Journal of Army Special Operations History

PB 31-05-2 Vol. 4, No. 4, 2008

Special Edition: Special Forces in Bolivia

 Special Edition: Special Forces in Bolivia

6
CONTENTS
2 Introduction
By Charles H. Briscoe

6 “Beggar on a Throne of Gold: A

Short History of Bolivia”

30
By Robert W. Jones, Jr.

14 The 1960s: A Decade of Revolution

By Kenneth Finlayson

22 The Sixties in America: Social Strife

and International Conflict
By Troy J. Sacquety

30 Che Guevara: A False Idol

for Revolutionaries
By Troy J. Sacquety 40
40 “The ‘Haves and Have Nots’: U.S.
& Bolivian Order of Battle”
By Kenneth Finlayson

46 The Bolivia Mission, Site Survey,

and MTT Mission Prep
By Charles H. Briscoe

52 “Today a New Stage Begins”: 52

Che Guevara in Bolivia
By Robert W. Jones, Jr.

62 “Welcome to Bolivia, MTT-BL 404-67X”

By Charles H. Briscoe

62
 68 Field Sanitation, Practicing Medicine, and Civic
Action in Bolivia
By Charles H. Briscoe

76 Turning the Tables on Che:

The Training at La Esperanza
By Kenneth Finlayson

68 86 Che’s Posse: Divided, Attrited, and Trapped

By Robert W. Jones, Jr.

94 The 2nd Ranger Battalion and the

Capture of Che Guevara
By Kenneth Finlayson

98 The Special Forces Mission to

Cochabamba, Bolivia 1967

94 By Charles H. Briscoe

100 The Aftermath: Che, the Late 1960s,

and the Bolivian Mission
By Troy J. Sacquety

104 Postscript
By Charles H. Briscoe

Notes on Sources
100 By Troy J. Sacquety

Veritas: Veritas is published quarterly by the Questions: Address questions and comments Command Historian and Editor:
United States Army Special Operations Command, to USASOC, ATTN: AOHS Veritas, E-2929 Desert Charles H. Briscoe, PhD, briscoec@soc.mil
Fort Bragg, North Carolina (ISSN 1553-9830). The Storm Drive, Fort Bragg, NC 28310, or e-mail one of
contents are not necessarily the official views of, our editors. Associate Editors:
nor endorsed by, the U.S. government, Department Kenneth Finlayson, PhD, finlaysk@soc.mil
of Defense, USSOCOM, or USASOC. The contents Firewalls and spam blockers: DOD computer
are compiled, edited, and prepared by the USASOC FIREWALLs routinely place unrecognized addresses LTC Robert W. Jones Jr., jonesr@soc.mil
History Office. All photos not credited are courtesy into a Junk E-Mail box. Encryption is another problem.
Troy J. Sacquety, PhD, sacquett@soc.mil
of the USASOC History Office. Personal computer SPAM blockers further delay and
negate responses. Therefore, if you would like your Art Director:
Copyright: Material in Veritas may be reprinted, e-mail answered, please adjust your personal SPAM
Daniel W. Telles, tellesd@soc.mil
except where copyrighted, provided credit is given blocker before you send a message. Thanks.
to Veritas and the creators. Graphic Designer:
Submissions: Submit manuscripts, art,
Copies: Copies of previous Veritas issues are no illustrations, and photos to the address above. Laura Goddard, laura.goddard@soc.mil
longer available. Limited numbers of the current Digital format is preferred. Please provide
Photo Editor:
issue are maintained at the USASOC History Office. complete contact information for all submissions.
The USASOC History Office reserves the right to Earl J. Moniz, monize@soc.mil
Permission to use photographs: Permission edit all copy presented for publication.
to use photographs from private collections was Illustrators:
granted only to the USASOC History Office. These
Frank E. Allen, fallen1364@sbcglobal.net
photos are not available for public use.
Mariano Santillan, mariano@santillan.cc

Vol. 4 No. 4  i
 Setting the Scene
Illustration by Mariano Santillan

2  Veritas
 Introduction
by Charles H. Briscoe

On Monday morning, 3 April 1967, Colonel (COL)

Magnus L. Smith, the 8th Special Forces Group
(SFG) commander in the Panama Canal Zone, was
“I wasn’t specially-selected; it was simply ‘luck of
the draw’ that I was the only one available that met
the criteria. We tried to get CPT Boyer delayed, but
directed by U.S. Southern Command (SOUTHCOM) to Department of the Army (DA) wasn’t about to do that.
prepare a mobile training team (MTT) for a “classified” So, I was the guy,” said MAJ Shelton. “COL Smith told me
mission. [At this time all SF MTT missions were classified that we were to train a Ranger Battalion for the Bolivians
until completed unless labeled very sensitive. In that case because the country was being threatened by Communist
the National Security Act twenty-year classification review insurgency. An [Bolivian] Army unit had already been
rule applied]. The 1967 Bolivia MTT-BL 404-67X training chewed up by a bunch of guerrillas. We didn’t know that
mission fit the “classified very sensitive” category.1 Che Guevara was there. I was sent over to SOUTHCOM
The mission was significant. A Ranger-qualified SF at Quarry Heights (across the isthmus) for details. I was
captain/major was to lead the element. Despite having given license to pick my sixteen-man team, but we were
only two SF companies assigned (the standard was three to deploy as quickly as possible.”3 That was the Bolivia
for an SF group), the 8th SFG at Fort Gulick on the Atlantic mission for 1967. Personal thumbnail biographies up
side of the isthmus, was the Special Action Force (SAF) for to 1967 and photos will be used to identify personnel
Latin America. At the time, there were only two Ranger- interviewed. The bios reflect the experience that these SF
qualified captains or majors available; one was on Vietnam soldiers “brought to the table” for the Bolivia mission.
orders (Captain (CPT) Duane Boyer, B Company) and the This issue of Veritas will explain the 8th SFG missions to
other was the Group S-3 (Operations Officer), Major (MAJ) Bolivia in 1967: to organize and train a Ranger Battalion;
Ralph W. Shelton, who assigned MTT missions.2 to train nine infantry rifle companies in small unit tactics

Vol. 4 No. 4  3
 and counterinsurgency (COIN) operations and afterwords;
to advise the Airborne Battalion and to teach COIN
operations to junior officers at the Combat Arms School in
Cochabamba.6 The capture of Ernesto “Che” Guevara and
MAJ Ralph W. “Pappy ”
the annihilation of the Cuban-led guerrilla insurgency by
Shelton
the SF-trained Bolivian Rangers demonstrated the value
of COIN training and validated the precepts of foreign
DOB: 8 November 1929
internal defense (FID). However, the significance of this
POB: Cor inth, MS
training mission was overshadowed by an escalating social
HS : GED
turmoil that threatened America (the Detroit riots and
DLI: Spanish
as a tank
civil rights demonstrations in Washington) and the huge Army: Joined in 1947; trained
Communist offensive throughout South Vietnam beginning Cav Division;
crewman; Japan, 1948-1950, 1
st

in November 1967 and extending through January 1968 & Plt Sgt, G
Korea, 1950-1951, Inf Sqd Ldr
(popularly known as the Tet Offensive of 1968). n, Silver Star,
Co, 19th Inf Regt, 24 Inf Divisio
th

Considering this SF mission in the context of the , GA, 1955,

WIA twice; 1952-1955, Fort Gordon
greatest period of social upheaval in American history, s; Germany,
the 1960s, the reader can better appreciate how important, Guard Cdr, Disciplinar y Barrack
SFC to OCS
1957, Inf Plt Sgt, 8 Inf Division;
th
complex, and sensitive this assignment was. Instead of BCT Co XO
complicating the history with the myriad of works that 1957; Fort Jackson, SC, 1958-1960
Ldr & Co Cdr,
have been published afterwards, many of which are & Cdr; Korea, 1960-1961, Inf Plt
g, NC, 1961
1/4th Cav, 1 Cav Division; Fort Brag
st
sensational, hypothetical or polemic, like the diaries of
2; 196 3 Inf Off
Che Guevara, official Cuban Communist Party accounts, joined SF; White Star in Laos, 196
Panama, 1964-
and intelligence officer memoirs, the old Mission Area Advanced Course & DLI Spanish;
Dominican
Analysis (MAA) format will rely almost entirely on 1967, 8th SFG, Panama riots (1964); 4
what was available to the 8th SFG soldiers preparing for 8 SFG S-3 .
Republic (1965); late 1966
th

the mission in 1967. It is not our intent to analyze why

the mission succeeded, why the Bolivians were able to
eliminate the insurgency, nor why Che and his Cuban-led before and during the 1967 mission. They provide the
effort to start a continental revolution in South America reader with the necessary context. Interviews of nine
failed. MTT-BL 404-67X will be explained as Major surviving MTT veterans will provide realism and make
“Pappy” Shelton and his fifteen-man team understood the contents of the other four paragraphs more interesting
the mission then. and personal. The elements of the five paragraphs will be
To amplify this Mission Area Analysis approach presented in normal order.
the five paragraph military field order format will be This introduction will be followed by an article on the
followed: Situation [Friendly Order of Battle (military mission preparation done by the SF team in Panama and
elements by type & size) with attachments], Enemy Order the reconnaissance conducted by the advance echelon
of Battle (insurgents & local Communist Party), weather, (ADVON) in Bolivia. A tourist sketch of the country in 1967
and terrain); Mission; Execution [Concept of Operation will cover geography, weather, the key historical events,
from highest to lowest levels (how the mission will be demographics, the political situation, and the economics.
accomplished)]; Administration & Logistics; Command That will be followed by an historical summary of major
& Control (Chain of Command and Communications). world events of the turbulent 1960s, concluding in 1967.
The Situation will address the significant events of the Still, the mid-1960s were the height of the Cold War. An
1960s in the U.S., the world, Latin America, and Bolivia American-led Western world faced a divided Soviet and
Chinese Eastern Bloc. Communist-supported “wars of
national liberation” had erupted worldwide making COIN
training the primary task of Special Forces’ FID mission.
This article will show how prevalent insurgencies were by
1967, where they were, how the “domino effect” philosophy
determined U.S. foreign policy (anti-Communist) in
COL Louis L. Felder developing countries, and how Washington was dealing
replaced COL Magnus with these Cold War threats. Combined together these
L. Smith as the 8th
factors determined how President René Barrientos
SFG Commander.
Ortuño’s request for immediate military assistance would
be answered in the late spring of 1967.7
After his popular election in 1966, President Barrientos
had requested additional military training for the Bolivian
Army during an official visit to Washington. In the early
1960s, an SF MTT organized and trained an airborne

4  Veritas
 MTT-BL 404-67X Roster
MAJ Ralph W. Shelton – Commander Bolivian President
(1) CPT Edmond L. Fricke – Executive Officer/S-3 René Barrientos
(1) CPT LeRoy Mitchell – Executive Officer/S-3 Ortuño. Note that he
(2) CPT James Trimble – S-1/S-4 is wearing the Bolivian
(3) CPT Margarito Cruz – S-2 Ranger badge atop the
(3) 1LT Harvey W. Wallender – S-2 decorations on his left
breast pocket.
MSG (SGM) Oliverio Gomez – Team Sergeant
MSG Roland J. Milliard – Intelligence Sergeant
SFC Ethyl W. Duffield – Demolitions Sergeant
(4) SFC Daniel V. Chapa – Light Weapons Sergeant
(5) SFC Richard A. Kimmich – Light Weapons Sergeant
(5) SFC Johnnie E. Reynolds – Admin Supervisor/S-4
(4) SFC Hector Rivera-Colon – Heavy Weapons Sergeant
(2) SFC Harold T. Carpenter – Heavy Weapons Sergeant military training in Bolivia, Peace Corps volunteers, and
(6) SFC Roger L. Kluckman – Communications Supervisor the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID).
(6) SFC William R. Bush – Communications Supervisor Then, the articles will be chronological: establishment
(7) SSG Jerald L. Peterson – Medical Specialist of the training base at La Esperanza; organization,
(7) SFC Robert L. Owens – Medical Supervisor training, and graduation of the Ranger Battalion; prep for
SSG James A. Hapka – Medical Specialist the follow-on training mission; the capture of Che
SSG William W. Burkett – Radio Operator Guevara by the Rangers; the training of nine infantry
SSG Wendell P. Thompson Jr. – Radio Operator companies in COIN operations; civic action activities of
SGT Alvin E. Graham III – Radio Operator the SF team; and SF in Cochabamba. The conclusion will
SGT Byron R. Sigg – Radio Operator be based on MAJ Shelton’s AAR and SOUTHCOM
briefing. An epilogue covers the aftermath of SF’s first
Legend
successful COIN mission and Cuba’s “martyrdom” of
(1) CPT Mitchell replaced CPT Fricke 3 Oct 67
Che Guevara that raised him to mythological status. The
(2) SFC Carpenter replaced CPT Trimble 30 Aug 67
succeeding article explains the 8th SFG mission
(3) 1LT Wallender replaced CPT Cruz 3 Oct 67
preparation in Panama while the ADVON was in Bolivia
(4) SFC Chapa replaced SFC Rivera-Colon 24 May 67
getting briefed by the MILGP in La Paz before searching
(5) SFC Reynolds replaced SFC Kimmich 3 Oct 67
for the best training site in the operational area.  
(6) SFC Bush replaced SFC Kluckman 19 Jun 67
(7) SFC Owens replaced SSG Peterson 3 Oct 67 5
Charles H. Briscoe has been the USASOC Command
**Note: This is the official roster for MTT-BL 404-67X. The Historian since 2000. A graduate of The Citadel, this retired
sixteen-man MTT used two C-130 Hercules to carry them and
their supplies and equipment for 179 days TDY (temporary duty)
Army special operations officer earned his PhD from the
to Bolivia in 1967. Missions beyond 180 days required a PCS University of South Carolina. Current research interests
(permanent change of station). include Army special operations during the Korean War,
in El Salvador, and the Lodge Act.
battalion at Cochabamba. It was to be the first of several
elite units oriented for mountain, river, and jungle warfare. Endnotes
Bolivian officers had been attending COIN courses at the 1 Ralph W. Shelton interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, Sweetwater, TN, 4
School of the Americas in Panama as well. Since Bolivia April 2007, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Shelton interview with date.
was not facing an immediate insurgent threat in late 1966,
2 Shelton interviews, 4 April 2007 and 13 April 2007.
the COIN training for infantry units was programmed for
3 Shelton interview, 4 April 2007.
1968. That scheduled training was pushed forward when
4 Shelton interview, 12 April 2007.
Army patrols in southeast Bolivia were ambushed by 5 MTT BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), 1st Special Forces,
foreign-led insurgents in early March 1967. Special Action Force, Fort Gulick, Canal Zone. SUBJECT: Report of Mobile
President Barrientos wanted a Ranger battalion Training Team to Bolivia (RCS CSGPO-125), 10 December 1967, hereafter cited
as MTT BL 404-67X Report, 10 December 1967.
organized and trained to combat the insurgent threat as
6 John D. Waghelstein, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 12 June
soon as possible. The mission was created, and the United 2007, Bristol, RI, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
States Military Group (MILGP) in La Paz coordinated an Fort Bragg, NC.
ADVON visit for 8th SFG personnel while the main body in 7 Henry Butterfield Ryan. The Fall of Che Guevara: A Story of Soldiers, Spies, and
Diplomats (NY: Oxford University Press, 1998), 91.
Panama began its preparations. Following these activities
will be sections associated with Mission Prep; Enemy Order
of Battle (the Bolivian Communist party, Cuba’s role in the
hemisphere, the exploits of Che Guevara); Friendly Order
of Battle (the Bolivian armed forces, other ongoing U.S.

Vol. 4 No. 4  5
 “Beggar on a
Throne of Gold:
A Short History of Bolivia”
by Robert W. Jones, Jr.

6  Veritas
Bolivia is a land of sharp physical and social
contrasts. Although blessed with
enormous mineral wealth Bolivia was (and is) one of the
poorest nations of Latin America and has been described
as a “Beggar on a Throne of Gold.” 1 This article presents
a short description of Bolivia as it appeared in 1967 when
Che Guevara prepared to export revolution to the center
of South America. In Guevara’s estimation, Bolivia was
ripe for revolution with its history of instability and a
disenfranchised Indian population. This article covers
the geography, history, and politics of Bolivia.

Geography and Demographics

Bolivia’s terrain and people are extremely diverse.
Since geography is a primary factor in the distribution
of the population, these two aspects of Bolivia will
be discussed together. In the 1960s Bolivian society
was predominantly rural and Indian unlike the rest
of South America. The Indians, primarily Quechua or
Aymara, made up between fifty to seventy percent of
the population. The three major Indian dialects are
Quechua, Aymara, and Guaraní. The remainder of
the population were whites and mixed races (called
“mestizos”). It is difficult to get an accurate census because The varied geographic regions of Bolivia make it one of
the Indians have always been transitory and there are the most climatically diverse countries in South America.
Map by D. Telles.
cultural sensitivities. Race determines social status in
Bolivian society. A mestizo may claim to be white to gain vegetation grows sparser towards the south, where
social status, just as an economically successful Indian the terrain is rocky with dry red clay. Northwest of
may claim to be a mestizo or “cholo” (in Bolivian slang).2 La Paz on the Peru border is Lake Titicaca, the highest
Geography and demographics are intertwined. commercially navigable lake in the world. The major
Geographers and geologists generally divide Bolivia cities on the Altiplano are the capital, La Paz, and Potosí,
into three geographic regions. The first region is the both 13,000 feet above sea level. About three-fourths of
Andes Mountains and Altiplano, in the west and south. Bolivia’s population lives on the Altiplano.4 The Quechua
The Andes are actually two north-south parallel ranges and Aymara have lived there for centuries.5 The Altiplano
(cordilleras). The western range (Cordillera Occidental) runs Indians speak either Quechua or Aymara and have little
along the Peru and Chile borders. The eastern range knowledge of Spanish (especially written).
(Cordillera Oriental) stretches from Peru to Argentina The semitropical and temperate valleys of the
and Chile. In between the two ranges is the Altiplano, northeastern mountain range (called the Cordillera Real)
a highland desert plateau that is 500 miles long by 80 form the second Bolivian geographic region. These long
miles wide. The Altiplano is 12,000 to 13,000 feet above narrow valleys called “Yungas” (the Aymara word for
sea level.3 It gets very little rainfall because the two high “warm valleys”) are cut by rivers, which drain to the
cordilleras block rain clouds. Because of this, the scrub east. Climate and rainfall make the Yungas some of the

The Bolivian Altiplano (Spanish for “high plain”) landscape. Little rainfall and cold temperatures create a
harsh environment.

