst playing could also add to in-
This realization may also extend to recognition that creased feelings of control over the game, at least
they are not as skilled at playing online poker as for male gamblers who reported gender swapping
they originally thought. Despite the fact that PGs re- as a tactic by which to gain a strategic advantage
ported winning more money than other gamblers, over other players.
they also reported losing the most as well. Overall, the study found a relatively high level of
An alternative explanation could be that the PGs problem gambling amongst student online poker
and SPGs were in fact qualitatively different types players. This is worrying given both the increasing
of gamblers, rather than in a quantitatively differ- levels of student debts in the United Kingdom, and
ent developmental phase of their gambling career. the rate at which online gambling is developing
For example, perhaps some of the SPGs were actu- around the world. This is most likely due to the so-
ally more skilled gamblers than the PGs and that is cial acceptability of this type of gambling, which is
why they lost less money. The reasons why the SPGs promoted through televised tournaments and often
confirmed two or three categories on the DSM-IV involves celebrity players, together with the 24-h,
ONLINE POKER PLAYING IN A STUDENT SAMPLE 361

seven-days-a-week availability, and the belief that ness as risk factors. Addiction Research and Theory
this is predominantly a game of skill that can be 12:201–212.
mastered. Further research is needed to examine 8. Wood, R.T.A., Griffiths, M.D., & Eatough, V. (2004).
student attitudes and those of the general public to Online data collection from videogame players:
methodological issues. CyberPsychology & Behavior
these forms of gambling. Furthermore, greater
7:511–518.
awareness needs to be promoted about the relative
9. Niemz, K., Griffiths, M.D., & Banyard, P. (2005).
danger that this type of gambling poses for indi- Prevalence of pathological Internet use among uni-
viduals and how gambling, like other mood-alter- versity students and correlations with self-esteem,
ing activities and substances, can lead to further GHQ and disinhibition. CyberPsychology & Behavior
problems when relied upon to alter mood states 8:562–570.
and/or escape from problems. 10. Griffiths, M.D., Davies, M.N.O., & Chappell, D.
(2004). Demographic factors and playing variables in
online computer gaming. CyberPsychology & Behavior
7:479–487.
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sue5/research/ialomiteanu_adlaf_article.html. Ac- Dr. Richard T.A. Wood
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Psychology Division
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seeking, deferment of gratification and competitive- E-mail: Richard.Wood@ntu.ac.uk