Vol. 4 No. 4  7
 most fertile land in Bolivia, and they are filled with lush
vegetation. The barely accessible high mountain slopes
and peaks are largely uncultivated because road access
is limited. Sucre and Cochabamba are located in this
region.6 The rural population is predominately Indian.
The whites and mestizos dominate the cities.
The third region, the Oriente, is composed of the
eastern tropical lowland plains (called llanos) that cover
about two-thirds of the country.7 The Oriente is further
subdivided into three areas based on topography
and climate. The northern Oriente, primarily the Beni
and Pando Departments and the northern part of
Cochabamba Department, is tropical rain forest. During
Indians make up between 55% to 70% of the Bolivian
the rainy season, from October to May, transportation
population. Since ethnicity determines class it is
difficult to take an exact census. The Aymara Indian is difficult because large parts turn into swamp. By the
couple above are dressed in typical fashion for life 1960s, travel was increasingly done with aircraft or boats
on the harsh Altiplano. because of this. The entire Beni region (Amazon basin)
is sparsely populated by approximately thirty different
Indian groups.8
Moving south is the
transitional zone with a drier
climate, which comprises the
northern half of the Santa
Cruz Department. Here
belts of tropical rainforests
alternate with savanna grass
plains. Large sections of land
were cleared for farming
and cattle ranching. In the
late 1920s oil and natural
gas exploration took place in
this region. The largest city
is Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz de
la Sierra), which in the 1960s
had considerable economic
g rowt h. 9 W h ile mestizos
migrated to the area looking
for opportunity, two very
insular communities are east
of Santa Cruz. In the 1950s
several thousand Japanese
and Okinawans emigrated to
farm fruit, rice, and vegetables.
There are also several large
Mennonite communities east
of Santa Cruz.10

Three-quarters of the
population lives on the
Altiplano. The Ñancahuazú
area of the Chaco had a
population density of
less than 10 people per
square mile. Map by D. Telles.

8  Veritas
 The final region is the southeastern most part of the
Oriente lowlands called “the Chaco” (sometimes called the
Gran Chaco or the Chaco Desert). The Chaco is basically
Francisco Pizarro was
a huge flat expanse, which has a striking climate contrast. the Spanish Conquistador
It becomes increasingly drier moving from east to west. who conquered the Inca
After a dry season of nine months (April to December), Empire, including what is
the desert transforms into a vast insect-infested swamp present day Bolivia.
during a three-month long rainy season. These extremes He was killed in 1541
in climate and rainfall support thorny brush jungle and during a revolt by followers
grassy areas for cattle.11 Cheap land brought few settlers of Diego de Almargo,
his principal rival, in
to this inhospitable region.12 However, it did attract Che
Lima, Peru.
Guevara in 1967.

Bolivia 1966-67: History

The history of Bolivia in the 1960s reflects its pre-
• Size: 424,164 square miles Columbian and Spanish colonial heritage. The Indian
(about the size of Texas and California combined)
groups eventually formed two “great” kingdoms, the
• Gross National Product: $543 million Aymara and the Inca (Quechua).15 The Spanish conquest
• Annual per capita income: $125-$145 led by Francisco Pizarro began in 1526. During 300 years
• Exchange rate: 20 Bolivian Pesos (Bolivianos) of colonial rule, Spain imposed its political and social
to $1 (but depending on the area it could vary as much institutions on a predominantly extractive economy that
as 50 B to $1) concentrated on mineral exports – first silver, and then tin
• Literacy level: Between 30% and 40% – using Indian forced labor. After a hard struggle to gain
(depending on the statistic source) independence in 1825, Bolivia’s history was marked with
• Life expectancy: Between 43 to 48 years old political and territorial insecurity. The one constant during
(lowest in South America) the 18th and 19th centuries in Bolivia was instability.
• US Foreign Aid – $68.9 million dollars
• US Military Aid – $2.83 million dollars Pre-Columbian History
(Bolivia was in the bottom third of Latin America for funding) The Inca Empire began expanding from the highlands
of Peru in the early 13th century. In 1438, the Incas
incorporated a large portion of western South America
It was the hostile area bordering the Chaco that Che that included the Bolivian Altiplano. The empire was
selected for his guerrilla foco base. The countryside has created and expanded by peaceful integration and
rolling hills with deep, densely wooded, thorn infested military conquest. At its height the Incas controlled
ravines (canyons or gullies) that generally run north - about 12 million people. The Inca Empire included large
south. In the center of the area, the Ñancahuazú River parts of today’s Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile,
twists its way through a steep canyon where smaller and Colombia.
streams and gullies branch off the main river. Narrow
riverbanks sporadically disappear into the canyon walls. The Conquest
The canyon sides are covered with thickets of reeds, trees, Francisco Pizarro, with fewer than 200 men, toppled
vines, and cacti. Hilltops are largely barren with small the Inca Empire. Pizarro took advantage of the instability
trees and scrub vegetation. Paths are limited, and cutting caused by a recent civil war, a smallpox epidemic, and
a trail with a machete is often necessary.13 European military technology to seize power. The death
The area around the Ñancahuazú River is sparsely of Huayna Capac caused fighting between two half
populated with small towns and villages. There are brothers, Huáscar and Atahualpa, over the succession
few roads. The population is a mix of people, primarily to the Inca throne.16 After a three-year-long civil war
lowland Guaraní Indians and poor mestizos who migrated (1529-1532) Atahualpa defeated Huáscar, just as the
for cheap land. This area had been part of a government Spaniards arrived.17 On 16 November 1532, Pizarro
land reform program giving ten-hectare homesteads captured Atahualpa and demanded a ransom for his
(about 25 acres) to about 16,000 families.14 People cluster life. After a large room was filled with gold and silver,
in small, isolated communities to eke out a living by the Inca ruler was executed.18 The conquistadors spent
farming, cattle ranching, or working on government ten years consolidating power in the Andean region.
oil and public works projects. The major transportation Although there were several Indian rebellions, they
artery is the Santa Cruz - Cochabamba highway that were quickly put down. For 300 years Spain controlled
connects the area to the Altiplano. what is present day Bolivia.

Vol. 4 No. 4  9
 Colonialism – Upper Peru
The new colony called “Upper Peru,” (Bolivia) had America (120,000 to 160,000 people when London had
been a neglected part of the Inca Empire. This continued about 400,000).21 Silver extracted from Potosí became
under Spanish colonial rule until 1545 when large silver the principal source of Spanish royal wealth for three
deposits were found at Potosí nearly 13,800 feet above hundred years.
sea level.19 That discovery transformed the backwater
into the wealthiest part of the Spanish empire. Although
the Spanish crown received 20% of the silver extracted, it Simón Bolívar,
fueled the entire region’s economy. The remote location “El Libertador,” led
of Potosí meant that everything – food, tools, animals, the rebel forces in the
and labor – to support mining had to be imported.20 In South American wars
1548 the town of La Paz was established on the trade of independence to free
route between the silver mines and the colonial capital at Venezuela, Colombia,
Lima, Peru. By 1650 Potosí was the largest city in South Ecuador, Peru, Panama,
and Bolivia. He was
the first President
of Bolivia.

Independence
The Spanish empire began to weaken when the
French occupied Spain during the Napoleonic Wars. As
Spanish royal authority weakened, two independence
movements sprang up in South America. In the north,
forces under Simón Bolívar fought the royalist armies
in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. From Argentina,
José de San Martín and Bernardo O’Higgins led forces
across the Andes to free Chile, and then fought north to
free Peru. Independence in Upper Peru was proclaimed
in 1809, but it took 16 years of struggle to establish the
A 16th Century woodcut of Cerro Potosi shows the republic named for Simón Bolívar, the Great Liberator.
Cerro Rico (Rich Hill). This mountain of silver funded Bolivia was established on 6 August 1825; however,
the Spanish Empire. Once the silver ran out, tin independence did not bring stability.
became the major export of the country. Bolivia’s future was marred by political turmoil and
military defeats. In 1867, Bolivia lost territory in the
north to Brazil. During the War of the Pacific (1879-
Mita System 1883), Bolivia allied with Peru against Chile. The clash
The mita, a labor draft system set up by the was prompted by economics, over an unlikely source of
Aymara kingdoms, was then adapted by the revenue, guano (the nitrate-rich excrement of seabirds,
Incas. All males, except the young and old, bats, and seals).25 Chile prevailed on land and sea and
served in the army, on public works projects— occupied the Peruvian capital, Lima.26 Bolivia lost areas
irrigation systems and imperial roads, or in the rich in natural resources, as well as its national pride.
mines.22 Mita labor service took place between Most significantly, Bolivia lost access to the Pacific Ocean,
harvest and planting. With the Spanish conquest making it a landlocked country.27
the mita tradition went away.
Francisco de Toledo, the Spanish governor of the Interim
viceroyalty of Peru, reinstated the mita in 1573. By From 1884 until the 1930s Bolivia enjoyed relative
adapting the mita to the European feudal system stability. The economy took a jump as tin replaced silver
the Spanish required all indigenous (Indian) as the major export. World demand fostered the expansion
males between 18 to 60 years of age to work for of railways to transport the tin to the United States and
three weeks per year and a year every six years Europe.28 Bolivian intellectuals blamed Chile for its
in the mines or on other public works (repairing defeat in the War of the Pacific. Using reverse psychology,
or building roads).23 The “Potosí (Bolivia) mita,” they promoted the need to create a national identity to
required the indigenous population to work in overcome centuries of backwardness. Rival political
the mines. The Indian death rate in the mines parties worked for political and economic modernization.
was reported to be 80% a year.24 Later the mita The politicians in government, elected by a small, literate,
was expanded to include a mandatory two-years and Spanish-speaking electorate reorganized, reequipped,
of military service. and professionalized the disgraced armed forces. They
provided stability and prosperity into the next century.

10  Veritas
 The 20th century was marked with three
great events: the Chaco War, World War II,
and the 1952 Revolution. The Chaco War
was the last territorial loss for the country,
but, more importantly it politicized a
generation, both politically and militarily,
to seek change. World War II and the need
for tin kept the economy moving forward.
The 1952 Bolivian Revolution caused
drastic political, social, and economic
changes. Most important, universal
suffrage promised the majority Indian
population more voice in government
and massive land reform was decreed to
improve life for the poor.

The Chaco War

The Chaco War with Paraguay was
fought to regain the Chaco and gain access
to the sea via the navigable Paraguay
River. Both were needed for economic
growth and for oil exploration. Control of
the Paraguay River and the Chaco region
also affected the production of yerba
maté, Paraguay’s major export.29 A series
of escalating border incidents were the
impetus for war. Convinced that Bolivia’s
A legacy of loss. Since 1867 Bolivia has lost territory to Brazil, larger army could win, President Daniel
Chile, and Paraguay, almost equal to the present day country. Salamanca broke diplomatic relations and
Map by D. Telles. declared war on Paraguay in 1932.
On paper, the Bolivians had a huge
This photo shows a Bolivian patrol during the Chaco War. Note advantage over the Paraguayans. Bolivia
the inhospitable terrain of cactus and thorn bushes during the had more national resources, including
dry season. During rainy season the area becomes a swamp. population, and a larger Army, trained
by German expatriates. However, the
Army was filled with conscripted and ill-
trained Indians from the Altiplano, most
of whom had never been out of their
villages. Relocation to the harsh climate
of the Chaco resulted in enormous non-
battle casualties from sickness, hunger,
and dehydration. Led by former German
General Hans Kundt, the army launched
World War I style mass assaults that
proved disastrous. A 1,000-mile long road
was the sole supply line for the Bolivians,
further hampering operations.30 Bolivian
losses were staggering: 65,000 of the
250,000-man Army were killed, deserted,
or perished in captivity.31 With a
population of only 2 million, Bolivian per
capita losses rivaled French and British
losses in the First World War.32 Paraguay
suffered as well. They lost 36,000 soldiers
of 140,000 mobilized.33 After three years
of fighting the Paraguayan army forced
the Bolivians out of the Chaco.

Vol. 4 No. 4  11
 The Chaco War was traumatic to Bolivia. The loss
of territory and prestige was yet another blow to the
national psyche. Bolivia lost 115,000 more square Bolivia during WWII
miles of territory, about a fifth of the country.34 It was Bolivia did not provide combat forces for
the catalyst for political change. The veterans became WWII, but it proved crucial to the Allied
the “Chaco Generation” and pushed for political victory as a supplier of critically needed
and military reforms for the next three decades.35 The materials. With the loss of Asian tin markets
defeat in the Chaco set the stage for the 1952 Bolivian to the Japanese, Bolivia became the largest
National Revolution. supplier for the Allies. By 1945 Bolivia
provided half of the world’s tin.36 The United
Víctor Paz Estenssoro States and Great Britain also bought large
led the Movimiento quantities of oil, wolfram, lead, and bismuth
Nacionalista
for wartime industries.37 Minerals were not the
Revolucionario (MNR)
only item supplied; Bolivia became a leading
during the 1952 Bolivian
National Revolution. He source of quinine to fight malaria. While
served as president in there was a vocal sympathetic group of pro-
1952-1956, 1960-1964, German Bolivians, the government signed
and after re-election in the “Declaration of the United Nations,” and
1964, was ousted by a joined the Allies on 27 April 1943.
coup. He was elected
again and served from
1985-1989.
the constitution to enable himself to run again in 1964.
After he won the 1964 election with 70% of the vote, the
The 1952 Bolivian National Revolution military staged a coup d’état.43
The Chaco War was a turning point for Bolivia.
Although legally a democracy, the predominately white General Alfredo
electorate constituted only 5% of the population. Indian Ovando Candía was the
veterans returned to their villages without the right Army commander who
to vote and little, if any, political power. In 1941, Víctor led the 1964 coup. He
Paz Estenssoro led the formation of the Movimiento and René Barrientos
Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR), the Nationalist were co-presidents
Revolutionary Movement. It grew in strength during from 1964 to 1966.
Ovando became
World War II and afterward by aligning itself with the
president in 1969, but
miners unions, the strongest in the country.38 In 1949
he was overthrown by
the MNR staged a popular uprising that was quickly a military coup.
crushed by the military. Víctor Paz Estenssoro and other
party leaders fled into exile and devoted themselves to
reorganizing for the next three years.39 The 1964 Coup
On 9 April 1952, a new successful MNR revolt became On 4 November 1964, the Vice President, General René
the Bolivian National Revolution. This was not a Barrientos, and the Army Commander, General Alfredo
bloodless coup d’état. Over 1,500 died bringing the Ovando Candía, overthrew the MNR government. The
MNR to power.40 Víctor Paz Estenssoro was quickly new junta called its action a “restorative revolution” to
elected president. The MNR implemented wide-ranging stop MNR excesses and eliminate corruption.44 Barrientos
reforms, including universal adult suffrage, massive and Ovando ruled jointly in a military junta for two
land reform, rural education, and nationalization of the years until 2 January 1966, when Barrientos resigned and
tin mines. The national government for the first time in ran for president. He won the election with 54% of the
the country’s history worked to integrate the Indians popular vote and took office on 6 August 1966. 45 General
(the majority of the population) into the national social Ovando continued as the Army Commander.46
structure. To prevent a military coup d’etat, the Bolivian
Army was abolished and the military academy closed. Conclusion
Both were reinstated within the first six months of the In 1967, Bolivia appeared ready for change. The 1964
MNR administration, but with a new mission, to promote coup put the military back in power, but after the 1966
civic action throughout the country.41 election, the Army returned to its barracks. Three major
The MNR stayed in power for an unprecedented events shaped the country: the War of the Pacific during
twelve years.42 Paz Estenssoro’s vice-president, Hernán which Bolivia lost a mineral rich area, making it a
Siles Zuazo, succeeded him in 1956. Paz Estenssoro landlocked country; the Chaco War resulted in more
was re-elected for a second time in 1960 and changed territorial losses, but more importantly, severely reduced

12  Veritas
 18 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, 16-17.
its manpower for twenty years; and the 1952 Revolution
19 Alexander, Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics, 40.
redefined the political, social, and economic landscape.
20 Herbert S. Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 2nd edition
In Che Guevara’s estimation, Bolivia, with its history of (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 55.
instability and a disenfranchised Indian population, 21 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, 21-23; Alexander, Bolivia: Past, Present, and
was the perfect breeding ground for revolution. Bolivia Future of Its Politics, 40.

became his test case for launching revolution throughout 22 Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle, 34.

South America.   23 Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle, 36; Jeffery A. Cole. The Potosí Mita: 1573-
1700 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985), 1-3; Klein, Bolivia: The
Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 54-55.

Robert W. Jones, Jr. is an historian assigned to the USASOC 24 Alexander, Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics, 41.
25 The War of the Pacific (1879-1883) is also known as the Saltpeter War or the
History Office and is a Lieutenant Colonel in the U.S. Army. Guano War because of the guano and nitrates. Nitrates were used as fertilizer
A graduate of the University of Washington, he earned his and a major explosive ingredient, which made the arid area economically
MA from Duke University and his MS from Troy State important. Later discoveries of copper and other minerals increased the
economic value of the region.
University. Current research interests include Special
26 Rex A. Hudson and Dennis M. Hanratty, Edited by, Bolivia: A Country Study.
Forces in Vietnam 1960–1966, military government and (Library of Congress, Dec 1989), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/
civil affairs, special operations in World War II, Operation cstdy:@field(DOCID+bo0020), accessed on 23 September 2008.
JUST CAUSE, and Operation ENDURING FREEDOM. 27 The Bolivians continue to call this the Litoral Department (Spanish for
“littoral,” the coast) and it remains a deeply emotional issue. Popular belief
attributes much of the country’s problems to its landlocked status.
28 Alexander, Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics, 53; Klein, Bolivia: The
Endnotes Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 40-41.
1 Waltraud Q. Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle (Boulder, CO: Westview
Press, 1992), 1; Robert J. Alexander, The Bolivian National Revolution (New 29 Yerba maté is an herbal tea used in the southern part of Latin America and
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1958), 3. was the primary export crop of Paraguay.

2 Robert J. Alexander, Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics (New York: 30 Edward A. Raymond, “Preview in the Chaco,” Field Artillery Journal, October
Praeger Press, 1982), 9; Waltraud Q. Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia (New 1942, vol. 32, no. 10, 794-795; “Blood in Chaco,” Time, 17 July 1933, accessed
York: Checkmark Books, 2004), xxi-xxii; Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle, online at http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,753801,00.html
14-15; Rex A. Hudson and Dennis M. Hanratty, editors, Bolivia: A Country 31 James Dunkerley, Rebellion in the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia, 1952-82
Study. (Library of Congress, Dec 1989) http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/ (London: The Thetford Press, 1984), 27.
cstdy:@field(DOCID+bo0042), accessed on 23 September 2008. 32 Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 194; Robert L. Scheina,
3 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, xxi-xxii; Marguerite A. Kistler, Bolivia (San Latin America’s Wars, Volume 2 (Dulles, VA: Brassey’s, 2003), 103.
Diego, CA: Lucent Books, 2004), 12; Louis Barron, ed., Worldmark Encyclopedia 33 Leslie Bethell, ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII: Latin
of the Nations (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 19. America Since 1930: Spanish South America (Cambridge, United Kingdom:
4 Kistler, Bolivia, 14-16. Cambridge University Press, 1991), 234.
5 Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle, 15. 34 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 518-519; Robert
6 Kistler, Bolivia, 17-18. Stuart Kain, “The Chaco Dispute and the Peace System,” Political Science
Quarterly, September 1935, Volume 50, 3:321.
7 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, xxv; Kistler, Bolivia, 19.
35 Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 186; Scheina, Latin
8 Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle, 15-16. America’s Wars, 103-104.
9 Kistler, Bolivia, 20. 36 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 525; Dunkerly,
10 Alexander, Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics, 12; Morales, Bolivia: Rebellion in the Veins, 10.
Land of Struggle, 19. 37 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 526.
11 The vegetation includes a wide variety of cacti and the mineral-rich Quebracho 38 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, 117-118.
tree. The Quebracho tree provides both tannin (used in tanning hides) and a
very hard timber, making a prized commodity. The etymology of the name is 39 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 536-537; Morales,
Spanish. Iit is a derivative from quiebrahacha, meaning “ax-breaker.” A Brief History of Bolivia, 132-133.

12 Kistler, Bolivia, 22; Louis Barron, ed., Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations 40 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 542; Morales, A
(New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 19. Brief History of Bolivia, 140.

13 Daniel James, Che Guevara (New York: Stein and Day, 1969), 214; Richard 41 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 542-544;
Harris, Death of a Revolutionary, Che Guevara’s Last Mission. (New York: W.W. Alexander, The Bolivian National Revolution, 146-150; Dunkerly, Rebellion in the
Norton and Company, 1970), 77. Veins, 49-51; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 63-64; The military academy
and other military functions were closed down for about eight weeks
14 James, Che Guevara, 275; Ernesto Guevara (with an introduction and case (Dunkerly, Rebellion in the Veins, 49).
studies by Brian Lovemen and Thomas M. Davies, Jr.), Che Guevara on
Guerrilla Warfare (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 343. 42 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 551-552.

15 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, 7; The kingdom or empire is “Inca,” after 43 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 556.
the ruler who was referred to as “The Inca.” The language and the people are 44 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, 167.
Quechua, which is still spoken in Bolivia and Peru. 45 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, 171; Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-
16 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, 16-19; Depending on the text this conflict is Ethnic Society, 194; Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle, 88; Harris, Che Guevara’s
called the Inca Civil War, the Inca Dynastic War, the Inca War of Succession, Last Mission, 64.
or the War of the Two Brothers. 46 Dunkerly, Rebellion in the Veins, 120-122.
17 Morales, A Brief History of Bolivia, 11-19 and 31.

Vol. 4 No. 4  13
 The 1960s:
A Decade of Revolution
by Kenneth Finlayson

Photo collage by D. Telles

14  Veritas
The decade of the 1960s witnessed profound
change in the established world order. The
post-WW II global configuration was essentially bi-polar,
with the United States-led West aligned against the Soviet-
dominated East. In the 1960s, this split along ideological
and economic lines divided the world into five centers
of power: the Soviet Union and its satellites; Communist
China and Southeast Asia; Europe and the United States;
Africa; and Latin America. This article will look briefly
at each of these regions and the general United States
foreign policy strategy for each. The emphasis will be on
Latin America, in particular Bolivia, and events such as
Cuban-instigated insurgencies, affecting U.S. engagement
Mao Zedong (R) with Associated Press correspondent John
in the southern hemisphere. In Latin America, Cuban- Roderick in Yenang China, 1946. Mao’s Peoples Republic of
sponsored revolutionary fervor was a major factor in China broke with the Soviet Union in the 1960s, resulting
determining the U.S. strategy. in two Communist spheres of influence in the world.
The Allied powers determined at the end of World War II
the Security Council’s permanent membership in the newly
formed United Nations (Chiang K’ai Shek’s Nationalist
China, not Communist China, held a permanent seat). The
power blocs of the Fifties began to erode in the Sixties. It
was the Soviet Union that faced off against the West in the
Cold War, and instigated such provocations as the erection
of the Berlin Wall.1
In the immediate post-War period, U.S. nuclear
superiority caused the Soviet Union to forcibly integrate
the countries of Eastern Europe into the Warsaw Pact
as a buffer and a counter to NATO.2 As the Soviets
achieved nuclear parity with the United States, the
The Berlin Wall divided East and West Berlin for
28 years. Construction by the German Democratic
Republic began on 13 August 1961. The Wall In the 1960s, cracks began to appear in the monolithic
collapsed on 9 November 1989 to pave the Soviet bloc when Alexander Dubček presented a less
way for German reunification. repressive regime in Czechoslovakia. The “Prague
Spring” was ruthlessly suppressed by the Soviet
Army in 1968.

Vol. 4 No. 4  15
 fear of a global nuclear war

Wars of National Liberation receded and the Eastern bloc

countries sought relief from
repressive Soviet control.
“It is our duty to support the sacred struggle of the oppressed peoples and their In the Sixties, the Soviet
just anti-imperialist wars of national liberation.” Bloc began to show signs of
Nikita S. Khrushchev, June 1960 1 disintegration. Yugoslavia,
Albania, and Czechoslovakia
Post–World War II Wars of National Liberation are defined as those
all rebelled against Russian
conflicts fought by indigenous military groups against an imperial power rule. The Soviet Union, while
in the name of self-determination. The purpose is the violent pursuit of maintaining control over its
political change; to create a new nation state grounded in some kind of Eastern European satellites,
cultural community. Overwhelmingly based on guerrilla warfare, Wars of worked diligently to foster
National Liberation were the predominant form of conflict in the 1960s. An the spread of Communism
abroad as it had in the
example today would be Chechnya, where the Muslim Chechens are fighting
1950s. In his address to
for independence from Russia. Map by D. Telles. the United Nations General
Assembly in June 1960,
Wars of National Liberation in the 1960s: Nikita Khrushchev asserted
the Soviet Union’s support
to “Just Wars of National
Liberation.”3 Containment
of Communism was the
El Salvador Spain Indonesia
cornerstone of the United
Argentina Angola Thailand States and European strategy.
In the post-War era,
Colombia Congo Burma
Western Europe was divided
Bolivia Afghanistan over the best approach to
Ethiopia meet the Soviet threat and on
Venezuela
the question of how to deal
Chile Mozambique with the divided Germany.4
Guatemala Namibia The Marshall Plan poured
billions of U.S. dollars into
Peru Europe and Japan to put
Endnotes the war-torn nations back
1 Walter Darnell Jacobs, “Soviet Views of Wars of National Liberation,” Military Review, October 1967, 61.
on their feet. Protected by
2 Daniel Moran, Wars of National Liberation (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2006) 24.
NATO forces and reinforced
by the nuclear arsenals of
the West, the governments
of Western Europe were popularly elected democracies
or constitutional monarchies. The fundamental issue
facing the Europeans was their political and economic
alignment in response to the Soviet threat.
The nations of Europe did align in 1949 under the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, (NATO), but the
cohesive nature of the alliance was disrupted when France
withdrew in 1966. In spite of this, the nations of Western
Europe remained stable and committed to opposing the
Soviets. There was a genuine desire to advance European
economic progress and a reluctance to see the spread of
nuclear weapons.5 Outside of Europe, notably in Asia
and Africa, things were far from stable.
In the former French colonial holdings in Indochina,
Soviet Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev and U.S. President
John F. Kennedy in Vienna, Austria, on 4 June 1961.
Communist North Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh was
After the Bay of Pigs fiasco, Khrushchev tried to waging a war against the U.S.-backed South Vietnamese
intimidate the young president by sending nuclear government. Communist insurgencies threatened
weapons and modern armaments to Cuba. neighboring Laos and Cambodia, with the latter eventually
falling to Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge. The United States was

16  Veritas
 Map by D. Telles.

engaged in a steadily escalating conflict in Vietnam. This of widespread African independence movements.6 The
came to dominate American foreign policy and the U.S. transition to independence was often rocky, and many of
military and became the focal point of domestic unrest in the new nations fell under dictators or military juntas,
America throughout the 1960s. While the United States reducing U.S. interest in Africa.7 This was in sharp
was decisively engaged in Asia in the 1960s, the interest contrast to America’s role in Latin America. Two decades
in Africa was minimal. of U.S. preoccupation with Europe and Asia created an
The decade of the 1960s brought more political imbalance in American policy towards Latin America
change to the African continent than anywhere in the that the United States began to rectify in the 1960s.
world. In 1959 there were 9 sovereign nations in Africa. When Secretary of State Dean M. Rusk asked, “Who
European colonial territories comprised the remainder speaks for Europe?” he was articulating a problem
the continent. In one year the number of new sovereign endemic to the highest levels of government, the
countries jumped to 27 and continued to grow as the old tendency to generalize and simplify when formulating
imperial powers withdrew from the continent in the face foreign policy.8 Latin America had a long history of

Vol. 4 No. 4  17
 Ho Chi Minh was the the nations in Latin America tried to get the U.S. to treat
Communist revolutionary them as a special case.11
who founded the Viet Minh President John F. Kennedy called Latin America “the
independence movement in most critical area in the world,” a strong indicator of the
Vietnam during World War priority that he placed on the region.12 U.S. military and
II. He was Prime Minister
economic aid steadily increased in the 1960s. By 1967,
and then the President of the
People’s Republic of Vietnam over $6 billion in economic aid from the United States
(North Vietnam) until his Agency for International Development (USAID) and $1.7
death in 1969. He waged billion via the Military Assistance Program (MAP) had
war against the Japanese, been distributed in Latin America.13 In addition to funds,
then the French until 1954, Kennedy’s newly formed Peace Corps dispatched some
then against the United 16,000 workers to Latin America between 1962 and 1967,
States and South Vietnam to conduct civic action projects, improve agricultural
until his death in 1969. practices, and help educate the local populations.14 But
Latin America was not a homogenous region; it contained
regional cooperation. The Organization of American widely diverse countries and cultures, with greatly
States (OAS), founded in 1948 was one of the oldest of varying degrees of development. In the 1960s, political
the regional alliances. Castro’s successful Communist instability affected many countries in the region.
revolution in Cuba threw shockwaves throughout Latin In 1962, the nations of Latin America were
America, and U.S. foreign policy became predicated predominately multi-party democracies. By 1967, military
on preventing the further spread of Cuban-sponsored juntas were in control in Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia,
revolution.9 The Cuban Missile Crisis galvanized the and Paraguay as well as several Central American nations.
nations of the OAS to action; the range of the Soviet The U.S. tended to support the juntas as a bulwark
nuclear missiles threatened the entire region. The United against Cuban-inspired communist revolutions. The
States foreign policy in the 1960s towards Latin America ideological initiative the U.S. enjoyed at the beginning
reflected a mistaken idea that there existed a hemispheric of the decade as the promoter of democracy was lost
Pan-American movement.10 While the United States tried in subsequent years by its support of non-democratic
to develop a coherent, ”one-size fits all” policy, each of regimes.15 The presence of Fidel Castro’s Communist

• A Soviet missile shoots down an American Lockheed U2 spy plane;

the pilot Francis Gary Powers is captured.
• Belgian forces leave the Congo.
• Ceasefire after Chinese capture Bomdila, India.
• Algeria became independent of French rule.
• Cuban Missile Crisis.
• PLO is founded in Palestine.
1960 • Khrushchev is deposed in Soviet Union. • China’s Cultural
• Greek-Turkish Cypriot War begins. Revolution begins.
• Gulf of Tonkin Bay Resolution. • President Nkrumah
1962 of Ghana overthrown
1961 1964 by army.
• France withdraws
• Berlin Wall goes up.
• Bay of Pigs Invasion. 1963 1966 from NATO.

• Union of South Africa leaves

British Commonwealth.
• United States President John F. Kennedy 1965
assassinated. • Southern Rhodesia declares
• Civil War in Congo.
• Alliance For Progress
• Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. independence from Britain. 1967
• Winston Churchill dies. • Civil War in Nigeria.
• Arab-Israeli Six-Day War.
• Anti-war Demostrations in United States.
• Che Guevara killed in Bolivia.

1960 -1967 International Scene

18  Veritas Timeline by L. Goddard.
 U.S. Economic Assistance
billions of 2005 $US
5
4
3
2
1
0
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

USAID USAD Other Econ. Asst. President John F. Kennedy signs the Charter of Punta
del Este in August 1961. The Charter created the
U.S. economic assistance to Latin America reflected Alliance for Progress, Kennedy’s idea for improving
President John F. Kennedy’s belief that the region was economic development in Latin America and
“the most critical in the world.” This made Latin America countering the spread of Communist Cuban
the second largest recipient of U.S. aid after Asia. influence in the region.

Cuba encouraged many of the revolutionaries in the Land reform in Bolivia did work to the extent that
region to foment unrest. President Kennedy said, “Those after the 1952 revolution, many of the large latifundias
who make peaceful revolution impossible make violent were broken up and the land redistributed among
revolution inevitable.”16 The revolutionary movements the working classes, particularly to the indigenous
in Latin America had several well-defined objectives: population. The Indians were given title to their lands
popular participation in government; land reform in the after nominal payments were made to the landowners
break-up of the old feudal estates called the latifundias; by the government.24 Over 19,536,850 acres, (nearly
the destruction of the ruling oligarchies that maintained 31,000 square miles,) were in the hands of the Indian
them; and the main objective, economic development.17 population by 1967.25 This redistribution had far-reaching
But unlike Europe and Japan, there was no Marshall Plan consequences when Cuban revolutionary elements
equivalent for Latin America. The U.S. moved to alleviate
their deficiencies with the Alliance for Progress (AFP).
The Alliance for Progress was structured to address
“the most critical area in the world”
these objectives and provide for security in the region. — President John F. Kennedy
Formalized in August 1961, by the Charter of Punta del
Este, the 20 signatory nations mapped out the vision for
the Alliance for Progress that focused on agrarian reform
and raising the standard of living in Latin America.18
The Alliance was founded as the response to the Cuban
threat to incite revolution.19 President Kennedy called
for “a vast cooperative effort, unparalleled in magnitude
and nobility, to satisfy the basic need for homes, work,
and land, for health and schools.”20 The AFP established
principles for hemispheric cooperation and changed
the fundamental structures of finance and economic
development.21 But, as the decade wore on, the Alliance
for Progress began to lose its effectiveness.
The AFP gradually became more about social reform
than economic progress. It foundered on the resistance of
the landed elites to cultural change and the nationalistic
sentiments of the different countries.22 Foreign affairs
analyst Philip W. Quigg noted, “With the exception of the
Middle East, Latin America is the most politicized area
which has not evolved an adequate tradition of public
service or political responsibility.” 23 This cultural mindset
worked to the detriment of the reform programs. One
bright spot was Bolivia, which by 1967 had received more President John F. Kennedy greets the first Peace Corps
than $262 million in economic and military aid from the volunteers in Washington, DC, 28 August 1961. The
U.S. There the AFP-sponsored programs, notably land Peace Corps was his initiative and between 1962 and
reform, were a deterrent to Cuban-sponsored revolution. 1967, 16,000 volunteers were sent to Latin America.

Vol. 4 No. 4  19
 Bay of Pigs
Cuban Missile Crisis

........
Cuba

Dominican
Republic
Guatemala

Venezuela

Coup
Colombia
Failed Coup

Assassination

Failed Assassination
Brazil
Foco Wars
Peru
Urban Guerrilla Warfare
Bolivia
Revolution

led by Ernesto “Che” Guevara attempted to foment a

Communist revolution. Che was unable to gain support
from the local population and failed in his attempt to start
a popular revolution in Bolivia. By and large, however,
attempts at land reform and more popular participation
in government elsewhere in Latin America failed. By the
Uruguay
end of the 1960s, U.S. economic influence had waned and Argentina
military juntas were the order of the day.
The 1960s were a decade of sweeping changes around
the globe. The world evolved from a strictly bipolar one In the 1960s, Latin America was
divided along East-West lines, to one of regional spheres subject to a series of Foco wars
and other insurgencies. The
of influence. The decade was one of military, ideological,
map depicts the instability that
and social revolution and virtually no nation went plagued the region.
unscathed. For the United States, an increasing military Map by D. Telles.
involvement in Vietnam and the need for constant
engagement in Europe to shore up the front lines of the
Cold War were the primary concerns of Washington.
After a promising beginning, U.S. influence in Latin
America waned as the decade drew to a close. The
hemisphere proved particularly susceptible to the siren Kenneth Finlayson is the USASOC Deputy Command
song of Cuban-sponsored revolution. Bolivia, one of the Historian. He earned his PhD from the University of
poorest and most politically chaotic of the Latin American Maine, and is a retired Army officer. Current research
nations, was a prime target for an insurgency. But, the interests include Army special operations during the
failure of Che’s effort is one of the few American Korean War, special operations aviation, and World War II
counterinsurgency success stories in Latin America. special operations units.

20  Veritas
 Bolivia was one of the few Latin American countries in which land reform measures had some success.
The large Indian population of Bolivia did benefit from the reforms by acquiring arable land from the
large latifundias.

Endnotes
1 Herman F. Achminow, “Crisis in Mao’s Realm and Moscow’s China 14 Wright, Latin America in the Era of the Cuban Revolution, 72.
Policy,” Orbis, Winter 1968, 1179-1192. 15 George C. Lodge, “Revolution in Latin America,” Foreign Affairs, June 1966.
2 Ducci, “The World Order in the Sixties,” Foreign Affairs, April 1964, 381. 16 Eduardo Frei Montalva, “The Alliance That Lost Its Way,” Foreign Affairs,
3 Richard J. Erickson, “Development of the Strategy of Peaceful Coexistence April 1967, 438.
During the Khrushchev Era,” Air University Review, January-February 1973, 5. 17 Frei, “The Alliance That Lost Its Way,” 438.
4 René Albrecht-Carré, “Europe and the German Problem,” Orbis, Winter 18 Robert Alexander, “Agrarian Reform in Latin America,” Foreign Affairs,
1969, 1031-1045; Klaus Bloemer, “Germany and a ‘European Europe’,” Orbis, October 1962, 192.
Spring 1966, 240-246.
19 Wright, Latin America in the Era of the Cuban Revolution, 70; Graham H. Stuart
5 Alastair Buchan, “Partners and Allies, “Foreign Affairs, July 1963, 621. and James L. Tigner, Latin America and the United States, 6th ed, (Englewood
6 Chief H. O. Domes, “The New African Profile,” Foreign Affairs, January 1962, 293. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975), 804-805.
7 Claude E. Welch, “Soldier and State in Africa,” The Journal of Modern African 20 Ernest R. May, “The Alliance for Progress: A Historical Perspective,” Foreign
Studies, November 1967, 305-322. Affairs, July 1963, 757.
8 Philip W. Quigg, “Latin America: A Broad-Brush Appraisal,” Foreign Affairs, 21 Frei, “The Alliance That Lost Its Way,” 438.
April 1964, 401. 22 A strong indicator of the AFPs loss of coherence was the accumulation of
9 Thomas C. Wright, Latin America in the Era of the Cuban Revolution (Westport, special conditions, provisos, and prohibitions attached to economic aid. The
CT: Praeger, 1991), 61. Cuban Vice-President Carlos Rafael Rodriguez is decay of the Alliance began under Kennedy and accelerated under Lyndon
quoted as saying “Cuba has the duty of carrying out, and will always carry Johnson. Julie Cotler and Richard R. Fagen, ed., Latin America & the United
out, a revolutionary, proletarian internationalism.” Margaret Daly Hayes, States: The Changing Political Realities (Stanford CA: Stanford University
Latin America and the U.S. National Interest: A Basis for U.S. Foreign Policy Press, 1974) 190.
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984), 103. 23 Quigg, “Latin America: A Broad-Brush Appraisal,” 409.
10 Robert H. Ferrell, American Diplomacy: A History (New York, W.W. Norton & 24 Alexander, “Agrarian Reform in Latin America,” 199.
Co., 1975), 766-771; Quigg, “Latin America: A Broad-Brush Appraisal,” 401.
25 John D. Waghelstein, “A Theory of Revolutionary Warfare and Its
11 Quigg, “Latin America: A Broad-Brush Appraisal,” 402; Robert C. Hill, “U.S. Application to the Bolivian Adventure of Che Guevara,” Master’s Thesis,
Policy towards, Latin America,” Orbis, Summer 1966, 390-407. Cornell University, 1973, 119.
12 Hubert H. Humphrey, “U.S. Policy in Latin America,” Foreign Affairs, July
1964, 588.
13 Neil B. Mills, “An Analysis of Civic Action in Selected Underdeveloped
Countries,” Master’s Thesis, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College,
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 1964; Between 1961 and 1967, the United States
contributed an average of $2 billion annually to the Alliance For Progress.
Wright, Latin America in the Era of the Cuban Revolution, 71.

Vol. 4 No. 4  21
 The Sixties in America:
Social Strife and International Conflict
by Troy J. Sacquety
Photo collage by D. Telles

22  Veritas
Although best associated with its counter- The rides were designed to test whether the southern
culture (flower-power) and music, states would uphold federal laws to desegregate interstate
the 1960s was a tremendously turbulent decade both travel facilities regardless of local mandates. Originally
domestically and internationally for the United States. thirteen participants (seven black and six white) began
As historian Dr. Terry H. Anderson stated, “The long the rides aboard commercial Trailways and Greyhound
decade was an endless busses. They faced no
pageant of political and significant opposition until
cultural protests.”1 Other reaching South Carolina.
historians, Drs. George B. Then, hostility increased
Tindall and David E. Shi to outright violence—
said that “many social ills often while public law
which had been festering enforcement stood by and
for decades suddenly watched—as they traveled
forced their way onto through the lower South.
the national agenda.”2 Farmer described later
Any U.S. soldier— events, “I was scared
serving overseas or spitless and desperately
stateside—would have wanted to avoid taking
been affected by the that ride to Jackson
critical issues defining [Mississippi]. Alabama had
this period. This was chewed up the original
Organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE),
particularly true of the the 1961 Freedom Rides were led by James L. Farmer
thirteen interracial CORE
Civil Rights Movement and (inset). Violence against the riders, evidenced by the Freedom Riders; they
the Cold War. This article burnt-out bus, raised public attention and garnered had been brutalized,
will give a brief snapshot status for Farmer as one of the most influential hospitalized, and in one
of the decade and show leaders of the Civil Rights movement. case disabled . . . blacks
the reader the chaotic had been brutally pistol-
nature of 1960s America
in relation to both themes.
“The long decade was an endless whipped and clubbed
with blackjacks and fists
This will help explain why pageant of political and cultural and then thrown, bloodied,
it was so important for the protests.” 1 — Dr. Terry H. Anderson into the back of the bus.
U.S. to stem Communist Whites had been clobbered
insurrections in its own even worse for trying
“back yard”—like those to intervene.”3 Television
inspired by the Cubans. provided publicity and the
The “Sixties” as they momentum grew. Between
became known, started June and September over
off as a continuation of the 60 separate Freedom Rides
socially conservative and took place as volunteers
materialistic 1950s—itself poured in despite the
an outgrowth of WWII— threats to life. The rides
but quickly changed as made the administration of
many social and ethnic President John F. Kennedy
groups sought equality. take notice as national
In the black community, attention was drawn to the
the long-simmering Civil Civil Rights Movement.
Rights Movement had James H. Meredith, flanked by U.S. Marshals, was the At the same time, the
gained momentum, even first African-American student to attend the University violence embarrassed the
as it remained fragmented, of Mississippi. Supported by Mississippi’s governor, United States internationally.
multi-directional, and lacking Ross R. Barnett, the school’s refusal to allow Meredith However, the rides
a single leader. Although the to attend forced President John F. Kennedy to send succeeded in forcing the
federal agents and troops to ensure his safety and
forced integration of Little desegregation of interstate
to quell white mobs.
Rock Senior High School travel facilities. 4 Racial
(Little Rock, Arkansas) in 1957 and sit-ins in Greensboro, events continued into 1962 to keep Civil Rights on the
North Carolina, in 1960 had gotten national attention, front pages of national newspapers.
the “Freedom Rides,” which began in May 1961, raised James Meredith, an African-American student,
awareness more. They were sponsored by the Congress attempted to enroll at the University of Mississippi,
of Racial Equality (CORE) and led by James L. Farmer. known as “Ole Miss,” but had repeatedly been

Vol. 4 No. 4  23
 denied admission. The state government supported and drew national attention. Finally the brutality being
that position. After President Kennedy ordered U.S. imposed on those advocating equality became abhorred
Marshals and federal troops to Oxford, Mississippi, on and repugnant. But internally the Civil Rights Movement
1 October 1962, Meredith was finally granted admission. began to splinter, and radical groups emerged—notably
Eventually 12,000 U.S. troops were required to keep and the “Black Power” element—to push away from non-
restore order at Ole Miss.5 But now Washington was violent activities. This further strained relations with
acting on behalf of the movement. whites within and outside the Movement.8
President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Memorial Day address One of the first and most
on 30 May 1963 at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania [where visible reactions was the
President Abraham Lincoln Watts Riots in Los Angeles,
had spoken a hundred years Dr. Martin Luther California, that stretched
before] reinforced the federal King, Jr.’s “I Have A from 11 to 15 August 1966. To
government’s position: “Until Dream” speech inspired stem the escalating violence,
millions. King was
justice is blind to color, until the military had to be called
assassinated in
education is unaware of 1968 for being an
in. When order was restored,
race, until opportunity is outspoken leader. 34 people were dead, 1,000
unconcerned with the color of injured, 4,000 arrested, and
men’s skins, emancipation will over $35 million of property
be a proclamation, not a fact.”6 Andrew Goldman, James destroyed.9 Watts and other
On 28 August 1963 on the steps E. Chaney, and Michael riots to come destroyed the
of the Lincoln Memorial in H. Schwerner were philosophy of non-violent
CORE workers murdered
Washington D.C., Civil Rights revolution that Martin Luther
by white-supremacists
leader Dr. Martin Luther on 21 June 1964 near King and other early Civil
King, Jr. gave his famous “I Philadelphia, Mississippi. Rights leaders had advocated.
Have a Dream” speech during Their gruesome deaths As one historian reflected later,
the “March on Washington forced President Lyndon B. “The Watts Riot was the first
for Jobs and Freedom.” The Johnson to send in Federal major lesson for the American
speech—considered one of the Bureau of Investigation public on the tinderbox
most influential in American (FBI) agents because local volatility of segregated inner-
history, ended with the words, authorities were complicit city neighborhoods. The riot
in the murders.
“Let freedom ring. And when provided a sobering preview
this happens, and when we of the violent urban uprising
allow freedom ring - when of the late 1960s and helped
we let it ring from every village define several hardcore
and every hamlet, from every political camps: militant
state and every city, we will blacks applauded the spectacle
be able to speed up that day of rage; moderates lamented
when all of God’s children - the riots senselessness
black men and white men, Jews and self-destructiveness; and
and Gentiles, Protestants and conservative whites viewed
Catholics - will be able to join the uprising as a symptom
hands and sing in the words of of the aggressive pace of the
the old Negro spiritual: ‘Free civil rights legislation.”10 One
at last! Free at last! Thank God of those in the last category
Almighty, we are free at last!”7 As Dr. Martin Luther King watches, President was future President Richard
The speech electrified America, Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 M. Nixon. He condemned the
spurred the Movement forward, on 2 July. The act, whose passage was rioters in a 15 August 1966
and helped to pave the way cemented by the murders of Schwerner, U.S. News and World Report
for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Goldman, and Cheney and King’s speeches, editorial, by declaring that
outlawed racial segregation in schools,
which outlawed segregation the riots were a catalyst for a
public, places, and employment.
and discrimination in public general decline in Americans’
places, schools, and places of employment. But King’s respect for law and order, and that “the nation simply can
fervent speech was short-circuited by an event that no longer tolerate men who are above the law.” He cited
shocked America. Abraham Lincoln who said, “There is no grievance that
On 21 June 1964 three Civil Rights workers, Michael is a fit object of redress by mob law.”11 But, the violence
Schwerner, Andrew Goldman, and James Chaney were only got worse.
brutally beaten and killed by Ku Klux Klan members near Black Power was most notably influenced by Malcolm X.
Philadelphia, Mississippi. The murders rocked the nation Considered its “father,” he was a member of the

24  Veritas
Nation of Islam, a Black Muslim group that promoted dictator General Fulgencio Batista in 1959, the Soviet
the superiority of their race. Although Malcolm Union was perceived as America’s greatest threat.
X later left the organization and was murdered in The Cold War “heated up” on 1 May 1960 when the
1965, the outspoken, powerful orator, had a lasting U-2 reconnaissance aircraft piloted by Francis Gary
influence on black America. Powers was shot down deep
Stokely Carmichael, chairman Francis Gary Powers inside the Soviet Union
of the Student Nonviolent was shot down over while conducting a covert
Coordinating Committee (SNCC) the Soviet Union on flight. Powers survived and
wanted to remove whites from 1 May 1960 while became a news spectacle who
conducting a covert
black-dominated Civil Rights debunked U.S. government
reconnaissance
organizations demanding mission. The U.S. denials that it had violated
equality now. His rationale denied that it was Soviet airspace. The Premier
was that blacks had to achieve conducting such of the Soviet Union, Nikita
equality themselves, without flights and was S. Khrushchev canceled the
relying on help from whites. deeply embarrassed US-Soviet Summit talks
Not surprisingly, Carmichael when the Soviets in Paris. This exacerbated
advocated abandoning non- presented Powers… the rivalry between the
violence to achieve equality: alive. superpowers that continued
“We must wage a psychological throughout the decade.14 To
battle on the right for black further fuel the Cold War,
people to define themselves the strained relations with
as they see fit, and organize Cuba were torn apart by an
themselves as they see fit . . international incident.
. We are on the move for our Newly elected President
liberation . . . Move on over, John F. Kennedy inherited the
or we’re going to move over Bay of Pigs invasion authorized
you.”12 Although the U.S. by President Dwight D.
Army had been integrated Eisenhower. American-Cuban
by the mid-1950s, racial exiles (Brigade 2506) were to
stigmas persisted. The riots invade the island in the spring
and the growing Black Power of 1961 and overthrow the
radicalism were something The anti-Castro 2506 Brigade was trained revolutionary government of
that American soldiers could by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to Fidel Castro. The invasion took
not ignore. invade Cuba. The 17 April 1961 invasion was place on 17 April at a site locally
The distracted military a disaster, and the survivors were ransomed known as Bahía de Cochinos
also faced threats associated to the United States in December 1962. [Bay of Pigs]. Although the
with the Cold War—the arms invasion force got ashore,
races and inherent state of air superiority had not been
tension between the two established and the anticipated
superpower competitors; the popular uprisings against the
United States and the Soviet regime did not occur. The
Union. Communism was Cuban Revolutionary Forces,
posed as a grave threat to the personally directed by Castro,
American way of life. In 1964, launched airstrikes and
the Republican Presidential vigorously counter-attacked.
candidate, Senator Barry By 21 April, the remnants of
Goldwater, said, “The fact is Brigade 2506 had been captured
that Communism is the only In August 1961, President John F. Kennedy, or killed. President Kennedy
great threat to the peace! The shown here with Alberto Lleras Carmargo, did not authorize U.S. military
fact is that Communism is a President of Colombia, enacted the Alliance intervention to insure success.
threat to every free man.”13 for Progress. It was designed to bolster Some of the captured exiles,
This attitude permeated economies and living standards in Latin along with several hundred
conservative America and America and to counter Cuban-inspired Cuban citizens, were executed
made anticommunism a Communist movements. for their roles in the invasion.
bipartisan national policy. While the rise of Socialism On 21 December 1962, 1,113 survivors were repatriated to
and Communism became prevalent in Latin America, the United States for $53 million dollars worth of food and
after Fidel Castro’s successful revolution deposed Cuban medicine. The Kennedy Administration was severely

Vol. 4 No. 4  25
 embarrassed by the “failure Instead of conducting the air strikes and land
that reverberated around invasion recommended by the Joint Chiefs of Staff,
the world” as one Bay of Pigs President Kennedy decided that a naval “quarantine”
veteran later described it.15 to block further missiles from getting to Cuba was the
The Bay of Pigs insured On 13 August 1961, East
best response.17 He thought
that the Soviet Union Germany began to build this plan would prevent the
would have a satellite the Berlin Wall to Soviets from countering with
state in the hemisphere. separate it from the an invasion of West Berlin.
Fearing a falling “domino West. It became a The Organization of American
effect,” the United States, symbol of Communist States (OAS) supported the
henceforth, did its best to oppression until torn quarantine and several Latin
prevent the further spread down in late 1989. American countries provided
of Communism in the warships for the blockade.
region. To offset the image These nations were aware
caused by the Bay of Pigs, President Kennedy that any missile on Cuba
pushed the Alliance for Progress for Latin could also be directed at them.
America. It was to be a 10-year effort to help Initially, the Soviet Union did
the economies and improve living standards not back down.
in the region. U.S. officials thought that this The United States alerted its
would reduce the conditions for insurgency forces for an invasion of Cuba to
that allowed the Cuban revolution to physically remove the missiles.
succeed. It was assumed that if this
Tensions in Europe were increased on 13 By 1961, Cuba had openly moved happened, the Soviet Union,
August 1961, when the Soviet-dominated into the Soviet sphere, as Fidel would conduct a retaliatory
East German government began to erect a Castro and Soviet Premier Nikita attack elsewhere which would
wall to isolate Allied-controlled West Berlin. Khrushchev show. The U.S. was cause a nuclear confrontation.
The number of defections to the West had determined not to allow another U.S. reconnaissance flights
become an embarrassment. The “Wall” Socialist government in the continued until a U-2 was shot
Western Hemisphere.
became a symbol of Soviet oppression until down over Cuba. That was
it was torn down in 1989. East- most likely the closest that
West tensions continued to President Kennedy the world has ever come to a
escalate until 1962, when they and Premier full-scale nuclear exchange.
came to a head in the Western Khrushchev defused Fortunately, cooler heads of
Hemisphere. the Cuban Missile state prevailed.
One of the most pivotal Crisis. It was likely Premier Khrushchev agreed
the closest that the
events in the Cold War, having to remove all missiles from
world has come to
huge repercussions worldwide, nuclear war. Cuba. In return, the United
was the Cuban Missile Crisis. States agreed that it would
After the Bay of Pigs fiasco, respect Cuba’s sovereignty
the Soviets reinforced Cuba’s and not allow another
defenses. Bomber and fighter invasion force to be based on U.S. soil.
aircraft, anti-aircraft weapons, Secretly, the U.S. pledged to the Soviets
and troops were provided to that it would remove its nuclear capable
repel another U.S. invasion.16 missiles from Turkey. Cuba was ousted
On 14 October 1962, a U-2 from the OAS. But, solidarity was short-
reconnaissance flight revealed lived in the region.
the presence of nuclear missiles While touring Dallas, Texas on 22
in Cuba. The Soviet Union November 1963, President Kennedy was
had positioned medium range President Kennedy was assassinated shot and killed by Lee Harvey Oswald.
ballistic missiles on the island in Dallas, TX, on 22 November 1963 Aboard Air Force One just two hours later,
by Lee Harvey Oswald. The death of
after denying that it had Vice-President Lyndon B. Johnson was
the youthful and popular President
furnished offensive weapons shocked America.
sworn in as the 36th President. America
to Cuba. These Soviet nuclear was in shock. Its popular and youthful
weapons threatened the southeastern United States, the president had been assassinated. Most Americans still
Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and the northern remember where they were the moment they heard the
South American nations. President Kennedy could not news of President Kennedy’s death. An uncomfortable
ignore the Soviet’s blatant act of aggression. uneasiness dominated the national psyche as the United

26  Veritas
• May 1 - A Soviet missile shoots down an American Lockheed U2 spy
plane; the pilot Francis Gary Powers is captured. U.S.-Soviet Summit • April 17 - The Bay of Pigs Invasion fails by April 19.
meeting cancelled.
• May 4 - 13 Black and white student Freedom Riders from the Congress
• November 8 - In a close race, John F. Kennedy defeats Richard M. of Racial Equality (CORE) leave Washington DC on 2 buses, to test
Nixon to become the youngest (43) president. mandated integration laws in bus stations in the deep South.
• August 13 - Construction of the Berlin Wall begins, restricting movement
1960 between East Berlin and West Berlin and forming a clear boundary between
West Germany and East Germany, Western Europe and Eastern Europe.

1961

• October 14 - Cuban Missile Crisis begins after a U-2 flight over Cuba reveals
Soviet nuclear weapons being installed. A stand-off ensued to threatened the
world with nuclear war.
• October 22 - In a televised address, U.S. President John F. Kennedy tells the
• August 28 - Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers "I Have A Dream" speech
nation that Soviet missiles are in Cuba.
at the Lincoln Memorial to 250,000 during the “March on Washington for
• October 28 - The crisis ends when Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev Jobs and Freedom.”
announces that he has ordered the removal of Soviet missile bases in Cuba.
• November 22 - President John F. Kennedy assassinated in
1962 Dallas, Texas, and Texas Governor John B. Connally is seriously
wounded. Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson becomes
the 36th President.

1963

• June 21 - Three civil rights workers, Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, and James Chaney, are
murdered near Philadelphia, Mississippi, by white supremacists.
• November 3 - U.S. presidential election, 1964: Incumbent U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson defeats
Republican challenger Barry Goldwater garnering more than 60 percent of the popular vote.
• December 3 - Berkeley Free Speech Movement: Police arrest over 800 students at the University of
California, Berkeley, following their takeover and massive sit-in at the administration building to protest
the Regents' decision to forbid Vietnam War protests on university property.

1964

• March 7 - Bloody Sunday in Selma, Alabama: Some 200

Alabama State Troopers clash with 525 civil rights demonstrators.
• May 5 - The first draft card burnings take place at the
University of California, Berkeley.
• August 1 - Sniper Charles Whitman
kills 13 people and wounds 31 from atop
1965 the University of Texas tower, after
earlier killing his wife and mother. • July 15 - The Detroit
race riots occur.
1966
1960 -1967 United States 1967
Timeline by L. Goddard.

Vol. 4 No. 4  27
 One of the most popular forms of protest in the
1960s to the escalation of combat in Vietnam
On 10 August 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin was to burn draft cards. Every male from the
Resolution, giving President Johnson the authority as ages of 18 to 26 had to register for military service.
Commander-in-Chief to use military force in Southeast Most male college students received deferments
Asia without a declaration of war. The number of U.S. until their grades became substandard.
servicemen in Vietnam was quickly increased.

States entered the mid-1960s. Brazil, Honduras, Paraguay, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica—
Opposition to an escalating war in Vietnam added to invaded the capital of Santa Domingo to restore order.
the unease in America. In early August 1964, two U.S. The intervention sent a signal to Latin America. The
Navy Destroyers, the USS Turner Joy and USS Maddox, U.S. government would not tolerate another Communist
were allegedly fired upon by North Vietnamese gunboats country in the hemisphere. This is one of the reasons
while patrolling international waters off Vietnam. The why Special Forces were sent to Bolivia in 1967: to insure
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, passed by Congress just days that there would not be another “Cuba.”20
later, authorized President Johnson as the Commander- The 1960s were a tumultuous period in American
in-Chief to escalate military force in Vietnam without a history. The pressures of Civil Rights and racial equality,
formal declaration of war.18 The number of U.S. troops sent combined with increasingly violent political radicalism,
to South Vietnam corresponded with increased ground stretched the fabric of American society. Overseas, the
combat until early 1968. By then, there were more than Cold War and the struggle to contain the further spread
400,000 American servicemen in country and numerous of Communism dominated national policy. While
Allied contingents. The Vietnam War was brought home America was becoming polarized at home, it had to
to America by nightly television news coverage.19 As the present a strong front internationally. It was vitally
U.S. role in the war became more contentious, opposition important for the U.S. to become a bulwark against the
grew as the numbers of servicemen involved escalated. spread of Communist-inspired insurgencies in Latin
Military service for two years was the norm for men America. They were simply “too close to home” and
from 18 to 26 years of age. Registration for the draft posed a threat to a fragile and divided America.  
was mandatory for males on their eighteenth birthday.
This was not a popular war. Many American youth
were against the war. In 1965, draft card burning Troy J. Sacquety earned an MA from the University of
demonstrations came into vogue as opposition to the Nebraska–Lincoln and his PhD in Military History from
war began to tear the country’s fabric. By 1967, the anti- Texas A&M University. Prior to joining the USASOC
establishment counter-culture movement—followers who History Office staff he worked several years for the Central
were often called “hippies”—was gaining momentum, Intelligence Agency. Current research interests include
rocking the country’s conservative roots. In many Army and Office of Strategic Services (OSS) special
respects, the United States government faced an internal operations during World War II, and Special Operations
low-level insurgency. The opposition included several Units in Vietnam.
domestic terrorist organizations. In the meantime,
Cuban-sponsored Wars of National Liberation became
the main threats in Latin America. Endnotes
Washington was determined not to allow another 1 Terry H. Anderson, The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America From
“Cuba” in the Western Hemispere. In April 1965, when a Greensboro to Wounded Knee (New York, New York: Oxford University Press,
1995), preface.
populist revolt followed the coup against leftist President
2 George B. Tindall and David E. Shi, America: A Narrative History (New York,
Juan Bosch of the Dominican Republic, President New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1989), 863.
Johnson reacted quickly. U.S. Marines and the 82nd 3 James Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights
Airborne Division—supported by OAS contingents from Movement (New York, New York: Plume, 1986), 2.

28  Veritas
4 “Freedom Rides,” in the Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education 11 Richard M. Nixon, “If Mob Rules Takes Hold in the U.S.­—a Warning from
Institute at Stanford University, http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/, Richard Nixon,” U.S. News & World Report, 15 August 1966, found online at
accessed 23 October 2008. http://www3.niu.edu/~td0raf1/history468/feb2105.htm, accessed 16 November
5 Paul J. Scheips, The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders: 1945- 2008. Also found in William Dudley, Ed., The 1960s Opposing Viewpoints (San
1992 (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 2005), 121.; Richard W. Diego, California: Greenhaven Press, 1997), 182-187.
Stewart, ed., American Military History; Volume II; the United States Army in 12 Stokely Carmichael, “Black Power,” 1966 Berkeley, California, http://www.
a Global Era, 1917-2003 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military sojust.net/speeches/stokely_carmichael_blackpower.html, accessed 13 November
History, 2005), 270. 2008.
6 Lyndon B. Johnson, A Time for Action: A Selection From the Speeches and 13 William Dudley, Ed., The 1960s Opposing Viewpoints (San Diego, California:
Writings of Lyndon B. Johnson (New York, New York: Atheneum Publishers, Greenhaven Press, 1997), 48.
1964), 127. For more on Johnson’s presidency, see Vaughn Davis Bornet, 14 For more on the U-2 incident, see Michael R. Beschloss, May-Day: Eisenhower,
The Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Khrushchev and the U-2 Affair (New York, New York: Harper & Row, 1986).
Kansas, 1983).
15 Grayson Lynch, Decision for Disaster: Betrayal at the Bay of Pigs (Washington
7 Martin Luther King, I Have a Dream, http://usinfo.state.gov/infousa/government/ D.C.:Brassey’s, 1998), xvi.
overview/38.html, accessed 7 November 2008.
16 The Soviet Union planned to provide five nuclear missile regiments, four
8 Tindall and Shi, America: A Narrative History, 883. motorized regiments, two cruise missile regiments, two tank battalions,
9 Nell Irvin Painter, Creating Black Americans: African-American History and its a MiG-21 fighter wing, 42 Il-28 light bombers, some anti-aircraft batteries,
Meanings, 1619 to the Present (New York, New York: Oxford University Press, and twelve SA-2 units (SAMs). In all, this would have been 50,874 military
2006), 284. personnel. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, “One Hell of a Gamble”:
10 Eric Bennett, “Watts Riot,” in Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African & African Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964 (New York, New York: W.W.
American Experience, Vol Five. (New York, New York: Oxford University Norton, 1997), 188.
Press) ed. Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. 17 Roger Hilsman, To Move a Nation: The Politics of Foreign Policy in the
Administration of John F. Kennedy (Garden City, New York: Doubleday &
Company, 1967), 203.
18 Robert H. Ferrell, American Diplomacy: A History (New York, New York:
W.W. Norton & Company, 1975). 808-809.
19 Tindall and Shi, America: A Narrative History, 886.
20 Robert L. Scheina, Latin America’s Wars: The Age of the Professional Soldier,
1900-2001; Volume Two (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s Inc, 2003), 276-277.

The 1964 Tonkin Gulf

Resolution allowed
President Johnson to
increase the number
of troops in Vietnam
without a declaration
of war. Opposition
to the war increased
in conjunction with
the escalation.

U.S. intervention
in the Dominican
Republic in April 1965
showed Latin America
that Washington
would permit no
more “Cubas” in the
Western Hemisphere.

Vol. 4 No. 4  29
 Che Guevara:
A False Idol for Revolutionaries
by Troy J. Sacquety

30  Veritas
In the mid-1960s, Ernesto “Che” Guevara de la
Serna, was a clear threat to American foreign
policy in Latin America. His role in Cuba’s Revolution,
most established families. While he squandered an
inheritance, his wife, Celia, had her own and an estate
that provided a small yearly income. Ernesto’s upbringing
his outspoken criticism of the United States, and his was bohemian; as a boy he was free to do as he wished.
proponency for armed Communist insurgencies in the But he was born with a serious, lingering ailment.
Western Hemisphere, made him one of Washington’s top From the age of two Ernesto suffered from severe
intelligence and military targets. “This asthmatic . . . who asthma, forcing the family to live in a dry region. His
never went to military school or owned a brass button had father complained that “each day we found ourselves
a greater influence on inter-American military policies more at the mercy of that damned sickness.”4 The asthma
than any single man since the end of Josef Stalin.”1 Che’s made the often-bedridden Ernesto a voracious reader. He
part in establishing the first Communist government in was also determined to lead an active life.
Latin America was legendary in the region. In essence, Ernesto played sports and engaged in daredevil antics
the U.S. Government was concerned by, not just Che to impress his friends. Although of slight build, he was
the man, but what he proselytized on insurgency and especially good at rugby. His bohemian eccentricities
instability. He was the Osama Bin Laden of the 1960s. earned him nicknames, the most unflattering being
Che’s image has transcended reality to that of a “Chancho” (pig), because Ernesto did not bathe regularly
romantic hero. But ask any Cuban exile in the United and wore unwashed clothes for weeks. Despite his
States today and they will say that Che was simply a nonconformity, Guevara chose to study medicine at the
ruthless Communist revolutionary.2 Best known for his University of Buenos Aires and explore the country.
brutality in Cuba, he was deeply involved in unsuccessful On his trips Guevara noticed the vast differences in
insurgencies in the Democratic Republic of the Congo living standards between the rural population and his
and Bolivia. While not a thorough account of his life, social class. These forays into the countryside manifested a
this article summarizes Che’s youth, idealism, and the feeling of pan-Americanism, a desire to help the poor, and
revolutionary path that led him to Bolivia. reinforced his hatred of the landed aristocracy in South
Ernesto was born on 14 May 1928 in Rosario, Argentina, America and the U.S. Despite being bourgeois, he held
to Ernesto Guevara Lynch and Celia de la Serna.3 The first them responsible for Latin America’s oppressed indigenous
of five children, he was raised in an upper middle class population. The adventure that most influenced the
family. His father was related to one of South America’s 24-year-old Ernesto began in January 1952. Partnered with
Alberto Granado, he traveled through Argentina, Chile,
Che Guevara (left) and Fidel Castro Peru, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, and the
(right) were the architects of the United States.5 After nine months of travel and discovery,
Cuban Revolution. Guevara’s Ernesto was infused with a newfound sense of direction.
proponency for exporting the He returned to Buenos Aires and completed his medical
revolution throughout Latin studies in April 1953.
American made him a The newly minted doctor once
dangerous enemy to
again took to the open road. After
democracies in the region.
From the age of two, Ernesto suffered
from severe asthma. He excelled at
sports despite this affliction.

Che Guevara’s parents, Celia de la Serna and

Ernesto Guevara Lynch, visited him in Havana
shortly after the revolution succeeded.

Vol. 4 No. 4  31
 observing firsthand the results of the 1952 Ernesto Guevara’s travels
Bolivian Revolution in La Paz, he left for showed him the disparity of
Guatemala to support the socialist president, the living standards between
a former Army officer named Jacobo Arbenz the urban middle class
Guzmán. There, Ernesto met his future wife, and the rural poor, fostered
Hilda Gadea and got the nickname, “Che,” from his Pan-Americanism.
Cuban political exile Antonio “Ñico” López
who made fun of him for constantly using
the Argentine expression che [hey!].6 Guatemalan
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) President Jacobo
orchestrated overthrow of President Arbenz’s socialist
Arbenz in 1954 had a profound effect policies caused his
on Che Guevara. Afterwards, he looked ouster. Guevara,
back on Guatemala as a revolution that who witnessed
could have succeeded if those in power it firsthand, was
greatly influenced
had been more forceful.
by the 1954 coup.
Arbenz’s populism, especially land
reform and cooperation with Socialists, attracted
Fulgencio Batista,
international attention. In 1954, two percent of former Army Chief
Guatemala’s population owned 72 percent of the arable of Staff and Cuban
land. Since only 12 percent of that land was being used president, seized
annually, Arbenz wanted to redistribute the rest. This did power in 1952.
not please the powerful and influential U.S.-based United His authoritarian
Fruit Company (UFC), which was Guatemala’s largest regime aroused
landowner. In the midst of a “Red Scare,” Washington much discontent and
responded to the UFC’s pleas for help, in part because prompted Castro to
form an underground
America was not keen on a left-leaning government in
movement to remove
the Western Hemisphere. Thus, the CIA trained a force him from power.
in Nicaragua to overthrow Arbenz.
On 18 June 1954, nearly 500 men commanded by
Carlos Castillo Armas crossed the border in four groups. Flag of the
Although the CIA-trained rebels were dealt severe blows, 26th of July
Movement
the revolt of the Guatemalan Army enabled final success.
(Movimiento
Arbenz was forced into exile. Those suspected of Socialist
sympathies were arrested. Che took refuge inside the 26 de Julio)
Argentine Embassy before fleeing to Mexico City.
Che’s revolutionary colleagues from Guatemala joined
him there. Ñico López introduced him to Fidel Castro,
whom Che thought was “intelligent, very sure of himself
and of extraordinary audacity; I think there is a mutual
sympathy between us.”7 When Castro invited him to
join the 26th of July Movement, Che accepted.
Castro’s movement was the cause Che had been
seeking. The group began to covertly train under the
tutelage of Spanish Civil War veteran Alberto Bayo.
His paramilitary regimen included revolutionary war
theory, physical conditioning, hand-to-hand combat, and
marksmanship. Castro did not delay his return to Cuba.
On 25 November 1956, 82 guerrillas boarded the
Granma, an old, leaky, cabin cruiser loaded down with
weapons and supplies bound for Cuba. After a rough
voyage, the small force landed on 2 December at Playa
Las Coloradas.8 Their first contact with Batista’s forces
on 5 December was disastrous. The Army attacked
the guerrillas while they were resting in a sugar cane The Sierra Maestras are the highest mountains in Cuba.
field. Surprised, the confused group did not put up an The rugged, inaccessible terrain allowed Castro’s 26th
organized defense, and many fled through the dense of July Movement a secure base from which to build
sugar cane. Those who tried to fight were either killed or support. This later became key in Che’s theories on
guerrilla warfare.

32  Veritas
 Castro and the Cuban Revolution.
Born 13 August 1926 on a sugar plantation near Birán, commemorate the failed attack on the Moncada Barracks,
Cuba, Fidel Castro, like Che, was from a bourgeois Castro named his guerrilla force the Movimiento 26 de
family of “haves.” His father owned or leased thousands Julio (26th of July Movement). While some members
of hectares of land. Castro entered the University of were Communists, like his brother Raúl, it was not a
Havana in 1945 to study law and became very politically requirement. The revolutionaries were simply united
active. By the time he graduated with a Doctor of Laws by their mutual hatred of Batista.
degree in 1950, Castro was extremely resentful of
Fidel Castro, seen here with Che Guevara, was a
Washington’s interference in Latin American affairs. charismatic and powerful orator. He was determined to
In 1952, General Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar, the “free” Cuba from the rule of General Fulgencio Batista.
former Army Chief of Staff and Cuban President, seized
control of the popularly elected Cuban government in
a coup d’état. Convinced that the coup was unlawful,
Castro decided that an armed revolt was necessary. He
formed a guerrilla movement to capture the Moncada
Barracks to get the necessary weapons for a popular
uprising. On 26 July 1953, Castro’s amateur 135-man
force was soundly defeated; nearly half of the guerrillas
were killed. Survivors fled into the countryside, where
they were hunted down. Castro was captured, publicly
tried, and sentenced to fifteen years in prison. Less than
two years later he was pardoned with family influence.
He fled to Mexico in the summer of 1955, to plan, and
organize another group to fight against Batista. To

captured. Che, Castro, and Castro’s brother Raúl,

Conditions in the
Sierra Maestra were among the few that managed to escape.
were harsh, but The twenty-plus survivors congregated in the
their remoteness safety of the Sierra Maestra Mountains.9 Reunited,
allowed the they began recruiting anti-Batista farmers. Once
guerrillas to easily the urban underground cells of the 26th of July
detect incursions Movement discovered that there were Granma
by government survivors, arms, supplies, and money trickled
troops. Raúl Castro
into the remote mountain camps. Hit and run
is kneeling with a
attacks on small outlying garrisons garnered
telescoped rifle.
His brother, Fidel, more. As the number of successful attacks
is standing directly grew, the group gained sympathy throughout
behind him. Cuba. Castro capitalized on this by granting an
exclusive interview to Herbert Matthews of the
New York Times.
A sympathetic Matthews greatly exaggerated
the number of guerrillas to “thousands.”
“General Batista cannot
possibly hope to suppress the
Castro revolt.”10 The interview
showed that Havana’s claims
that Castro was dead were
During the Santa Clara untrue. Recruits and support
campaign in the last poured into the mountain
weeks of 1958, Che met
retreats. By surviving and
Aleida March. They
sticking with Castro, the
later married (as shown
at right). After her Argentine proved his loyalty
husband’s death, she and dedication.
established the Che Che’s fervent belief in
Guevara Studies Center. the revolution set him apart
and added to his credibility

Vol. 4 No. 4  33
 among the Cubans as a Granma veteran. Although Guevara publicly
recruited as a doctor, his leadership and organizational trashed his enemies.
skills prompted Castro to promote him to Comandante His speeches angered
and give him command of one of the two rebel columns the United States,
[at that time, Castro was the only other Comandante]. and later, the
Fidel needed his skills in the brutal struggle. Soviet Union.
Desperate to save his regime, Batista sent large forces
into the mountains. While the rebels rarely killed enlisted
soldiers who surrendered, captured insurgents expected
little mercy. Castro’s men were brutal with deserters.
Poor living conditions made that a serious threat. Those
caught were summarily tried and executed. The war
quickly spread beyond the mountains.
The 26th of July Movement expanded guerrilla
operations to assassinating prominent government Sugar was Cuba’s
supporters such as police and military officers. Batista main export and
launched “Operation Verano,” into the Sierra Maestra in source of hard
late June 1958 in response. The six-week offensive was a currency. Che
disaster. It was such a large psychological victory that set an example
by volunteering
Castro expanded combat operations into the lowlands.
a large portion of
Che took his column down to build alliances with other his free time “to
resistance groups. the revolution,”
Under pressure from the loosely united guerrilla by cutting sugar
groups, Batista’s forces gave ground in late December cane, or working
1958. Che’s column secured numerous towns and on the docks.
defeated several garrison elements. The insurgency
achieved success after capturing Santa Clara. Joined
by Camilo Cienfuegos’s column, the united guerrillas
approached the city. Their 300-350 troops faced 3,500 of He escaped to the Dominican Republic on 1 January 1959.
Batista’s thoroughly demoralized soldiers. The victorious rebels rolled into Havana unopposed and
The rebels secured the city after a series of brief took control of government buildings. Che installed
engagements. When the Army fled, the way to the himself in La Cabaña, an 18th Century fortress turned
capital Havana, was open. Less than twelve hours after prison where he presided over “revolutionary tribunals”
the fall of Santa Clara, Batista’s government collapsed. of “war criminals” until June 1959.

Construction of the La Cabaña fortress began in 1763. At the time of the Cuban Revolution it was being used
as a prison. For much of 1959, Che oversaw the trials and executions of “enemies of the revolution” here.

34  Veritas
 When Havana sided with the Soviet Union,
it was supplied with large amounts of
Russian equipment, such as this T-34/85
tank. Che was the main architect of the
Cuban-Soviet relationship.
Several Latin American countries contributed to the U.S.-led
blockade during the Cuban Missile Crisis. They realized that The trials shook the militaries of Latin
their countries were also within range of the Soviet Union’s America because large numbers of officers
nuclear missiles. were summarily executed. The Cuban
revolutionaries posed a threat to the
Several thousand people were tried at La Cabaña. professional military social class in the region. Bolstered
They were either sentenced to prison or executed. Former by the success, Che began making bellicose public
government officials, police, and army personnel who statements regarding insurgency and revolution.
had served Batista were rounded up. Luis O. Rodriguez, On 27 January 1959 Che made his Social Projections of the
a former platoon sergeant that fought in the Sierra Rebel Army speech. It was an ominous view of the future.
Maestra, was arrested at home. Rodriguez described
these dreadful times. “The revolution is not limited to the Cuban nation
because it has touched the conscience of (Latin) America and
“things were very disorganized . . . every night they seriously alerted the enemies of our peoples. The revolution
would come in with a list . . . if you were called in [late at has put the Latin American tyrants on guard because these
night/early morning] it would mean that you were going to are the enemies of popular regimes . . . the victory against the
trial. They would tell you not to carry anything with you. dictatorship is not a passing one but becomes the first step to
[This was] contrary to if they called your name during the the victory of (Latin) America.”12
day and would ask you to bring your belongings if you had
anything. You knew you would be transferred . . . But if you Cuba had already begun to surreptitiously support
were called during the night it was a different thing. You revolutionary movements in the region, forcing nearby
knew that your life was almost gone . . . After they called the countries to fight internal threats. At the same time,
names for about an hour or so nothing happened. Then, all the U.S. pressured Cuba because Castro was moving to
of a sudden you heard the discharge of several rifles and after nationalize American-owned economic assets.
a few seconds . . . the single shots [coup de grâce], sometimes Domestically, Castro needed to build stability in Cuba.
one, sometimes two . . . even four. All this time we saw Che The executions at La Cabaña were stopped because they
. . . calling us criminals . . . he would say ‘all you guys will were attracting too much world attention. Che was sent on
end up the same way. You deserve it.’ We were wondering a three-month world tour ostensibly to garner support for
why is this guy here, he was not even a Cuban . . . He was the new revolutionary government and to promote sugar
very arrogant and cold.”11 sales, Cuba’s major export. When he returned, Guevara was

Vol. 4 No. 4  35
 kept busy as president of the National bank and manager
of nationalized foreign assets. But, Che still managed to
find time to broker stronger ties with the Soviet Union.
On 3 January 1961, the United States broke diplomatic
ties with Cuba because of its appropriation of
U.S.-owned properties without compensation and
its turn to Socialism.13 The Congressional quota of Cuban
sugar purchased by the U.S. was abolished. That was the
final impetus for Havana to move into the Soviet sphere.
Russian small arms and tanks followed. Che deserved the
lion’s share of credit for this Soviet Cuban relationship.14
As Minister of Industries, Che forged Cuba’s economic
policy—despite lacking a background in business,
industry, finance or government. CIA analysts assessed
that this forced Castro afterwards to dedicate an
inordinate amount of time to “finding remedies for the
disastrous effects of the regime’s early policies—largely
those engineered by Guevara.”15 Casto’s “revolutionary
honeymoon” was about to be upset.
With President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s approval, the Photographs taken by an American U-2 reconnaissance
CIA trained hundreds of anti-Castro Cubans to invade the aircraft revealed the presence of Soviet nuclear
island. The Brigade 2506 launched its disastrous invasion weapons. This prompted the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Foco Theory
Che Guevara, using his experience in the Cuban Still, many aspects of foco were adapted by guerrilla
Revolution, organized “lessons” into a “how-to manual,” movements in Central America [Nicaragua, El Salvador,
Guerrilla Warfare, to serve as a primer for other guerrilla and Guatemala] and South America [Peru, Colombia,
movements.1 His central tenet was that small, mobile, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela].5 Many of the leaders
revolutionary cadres would serve as the vanguard or focus were trained in Cuba. Most importantly, Che Guevara’s
(foco) for popular discontent. By winning symbolic military foco theory, which had worked in Cuba, was not
victories over government forces, these focos inspired public exportable. It didn’t matter. It captured the imagination
support while they expanded the revolution. There were of revolutionaries worldwide.
three basic premises: First, a guerrilla movement could
overthrow an established government backed by regular Endnotes
troops; Second, poor economic conditions were not key
1 Che Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska
to revolutionary success (in 1958/59 Cuba was enjoying Press, 1998). Several editions of Che’s book are in print. For more information,
an economic boom) because combat victories could create see General Alberto Bayo, 150 Questions for a Guerrilla (United States: Panther
Publications, 1963). Bayo provided the initial training in Mexico to Che and
the conditions necessary for popular support; Third, Castro before they launched their invasion of Cuba in 1956.
revolutionary guerrilla movements had to be rurally 2 Che Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare, 8.
based to provide a safe haven, where they could hide 3 Robert L. Scheina, Latin America’s Wars: The Age of the Professional Soldier,
and build support.2 The critical message in foco theory 1900-2001; Volume Two (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s Inc, 2003), 265.
was that a small group of dedicated rebels could win a 4 Sir Robert Thompson, consult. ed., War in Peace, (London: Orbis Publishing
Limited, 1981), 148-149.
“war of national liberation” and overthrow an established
5 For the Central American foco wars, see William E. Odom, On Internal War:
government relatively quickly.3 However, the foundation American and Soviet Approaches to Third World Clients and Insurgents (Durham,
for Che’s theory was difficult to reproduce. North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1992), 97, 119-120, 122. For the South
American foco wars, see Scheina, Latin America’s Wars, 265-277, 293.
Cuba had been ripe for revolution in 1958. Batista’s
corrupt, ruthless regime had alienated the middle class
and peasants by violating basic individual rights. The Che Guevara’s Guerrilla Warfare
army was poorly led and its troops had little fighting spirit. was intended as a manual to teach
They were perceived as bullies backed by government revolutionaries the necessary steps
authority and guns. This enabled Fidel Castro to unite the for waging an insurgency. It was
based on faulty presumptions because
factions that opposed Batista. Che also forgot how much
it used the Cuban Revolution as an
urban support was provided to the guerrillas in the form exportable model.
of money, intelligence, supplies, and recruits.4

36  Veritas
 By 1961, Cuba was
prepared to deal with
a U.S-backed invasion
force, as this period
poster declares. The
Soviet-supplied and
trained military dealt the
U.S.-sponsored Brigade
2506 a catastrophic
defeat at the Bay of Pigs
in April 1961.
Important sites in the Cuban revolution.
Map by D. Telles.

Flag of the United States-trained Brigade 2506

The Bay of Pigs invasion by the Brigade 2506 was
over in days. Che did not take part in combating
the United States-trained force, but later used
the defeat to taunt Washington.

on 17 April 1961 at the Bay of Pigs (Bahía de Cochinos). The

anticipated popular uprising did not occur. The newly
elected president, John F. Kennedy, did not authorize U.S.
military intervention and Castro’s forces savagely counter-
attacked.16 Four days later, the fighting had ended and more
than 1,100 were taken prisoner.17 As the commander of
forces in western Cuba, Che Guevara did not participate,
but still taunted the Americans over the episode.
In August, while attending an Organization of
American States (OAS) conference in Uruguay, Che
requested a meeting with U.S. delegate Richard Goodwin.
The diplomat told President Kennedy that Che “wanted
to thank us very much for the invasion—that it had been
a great political victory . . . and transformed them from an
aggrieved little country to an equal.”18
Tensions between Havana and Washington worsened
during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962.
Although President Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita
Khrushchev averted the crisis, Che felt Soviet prestige
was weakened.19 Che revealed how radical he was a Che left Cuba in 1965 and his whereabouts
few weeks afterwards by telling British journalist Sam were unknown until he was killed in Bolivia in
Russell that had Cuba controlled the missiles; he would 1967. From April to November 1965, Guevara
have fired them off.20 The U.S. had no choice but to tried to coax success from a revolution in the
consider Guevara a grave threat. Congo, but failed miserably.

Vol. 4 No. 4  37
 Che continued his ranting on 11 December 1964 in Endnotes
the United Nations, when he lambasted the U.S. for its 1 Andrew St. George, “How the U.S. Got Che,” True April 1969, 93.
“imperialist” treatment of Latin America and the inequality 2 Luis Rodriguez, interview by Dr. Troy J. Sacquety, 1 December 2008, Fort
shown its own minorities. He said, “How can those who Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC. Rodriguez fought with General Fulgencio Batista’s forces against
do this consider themselves guardians of freedom?”21 Then Castro, and with the Brigade 2506 at the Bay of Pigs.
surprisingly, Che outraged the Soviet Union in Algiers 3 John Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Grove
on 25 March 1965 when he called Moscow an accomplice Press, 1997), 3. Che’s mother was three months pregnant when she married.
The birth certificate was back-dated to hide her pregnancy.
“of imperialist exploitation,” for its trade policies with
4 Anderson, Che Guevara, 13.
the developing world.22 After becoming somewhat of an
5 This trip was depicted in the 2004 film, The Motorcycle Diaries, and was based
embarrassment to Havana, he privately renounced his rank, on the book with the same name.
positions, and Cuban citizenship to Fidel Castro in order 6 The two married 18 August 1955 [they divorced in 1959], and their daughter,
to foment revolution elsewhere.23 Castro later released the Hilda Beatriz, was born on 15 February 1956.
letter. The unveiling insinuated that Guevara should not 7 Anderson, Che Guevara, 175.

return to Cuba lest he have proof that his idealism and foco 8 Sir Robert Thompson, consult. ed., War in Peace, (London: Orbis Publishing
Limited, 1981), 146.
revolutionary theory worked. “Che’s whereabouts became 9 Anderson, Che Guevara, 213.
the world’s best-kept, most guessed-at secret,” until his 10 Herbert Matthews, New York Times, 24 February 1957; online at http://
death in Bolivia in October 1967.24 www.cubanlibrariessolidaritygroup.org.uk/articles.asp?ID=447, accessed 29
He had already tried to sponsor focos in Latin America— September 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/books/matthews/
matthews011859.pdf.
most notably in Argentina—but the regime had been 11 Rodriguez interview, 1 December 2008.
alerted and the insurgency quelled before it got started. 12 Tony Saunois, “Six In Power, Cuba Vs the Gingos,” “http://www.socialistworld.
Che then turned to Africa. There, the newly independent net/pubs/che/six.html, accessed 15 October 2008.
Democratic Republic of the Congo (from Belgium) had 13 U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Cuba,” found online at http://
www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2886.htm, accessed 5 December 2008.
an ongoing internal rebellion that was receiving support
14 Anderson, Che Guevara, 492. When the U.S. cut diplomatic ties, Havana
from the Soviet Union and other Communist nations. To seized all American-owned property. Thousands of Cubans fled to the U.S.
Che, the Congo “was one of the most important fields of as polictical refugees.
battle,” and an ideal place to test his foco theory.25 15 CIA Intelligence Memorandum, “The Fall of Che Guevara and the Changing
Face of the Cuban Revolution,” 18 October 1965, found online at the National
“This is a history of a failure” was the first line that Security Archive; http:// www.gwu.edu/~nsaarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB5/che1_1.
Che wrote in the preface to his Congo diary.26 From April htm, accessed 21 November 2008.
to November 1965, Che pushed his foco concepts, but was 16 The invaders had even brought extra weapons with them to arm new recruits.
received indifferently. He blamed his lack of success on Rodriguez interview, 1 December 2008.
17 For more on the Bay of Pigs Invasion, see Grayson Lynch, Decision for Disaster:
the African rebel leaders and troops, describing them Betrayal at the Bay of Pigs (Washington D.C.:Brassey’s, 1998). The survivors
as “corrupted by inactivity,” lacking “revolutionary were later ransomed and returned to the U.S.
awareness,” and “lazy and undisciplined.” They were 18 Richard Goodwin, Memorandum for the President, “Conversation with the
“the poorest example of a fighter that I have ever come Commandante Ernesto Guevara of Cuba,” 22 August 1961, found online at http://
www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/bayofpigs/19610822.pdf. accessed 20 November 2008.
across.”27 But, he also learned that he had to be totally 19 Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, “One Hell of a Gamble”: Khrushchev,
in charge of his next venture. This predilection proved Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964 (New York, New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), 327.
fatal in Bolivia. Che went into seclusion to prepare for his 20 Anderson, Che Guevara, 545.
next, hopefully better, expedition. 21 Che Guevara, “At the United Nations,” 11 December 1964. online at http://ils.
unc.edu/~michm/Che/unations.html, accessed 1 December 2008.
Many U.S. intelligence analysts thought that Guevara
22 Che Guevara, “At the Afro-Asian Conference in Algeria,” found online at http://
was dead. Still, because of his stature, his proven www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1965/02/24.htm, accessed 1 December 2008.
support for armed Communist revolution, and 23 Che Guevara, “Farewell Letter to Fidel Castro,” 1 April 1965, located in Ernesto
connection to Fidel Castro, Washington had to be Che Guevara, Bolivian Diary (New York, New York: Pathfinder, 2002), 71-73.
prepared to deal with him if/when he reappeared. 24 St. George, “How the U.S. Got Che,” 93.
Communist-insurgencies inspired by Che Guevara had 25 Ernesto “Che” Guevara (ed. Daniel James), The Complete Bolivian Diaries of Che
Guevara and other Captured Documents (New York, New York: Stein and Days,
to be eliminated. It was finally done in Bolivia. 1968), 14.
26 Ernesto “Che” Guevara, The African Dream: The Diaries of the Revolutionary
War in the Congo (New York, New York: Grove Press, 2000), 1.
Troy J. Sacquety earned an MA from the University of 27 Guevara, African Dream, 226-227.
Nebraska–Lincoln and his PhD in Military History from
Texas A&M University. Prior to joining the USASOC
History Office staff he worked several years for the Central
Intelligence Agency. Current research interests include
Army and Office of Strategic Services (OSS) special
operations during World War II, and Special Operations
Units in Vietnam.

38  Veritas
American Special Forces
Enter the Picture
Illustration by Mariano Santillan

Vol. 4 No. 4  39
 Captain Gary Prado Salmón
on parade with B Company
2nd Ranger Battalion.

“The ‘Haves and Have Nots’:

U.S. & Bolivian Order of Battle”
By Kenneth Finlayson

40  Veritas
When they arrived in
Bolivia in April 1967,
the 8th Special Forces Group Mobile
Guatemala Belize

Honduras
U.S. SOUTHERN
COMMAND
Training Team (MTT) commanded El Salvador Nicaragua
by Major (MAJ) Ralph W. “Pappy”
Shelton was literally the “tip of the Costa Rica Guyana
spear” of the American effort to Venezuela
Panama Suriname
support Bolivia in its fight against a French Guiana
Cuban-sponsored insurgency. The 16 men Colombia
represented a miniscule economy of force for
the 1.4 million-man U.S. Army in 1967 that was
fighting in South Vietnam and which was the Ecuador
bulk of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) forces defending Europe against the
Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. In stark contrast was the
Bolivian Army, a 15,000-man force of ill-trained
conscripts with out-moded equipment, threatened by Brazil
an insurgency. This friendly order of battle article will Peru
look at the United States Army forces, in particular those
units and missions supporting the U.S. strategy in Latin Bolivia
America. It will then examine the Bolivian Armed Forces
after the 1952 Revolution and the state of the Bolivian Army
Chile
when MAJ Shelton and his team arrived to train the 2nd Ranger Paraguay
Battalion. It was clearly a case of the “Haves and Have-nots.”
The United States Army of 1967 was a formidable force of thirteen
infantry divisions, four armored divisions, one cavalry division, four
separate infantry brigades, and an armored cavalry regiment.1 In the
Argentina
Continental United States (CONUS) were two divisions (the 82nd
Airborne and the 2nd Armored Division). The 25th Infantry Division
was based in Hawaii (forward-deployed in Vietnam). In Alaska was Uruguay
the 172nd Separate Infantry Brigade. The 1st Special Forces Group was
based in Okinawa, Japan, and the 7th Special Forces Group at Fort Bragg,
North Carolina. Two infantry divisions, the 2nd and 7th, were stationed
in South Korea.2 The bulk of the U.S. Army was deployed to Vietnam or
stationed in Europe.

Falkland Islands

Special Forces Major

Ralph W. “Pappy” Shelton
commanded Mobile
Training Team BL 404-67X United States Southern Command (SOUTHCOM)
that trained the Bolivian was the unified command responsible for
Ranger Battalion in 1967. Latin America. Defense of the Canal Zone, the
A decorated Korean War administration of the U.S. Military Assistance
veteran, Shelton was Program and directing U.S. forces during
on his last deployment hemispheric military exercises were the primary
before retirement. responsibilities of the command. Map by D. Telles.

U.S. Southern Command U.S. Army Forces 8th Special Forces

Patch Southern Command Group Flash
SSI
Vol. 4 No. 4  41
 Five infantry divisions (the 1st, 4th, 9th, and 25th),
Non-military Organizations
one partial airborne division (the 101st), the 1st Cavalry Operating In Bolivia
Division and the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, and While the Shelton MTT trained the Bolivian
three separate infantry brigades (the 196th, 199th, and 2nd Ranger Battalion at La Esperanza, other non-
173rd Airborne) were in South Vietnam, where U.S. forces military U.S. organizations were also working
numbered roughly 400,000 in August of 1967.3 Special in Bolivia. Principal among these were the U.S.
operations forces, under the control of 5th Special Forces Agency for International Development (USAID),
Group (5th SFG), in 1967 numbered 2,745 personnel.4 In the Peace Corps and the Central Intelligence
Europe, the U.S. Army had declined from a peak in 1962 Agency (CIA). USAID is an independent Federal
of 277,000 to roughly 220,000 in 1967. Seventh Army had Government agency that extends assistance to
two Army Corps, the Vth and VIIth, composed of four countries recovering from natural disasters, trying
infantry divisions (the 3rd, 5th, 8th, and 24th) and two to escape poverty, and engaging in democratic
armored divisions (the 1st and 3rd), and the 10th Special reforms. The Peace Corps, created by President
Forces Group. Elsewhere, smaller U.S. Army contingents John F. Kennedy in 1960, sends volunteers
performed economy of force missions. This was the case worldwide to teach agricultural techniques and
in Latin America. promote education. In 1967, there were 225 Peace
Corps volunteers in Bolivia with several working
“The main thrust of the MILGP effort is in the vicinity of La Esperanza. The Central
Intelligence Agency was active throughout Latin
to assist the host country armed forces in America helping friendly governments confronted
developing their internal security capability.”9­ by Communist insurgencies. The Shelton team
—GEN Robert W. Porter had contact with CIA personnel assigned to the
embassy in La Paz.
Central and South America were the responsibility of
the United States Southern Command (SOUTHCOM).
The Commander, General (GEN) Robert W. Porter, Charles L. Johnson.6 The 193rd Infantry Brigade had
defined his tasks as “Defense of the Panama Canal, three battalions, one airborne, one mechanized, and one
administering the Military Assistance Program (MAP) light infantry. Other major USARSO units were the 4th
for Latin American countries, directing U.S. participation Missile Battalion (HAWK), 517th Air Defense Artillery
in hemispheric defense exercises, mapping and charting Regiment, the 470th Military Intelligence Group, the 3rd
activities, and directing disaster relief and search and Civil Affairs Group, U.S. Army School of the Americas,
rescue operations.”5 SOUTHCOM was the only unified and the 8th Special Forces Group configured as a
command with its own security assistance office. That Special Action Force (8th SFG SAF).7 The primary focus
indicated how important the command considered of USARSO was the defense of the Canal Zone.8 The
military assistance to the countries of Latin America. Army was represented in U.S. Military Groups (MILGP)
The Army component command of SOUTHCOM throughout Latin America.
was U.S. Army Forces Southern Command (USARSO), A relatively new concept in 1967, the MILGP and
based at Fort Amador, in the Canal Zone of Panama. the Defense Coordination Office replaced the Military
USARSO was commanded by Major General (MG) Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) in SOUTHCOM. It

The rugged terrain and primitive road network in Bolivia made travel difficult. The United States MILGP in
La Paz used air transportation to visit Bolivian Army operations in the field.

42  Veritas
was a joint organization. As described by GEN Porter,
“We have military groups in 17 Latin American countries,
ranging in size from 5 persons in Panama to 103 in Brazil.
The main thrust of the MILGP effort is to assist the
host country armed forces in developing their internal
security capability.”9 When the 8th SFG advanced echelon
(ADVON) went to Bolivia, they learned how the MILGP
provided support, mostly by liaison.
The MILGP was the “doer” for military support on
U.S. Ambassador Douglas Henderson’s country team.
Lieutenant Colonel (LTC) Joseph Rice headed the MILGP
detachment in Cochabamba advising the Bolivian Army
NCO Academy, the Escuela de Armas, and the Bolivian
Airborne School. He assumed the role as Ranger
Battalion Project Officer. Visiting units outside La Paz
was difficult because of the terrain and the primitive
Bolivian road network. The mission of the MILGP was to The Bolivian Army had long suffered from poor training
assist the Bolivian military with its internal security. This and antiquated equipment. The influx of U.S. military
was critical because Bolivia’s military was ill prepared to equipment and personnel rapidly improved their capability
combat the growing internal insurgency. in the 1960s. These U.S. WWII-era M-1 81 mm mortars
with lightweight base plate were part of the Military
In 1967, the Bolivian Armed Forces had three services,
Assistance Program given to the Bolivian Army.
the Navy, the Air Force, and the Army. The National
Police Corps, Cuerpo de Policia Nacional, under the Chaco veterans were instrumental in the success of the
Ministry of the Interior was the same size as the Army 1952 revolution that brought the Movimiento Nacionalista
and had a national security role. The Navy, (Fuerza Naval Revolucionaria (MNR) party to power. The MNR actually
Boliviana) which included the Marines, was an 1,800-man dismantled the Army after taking power, replacing it with
force with four small patrol boats (purchased from the “Peoples’ Militias” for three months.12 Reestablished
United States) patrolling Bolivia’s part of Lake Titicaca in July 1953, the new Bolivian Army was oriented
and its major river systems.10 The Air Force, (Fuerza more towards conducting civic action projects than the
Aérea Boliviana) numbered less than 4,000 personnel. It national defense. Eight Army divisions (of U.S. brigade
had a mix of World War II and Korean War-era aircraft size) were posted regionally throughout the country.
such as the B-25J Mitchell bomber, C-47 Skytrain, F-51D However, most of the 15,000 soldiers were building
Mustang, and T-28A Trojan trainers. In 1967 the Air Force roads and supporting agricultural programs. Only 3,000
had Hiller and Sikorsky helicopters.11 The 15,000-man manned the small company-sized cuartels, principally in
Army (Ejército Boliviana), the largest of the three services, the Altiplano.13 The operational readiness was in constant
was responsible for combating the guerrillas. It was not turmoil because each year half of the soldiers came to
well equipped for the counter-insurgency mission. the end of their service. Fortunately, road building and
Bolivia’s disastrous defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco planting potatoes did not require modern weaponry, for
War (1932-1935) still affected the Army in the 1960s. the Army was sorely lacking in equipment.

The Special Forces MTT members conducted an airborne proficiency jump with the Bolivian Airborne School
students at Cochabamba in October 1967. In the background is a Korean War-era F-51D Mustang, one of the
mainstays of the Bolivian Air Force in 1967.

Bolivian Airborne
School Patch

Vol. 4 No. 4  43
 When the Special Forces team arrived to train the
Bolivian Rangers, the standard infantry rifle was a
Czech-made 7.62 mm Mauser. In the Ranger Battalion
these were replaced with U.S. M-1 Garands and
Carbines. Staff Sergeant Wendell Thompson trains a
Bolivian infantryman with his Mauser on the range.

The Czechoslovakian ZB-30 7.92 mm light machine

gun was used until replaced by the U.S. .30 caliber
M-1919A6. Sergeant First Class Harold T. Carpenter
instructs a Bolivian gunner during the deployment
of the Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X.

The Bolivian Army at this time possessed a hodge- and load-bearing equipment from the US MILGP, the
podge of weapons from a variety of sources. The standard Bolivian Army had no field rations for its soldiers.19 The
rifle for the Bolivian soldier was the Czech-made Mauser state of Bolivia’s army, considered one of the weakest in
7.62 mm rifle left over from the Chaco War.14 The Army’s Latin America, made it a prime target for revolutionaries.
crew-served weapons were primarily pre-World War II However, Che’s dream of mounting a successful
Colt and Vickers 7.65 mm water-cooled heavy machine insurgency was destroyed when the U.S. trained a
guns; Czech ZB-30 7.92 mm light machineguns; French counterinsurgency force to eliminate the guerrilla threat.
82 mm mortars and some 75-mm howitzers.15 In 1959, With the influx of the $12 million in American
the first shipment of American post-Korean War weapons military aid in the 1960s, the Bolivian Army was able to
arrived as part of the military assistance program to motorize some infantry battalions and create a special
Bolivia. A battalion’s issue of .30 caliber Garand M-1 rifles high-altitude assault battalion with soldiers from
and M-1 carbines, Browning the Altiplano.20 They made
Automatic Rifles (BARs), “Subversion [insurgency] was treated in significant advances in the
M-1919A6 light machine a very superficial theoretical framework, schooling of the officers and
guns, 60 mm mortars, 57 mm
without a clear directive from the general non-commissioned officers.
recoilless rifles, and 3.5-inch With the assistance of
rocket launchers were the staffs or the formation of specific plans aimed the United States, they
first installment of a growing at combating the rise of the guerrilla focos.”24 established an airborne
American investment.16 —Captain Gary Prado Salmón school and battalion and a
The United States provided Non-commissioned Officer’s
over 12 million in Military Assistance Program dollars School in Cochabamba. For all the services, the training
to Bolivia by 1967.17 In the 1960s, Bolivia made slow, of officers began with a five-year basic course at the
incremental progress in improving the Army’s capability. Gualberto Villarroel Military College in La Paz.21 Each
The Bolivian Army’s eight divisions were the size of U.S. December the school commissioned about 95 cadets
Army brigades (less than 2000 men each) and were made as second lieutenants to fill the Armed Forces. The
up of conscripted campesinos (country people), mainly graduation year groups (promociones) identified officers
Indians from the high Altiplano and the lowland jungles. throughout their military careers. The reorganization of
For the Indians, completion of their Army service entitled the Army after the 1952 Revolution ostensibly opened the
them to full citizenship and coveted identification cards. officer corps to all the Bolivian ethnic groups. However,
Consequently, morale among the draftees was generally the reality was, the officer corps was still predominately
good, but their level of training was poor. of European descent with few indigenous officers in
The severely constrained budget of the Bolivian Army 1967. Officers and noncommissioned officers attended
prevented effective training of the new soldiers. Military courses at the U.S. Army-run School of the Americas
spending (roughly $28 million) accounted for only 2.2% in the Canal Zone. After the Academy, Army officers
of Bolivia’s Gross Domestic Product, which in 1967 attended career branch schools, a two-year staff course
was estimated at $1.287 billion.18 While Shelton’s team for promotion to major, and ultimately the National War
struggled to obtain basic soldier items such as canteens College.22 This education strengthened the Officer and

44  Veritas
NCO Corps, but it did not adequately address how to Captain Gary Prado
combat an insurgency. Salmón commanded
Captain Gary Prado Salmón, the B Company Company B, 2nd
commander in the 2nd Ranger Battalion said, “Subversion Bolivian Ranger
[insurgency] was treated in a very superficial theoretical Battalion. His unit
framework, without a clear directive from the general captured Che Guevara
staffs or the formation of specific plans aimed at combating on 8 October 1967.
the rise of the guerrilla focos.”23 Bolivian Army officers Prado retired as a
Major General in the
had a European war mindset and training exercises
Bolivian Army.
in 1966 were “narrowly framed within the context of
conventional war, as if the hemisphere were not being
shaken by the explosions of guerrilla violence stretching
from Guatemala to the Andes,” according to Prado.24
Prado’s “explosion of violence” came when Cuban
guerrillas ambushed a Bolivian Army patrol and inflicted
heavy casualties in March 1967. The President of Bolivia’s
response was to ask the U.S. to organize and train a
Ranger Battalion to defeat the insurgency. That request 8 The composition of the 8th SFG Special Action Force was a Group Headquarters
Company, two Special Forces Companies (A&B), a Communications Company
brought MAJ Shelton’s team to Bolivia. The unit the (E Company), the 9th Psychological Operations Battalion, the 148th Engineer
Americans trained ultimately sealed the fate of Che Detachment, the 550th Military Police Detachment, the 255th Medical
Detachment, 801st Military Intelligence Detachment and the 401st Army Security
Guevara’s nascent guerrilla movement. Agency Detachment. It was located at Fort Gulick, Panama Canal Zone.
9 Porter, “Look South to Latin America,” 84-85.

Kenneth Finlayson is the USASOC Deputy Command 10 http://www.armada.mil.bo/.

Historian. He earned his PhD from the University of 11 In 1967, the Air Force had 82 AT-6 Texans, 33 C-47 Skytrains, 26 F-51D
Mustangs and 13 Mitchell B-25 Bombers in its inventory. There were 3 Hiller
Maine, and is a retired Army officer. Current research UH-12B and 4 Sikorsky UH-19B helicopters. http: www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/
interests include Army special operations during the Americas/Bolivia/Bolivia-af_all-time-chron.htm.

Korean War, special operations aviation, and World War II 12 Robert J. Alexander, The Bolivian National Revolution, (New Brunswick, NJ:
Rutgers University Press, 1958), 145-146.
special operations units. 13 Alexander, The Bolivian National Revolution, 152.
14 Gary Prado Salmón, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla
Challenge in Bolivia, (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1987), 21. The Czech Mauser was
Endnotes the primary rifle, with Mausers manufactured in several countries such as
Argentina also in the inventory.
1 Lieutenant General Bruce Palmer, Jr., “The Army Green Book,” Army
Magazine, October 1967, 107. 15 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
Bolivia, 21; Frank A. Moyer, Special Forces Foreign Weapons Handbook (Boulder,
2 In the case of the 1st Infantry Division and 2nd Armored Division, a brigade
CO: Panther Publications, 1970), 74.
from each was forward deployed in Europe. In 1965 the 101st Airborne
Division sent its 1st Brigade to Vietnam from its base at Fort Campbell, 16 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
Kentucky, before the entire division went in 1967. Also at Fort Campbell was Bolivia, 21-22.
the 6th Infantry Division, activated in November 1967 and deactivated in 17 John D. Waghelstein, “A Theory of Revolutionary Warfare and Its
July 1968. The 6th never received its full complement of troops. Application to the Bolivian Adventure of Che Guevara,” Masters Thesis,
3 George L. MacGarrigle, Taking the Offensive: October 1966 to October 1967 Cornell University, July 1973, Table B, unpublished copy, USASOC History
(Washington DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1998), 14-15; Frank S. Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Basset, “The Army in Vietnam,” Army Magazine, October 1967, 57. 18 Herbert S. Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (New York
4 This was more than twice the size of the normal Special Forces Group. 5th NY: Oxford University Press, 1992,) 323: www.nationmaster.com/graph/
SFG was the command (minus operational control) headquarters for all eco_gdp-economy-gdp&date=1967.
Special Forces activities in Vietnam from 1964 to 1971. Francis J. Kelly, U.S. 19 After Action Report, MTT BL 404-67X, 22 December 1967, 4-5, copy USASOC
Army Special Forces: 1961-1971 (Washington, DC, Department of the Army, History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
1973), 82.
20 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
5 General Robert W. Porter, “Look South to Latin America,” Military Review, Bolivia, 23, 213.
June 1968, 84. USSOUTHCOM was based at Quarry Heights, Panama Canal
Zone. In the 1960s, the United States spent $1.09 billion on MAP in Latin 21 http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-1653.html.
America. The leading recipient was Peru at $124 million. Bolivia at $20.9 22 John Keegan, World Armies, 2nd Ed. (Detroit, MI: Gale Research Company,
million was at the low end of the spectrum. Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, 1983), 59-63; http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-1653.html.
Guerrillas and Revolution in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Insurgents 23 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
and Regimes Since 1956 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 73. Bolivia, 25.
6 Palmer, “The Army Green Book,” 39. 24 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
7 Department of the Army Annual Historical Summary 1969, The Center of Bolivia, 25.
Military History, http://www.history.army.mil/books/DAHSUM/1969/chII.htm.

Vol. 4 No. 4  45
 The Bolivia Mission,
Site Survey, and MTT Mission Prep
by Charles H. Briscoe

SFC Ethyl W. Duffield explains the

60 mm mortar to the Bolivians.

46  Veritas
The 8th Special Forces Group (SFG), Special Action
Force (SAF), Latin America, had been tasked by
the U.S. Southern Command (SOUTHCOM) in Panama in
early April 1967 to prepare a Mobile Training Team (MTT)
for a classified mission. The MTT was to organize and MSG Roland J. Milliard
train a 650-man Bolivian Ranger Battalion in basic and
advanced individual military skills, basic and advanced DOB: 13 February 1933
unit tactics, COIN (counterinsurgency) operations, POB: Lowell, MA
and conduct cadre training for the unit officers and HS: Lowell HS 1950
non-commissioned officers (NCOs) in nineteen weeks. French & Spanish
Major (MAJ) Ralph W. “Pappy” Shelton, the selected Army: Joined in 1950 as infantryman, Abn
commander, was to organize, prepare, and deploy a School, RR gunner, D Co, 504th Infantry; 1952-
large mobile training team (MTT designated BL 404-67X) 1953 Re-up for Korea, BAR & Fire Team Leader,
for that mission as soon as possible.1 Master Sergeant C Co, 1/17th Infantry, 7th Inf Division, CIB; 1954-
(MSG) Oliverio Gomez, the team sergeant of Team 11, 1958, SSG (E5) BCT drill instructor, Fort Dix,
A Company, was selected by COL Magnus L. Smith, the NJ; 1959-1962, SFC (E6) Plt Sgt, C Co, 1/27th
group commander, because he had a wealth of combat Inf, 25th Inf Division, Hawaii; 1962 volunteered
experience. He wore the CIB (Combat Infantryman’s
for MAAG, Vietnam, NCO Advisor, 5th ARVN
Badge) with two stars that signified three awards in three
Division, CIB; 1963 joined SF; 1963-1966, Hvy
wars: World War II; Korea; and Vietnam.2
MAJ Shelton had several immediate tasks: to select an Wpns Sgt, ODA, 7th SFG, 1965 Belgian Congo
executive officer; to provide mission prep guidance for relief w/ 3rd SFG; 1966, MSG (E-7) Intel Sgt,
the MTT forming; to coordinate a site survey with the ODA, A Co, 8th SFG, Panama.
U.S. Military Group (MILGP) in La Paz; and to identify
personnel to accompany him to Bolivia who would
stay there as his advance echelon (ADVON). Because advance echelon (ADVON). Lieutenant Colonel Eldred
arranging the site survey took the most time, he chose E. “Red” Weber, a First Special Service Force veteran of
another Korean War veteran, Captain (CPT) Edmond WWII and deputy group commander, led the site survey
L. Fricke to be his Deputy. Korea and Vietnam veteran team to Bolivia on 6 April while the rest of the team was
Master Sergeant (MSG) Roland J. Milliard, an Intelligence being formed at Fort Gulick in Panama.4
Sergeant, and SFC Hector Rivera Colon, a Heavy Weapons CPT Fricke recruited officers and MSG Gomez chose
Sergeant from Puerto Rico, were identified to be the sergeants from nominees provided by the A and B
Company sergeant majors. Numbers and military
occupational specialties (MOS) had been specified by
Shelton.5 “The team composition was strictly seat of the
pants reasoning. I thought that there would be much
more classified message traffic and liaison with MILGP
and the Bolivians. Hence, we were heavy on ‘commo’
MSG Oliver io Gomez personnel with higher security clearances and brought
an extra officer. Since every SF NCO was cross-trained,
DOB: 21 December 1923 it worked out,” recalled the MTT commander.6 “I talked
POB: Santa Monica, CA with some senior sergeant friends in each company to get
HS : Santa Monica 1942 their recommendations for personnel and to cross-check
DLI: Russian everyone. Then, I met each man individually to get a ‘feel’
man. New for him and to find out what secondary skills he had. That
Army: Joined in 1943 as infantry proved very useful when we started training in Boliva,”
n, 1943-1945,
Guinea, the Philippines, Japa th said MSG Gomez.7
Inf, 32nd Inf
Inf Sqd Ldr to Plt Ldr, F Co, 126 While MSG Gomez and CPT Fricke were getting a team
g, AU, 430
th
Division, BS, WIA twice; Salzbur assembled in Panama, LTC Weber, MAJ Shelton, MSG
CIC agent, 1947-1950; Kor ea & Japan, 1950-1953,
Cav Division, Milliard, and SFC Rivera Colon had gone to Bolivia.
Inf Plt Sgt & Plt Ldr, 2/8 Cav, 1 th
th st

Inf Division, They were being briefed on the Bolivian armed forces
BS, WIA; 1954-1957, Inf Plt Sgt, 24th organization by the Army MILGP personnel in La Paz.
Inf Division,
Hawaii; 1957-1958, Inf Plt Sgt, 7th A list of recommended arms, ammunition, radios, and
Inf Division,
Korea; 1959-1961, Inf Plt Sgt,st 8 the equipment necessary to organize the new Ranger
Abn School
Germany; 1961 joined SF & 1 SFG unit based on a U.S. Army WWII infantry battalion TOE
tnam; 1964,
on Okinawa; 1962, 1 SFG MTT, Vie 3
st

. (table of organization and equipment) was compiled.

MSG ODA Tm Sgt, 8 SFG, Panama
th
Requisitions were sent to SOUTHCOM in Panama to be
filled from regional war stocks.8

Vol. 4 No. 4  47
 Most importantly, MAJ Shelton ran into a Panama friend, CPT Edmond L. Fricke, MTT
Captain “Hoss” McBride, 605th Air Commando, 6th Special Executive Officer/S-3
Operations Squadron (SOS), Howard Air Force Base (AFB),
Canal Zone, who was training Bolivian Air Force T-28 pilots
in close air support at Cochabamba. McBride had established
a lot of connections in Bolivia. An Army officer from the
MILGP accompanied them to Santa Cruz. The Americans
flew into the dirt airstrip at Santa Cruz. There they met the
8th Division commander, COL Joaquín Zenteño Anaya, and
conducted a reconnaissance of the area.9 At the 8th Division
cuartel the Americans met some of the conscripts being SFC Johnnie E. Reynolds, MTT
S-1/S-4 Sergeant
assembled to fill the new Ranger unit.10
The first training site recommended, Guabirá, was
too populated and lacked space to conduct small unit
maneuvers and marksmanship training. A second
proposal, an abandoned sugar mill on the outskirts of La
Esperanza, seven miles from Guabirá at the end of a farm
road, was more remote. The mill contained sufficient
buildings to house the battalion and the American
training team, structures for confidence exercises, and
the surrounding terrain seemed ideal for small arms
marksmanship and crew-served weapons ranges. Since
the small, 100-150 person village was at the end of a
primitive road, the site was sufficiently isolated. Security LTC Eldred E. “Red” Weber, Deputy Commanding
could be maintained. The townspeople were friendly. Officer, 8th SFG and Acting Commander, 8th SFG,
2 June 1967, re-enlisting MSG Roland Milliard.
While MSG Milliard and SFC Rivera Colon were walking
the terrain around the mill choosing possible training away large portions of the road. It took several hours to
sites and range locations, COL Zenteño Anaya confirmed find safe fording sites,” said MSG Milliard, the MTT O&I
that the area would be available.11 sergeant.12 From a hotel in Santa Cruz the two SF sergeants
Satisfied that La Esperanza would began to coordinate support, arranged to have the firing
do, the Americans returned to ranges built, and prepared for the main body arrival two
La Paz. After getting LTC Weber weeks later.13
and MAJ Shelton off to Panama “It became obvious when we got to Santa Cruz that
on 11 April, Sergeants Milliard MILGP personnel in La Paz had not been there
and Rivera Colon drove back and knew nothing about the Army in that locale,”
to Santa Cruz. It was a long said MSG Milliard. “Hector (Rivera Colon) and I
three days of hard driving made sketches and took a lot of notes during our
via Cochabamba. “We drove reconnaissance. La Esperanza had open areas 400-500
down in a jeep. It was worse meters wide, sufficient dead space for combined arms
than driving that ‘wonderful’ training (mortars and light machineguns), and enough
Pan American Highway to vegetation to cover tactical movement. We kept a low
Unit Insignia of the 605th Panama. The potholes were profile. I talked with MAJ Shelton on the telephone to
Air Commando, 6th Special huge and rivers had washed keep him posted on our progress. The 8th Division sent
Operations Squadron (SOS),
Howard AFB, the Panama The communications and storage building (left)
Canal Zone. and the rappelling tower (right) in the abandoned
sugar plantation near La Esperanza.

48  Veritas
troops to La Esperanza to secure the training site. By
the time the main body arrived, city newspapers were
carrying stories about Che Guevara.”14
Fortunately, an American company had been contracted SSG Wendell P. Thompson
to build roads in the area. The Paul Hardeman
Construction Company had bulldozers, road graders, DOB : 3 June 1938
and other heavy equipment on hand. Sergeants Milliard POB : Mount Vernon, NY
and Rivera Colon met with Harry Singh, the director of HS: Pleasant ville,
operations, to explain what they needed and to obtain NJ HS 1956
estimated construction costs. Singh, another friend of DLI-East: Spanish
CPT “Hoss” McBride, proved to be a great supporter of
the SF mission.15 While MSG Milliard and SFC Rivera Army: Drafted in 1963 for MP training; 1963-
Colon were working in Bolivia, the assembled SF MTT 1964, 513 MP Det, Korat, Thailand; 1965 joined
SF after Abn Tng, 6 SFG; 1965, 05B Tng 1966,
th
was preparing for the mission.
Radioman, A-13, B Co, 8 SFG.
th 19
When MAJ Shelton was in Bolivia, CPT Fricke and MSG
Gomez collected related programs of instruction (POIs),
lesson plans, and some training aids. A footlocker full of
U.S. Army field manuals in Spanish were gathered from
the U.S. Army School of the Americas at Fort Gulick.16
The two leaders had chosen the remaining members of
the MTT. “CPT Fricke got the other officers, CPT James SGT Alvin E. Graham
Trimble, the S-1/S-4 (administration & logistics) officer
and CPT Margarito Cruz, the S-2 (intelligence) officer
(801st MI Detachment, 8th SAF) to prepare to teach staff DOB: 16 November 1943
procedures to the Bolivian officers assigned to the Ranger POB: Monterey, CA
Battalion,” remembered SSG James Hapka, one of the HS: Washington HS,
assigned medics.17 First time MTT assignees got guidance 1961, Phoenix, AZ
from the veterans in their units. DLI-East: Spanish
“Once we were selected for the MTT, the senior NCOs Army: Enlisted in 1965, BCT Ft Polk, LA, AIT
of A and B Company oversaw individual preparations. Ft Ord, CA infantry mortarman, volunteered
Then, we went into isolation at Battery Randolph, the for SF, Abn School, Ft Benning; 1966, PFC in SF
abandoned WWII coast artillery site on Fort Gulick.
radio training, graduated as SP4, 3rd SFG; 1967,
assigned to ODA in B Co, 8th SFG, Panama.20
SFC Tom Carpenter,
Heavy Weapons
Sergeant, calls Panama
on the Collins KWM2A This was standard procedure for missions and
commercial single exercises,” said Sergeant (later Staff Sergeant)
sideband radio. Wendell P. “Thom” Thompson, a radioman on
A-16, B Company. “I was single and available. We
were issued a Collins KWM2A commercial single
sideband radio. It was a tremendous radio [Morse
Code (CW) and voice communications] compared
to the AN/GRC-109 radio. Because radiomen
dominated the team, I wanted a training assignment
rather than being stuck on radio watch. When the
major gave me .45 cal pistol training, I was happy.”18
Another radioman had these memories.
“I was a single radioman at the time. Whenever I
went into Colon, Panama, on pass, I paid the bar
girls to talk Spanish with me for a drink. The
contract Spanish language course in Washington,
D.C., ‘DLI-East,’ [Defense Language School (vice the
real one in Monterey, CA) – East] had been a total
waste of time. CPT Duane Boyer, a Sioux Indian in
B Company, briefed me on the mission. We were to
SSG William W. Burkett, the Communications
Supervisor, sends a Morse Code message using
train troops from the northern highlands of Bolivia
the AN/GRC-109 radio. A Bolivian Ranger is in the southwest lowlands. Personal firearms were
cranking the generator.

Vol. 4 No. 4  49
 not allowed. The MTT was classified SECRET. The 8th SFG
signal company would operate a SIGCEN (signal center)
while we were in Bolivia. One of the SF communicators
‘spilled his guts’ in the V.F.W. (a favorite SF watering hole SSG James A. Hapka
outside of Fort Gulick). He was replaced the next day. The
senior radio operators signed for encryption books and DOB: 13 Febr uary 1941
SOIs (Signal Operating Instructions). I read the Bolivia POB : Milwaukee, WI
area handbook. I remember reading that every male in HS: West Milwaukee
the countryside usually carried a gun,” said SGT Alvin High 1959
E. Graham. “We expected to run a 24-hour radio watch Ft Bragg-Spanish
so we packed a lot of batteries. A few AN-PRC-6s were
Army: Enlisted 1959, BCT Ft Leonard Wood,
brought along for internal communications during the
MO, AIT Ft Benning, GA; 1960, B Co, 1/502 Inf,
nd

101st Abn Division, 101 Abn School, Bn Mortar

st

& Davy Crockett Plt Sgt Course, Mortar Btry,

1/502nd Inf; 1962 joined SF, SF medic training,
Spanish language Ft Bragg; 1964, Team 11 & Sr
SSG Jerald L. Peterson
Medic SCUBA Team, A Co, 8 SFG, Panama.
th 23

DOB: 30 May 1942

POB: Bradford, PA
HS: Elder HS 1960
DLI-East: Spanish
Army: Enlisted 1961, BCT, AIT Fort Dix, NJ,
as field wireman when recruited by SF; 1962,
Abn School, SF medic tng; 1963, SF demo tng,
Wpns Tng, D Co. 7th SFG; SADM ODA, A Co,
6th SFG; 1965, DLI-East Spanish, B Co, 8th SFG,
VZ Cazador MTT.22

8th SFG monthly payday formation at Fort Gulick, Panama.

tactical training and to have contact with the ranges.”21 training was standard for us. Each team member was
The SF medics had to be ready to support themselves and responsible for teaching classes in his specialty. Since we
the Bolivian trainees for six months. were all cross-trained, Pete got compass and map reading
The American SF medics, Staff Sergeants (SSG) Jerald L. and I was assigned camouflage and concealment classes.
Peterson and James A. Hapka, would have to deal with Our basic load of medical supplies was 90 days, but we
virtually all American injuries and illnesses in country. carried extra and planned for a resupply,” remembered
SSG Hapka explained, “The training site at La Esperanza SSG Hapka.26 When MAJ Shelton returned to Panama
was quite remote. Emergency air medical evacuation from the site survey, he shared what information the
from Bolivia was very unlikely. Pete (SSG Peterson) MILGP had provided and clarified the MTT mission.
and I researched the endemic diseases using a World MAJ Shelton briefed the assembled team in Battery
Health Organization reference and the Merck Manual Randolph. “We were to organize, equip, and train a
for prophylaxes and surgical procedures for parasites; group of 600 newly conscripted soldiers. They were not
scorpion, spider, and snakebites; gunshot; and explosion- a unit, but we were going to make them into one and
caused trauma injuries. We knew what training was to it would be a Ranger Battalion. The training site would
be conducted in southwest Bolivia. Hepatitis B, Yellow be an abandoned sugar mill. Shelton didn’t have many
Fever, and Chagas Disease were rampant. Everyone details. He showed us the area on a photo imagery map.
on the MTT would get Gamma Globulin and Yellow The duration of the mission was 179 days and we would
Fever shots. Supposedly malaria had been eliminated fly from Howard Air Force Base to Bolivia (Santa Cruz) on
in Bolivia, but mosquito nets would be used.” 24 Note: two C-130 Hercules on 29 April,” said SSG Hapka.27 “We
The Armed Forces Pest Management Board maintains a Living were not briefed in great detail, but we knew from the
Hazards Database by country. “Not much known” dominated start that we were going to train the Bolivians to combat
the treatment for bites and information on the more than thirty an ongoing insurgency.” said SSG Jerald Peterson.28
poisonous snakes (hemotoxic, myotoxic, and neurotoxic), bees, After his first encounter with the MILGP, Shelton
spiders, and scorpions in Bolivia today.25 realized that he should expect little more than weapons,
“Basic field medic and emergency medical treatment ammunition, and equipment for the Rangers from the

50  Veritas
 2 MSG Oliverio Gomez was a WWII (32d Infantry Division), Korean War (1st
Cavalry Division), and Vietnam (1st SFG) veteran with three awards of the
Combat Infantryman’s Badge. Oliverio Gomez, interview by Dr. Charles H.
Briscoe, 12 November 2008, Pacific Grove, CA, digital recording, USASOC
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Gomez
interview with date.
3 Gomez interview, 12 November 2008.
4 Gomez interview, 12 November 2008, Shelton interviews, 12 April 2007 and 20
October 2008 and Roland J. Milliard, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H.
Briscoe, 15 October 2008, Dracut, MA, digital recording, USASOC History Office
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Milliard interview with date.
5 CPT Fricke was a former Staff Sergeant, a Korean War veteran of the 187th
Airborne Regimental Combat Team (ARCT), and a Ranger Department
instructor. Daniel V. Chapa interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 18 April
2008, Fort Bragg, NC. Digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified
Battery Randolph team isolation site before MTT. Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Chapa interview with date.
6 Shelton interview, 20 October 2008.
MILGP in La Paz. “If we didn’t make commo with them
7 Gomez interview, 14 November 2008. Staff Sergeant (SSG) James A. Hapka,
regularly, we’d be out of sight, out of mind. Our life line A Company,8th SFG, was the Medical Specialist (“junior” medic) on Team
would be 8th Group in Panama. Official visitors would fly 11 and MSG Gomez was his Team Sergeant and golfing buddy in Panama.
into Santa Cruz; mountain ranges separated the widely James A. Hapka, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 3 November
2008, Lawton, OK, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
separated cities and there was only one main highway Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter Hapka interview with date.
connecting them. To get to La Paz from Santa Cruz by 8 Henry Butterfield Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara: A Story of Soldiers, Spies, and
road, you drove to Cochabamba. There was no real road Diplomats (NY: Oxford University Press, 1998), 91.

to La Paz from Santa Cruz,” said the MTT commander.29 9 Shelton interview, 1 October 2008.
10 Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara, 91.
“The major compiled a list of necessities, gave it to MSG
11 Shelton interviews, 13 April 2007 and 1 October 2008.
Gomez, who was an extremely experienced and organized
12 Milliard interview, 15 October 2008.
soldier, and simply told him to ‘fill in the blanks,’” recalled
13 Shelton interviews, 13 April 2007 and 1 October 2008.
SGT Al Graham, a radioman.30
14 Shelton interviews, 13 April 2007 and 1 October 2008 and Milliard interviews,
29 April 1967 arrived quickly. Early that morning a small 15 and 20 October 2008.
convoy of 2 ½ ton trucks and a bus departed the 8th SFG 15 Shelton interviews, 13 April 2007 and 1 October 2008.
area at Fort Gulick for Howard Air Force Base, fifty-five 16 Shelton interviews, 14 April 2007 and 20 October 2008 and Gomez interview,
miles away on the Pacific side of Panama. Two U.S. Air 14 November 2008.

Force C-130 Hercules medium transports awaited them. 17 Hapka interview, 3 November 2008 and 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREP
dated 10 December 1967.
Fourteen soldiers, personal and team equipment, training 18 Wendell P. Thompson, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 7
materials (from paper targets to manuals), and an January 2008, Cleveland, OH, digital recording, USASOC History Office
estimated six months of canned and boxed food almost Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Thompson interview
with date. SGM Wendell Thompson was drafted in 1962 and served first as
filled both airplanes to capacity. “As we were taxiing out a Military Policeman (MP) in Kerat, Thailand. After going through Special
for takeoff with the ramp open, MSG Gomez leaned over Forces radio training in 1964, he was assigned to 8th SFG in Panama. While
there, he met and joined SFC Daniel Chapa, 8th SFG, on the U.S. Army
to me and said, ‘You should have brought your VW bug. Southern Command (USARSO) rifle team. When Chapa was sent to Bolivia
There’s plenty of room on the ramp. We’ll probably need to replace SFC Hector Rivera Colon, he asked MSG Oliverio Gomez to allow
newly promoted Staff Sergeant (SSG) Thompson to help him with weapons
it down there.’ I had to laugh because I’d sold it just before training. Thompson interview, 20 December 2007.
we left Gulick,” said SGT Al Graham.31 8th SFG MTT-BL 19 Thompson interview, 20 December 2007.
404-67X was off to Bolivia. 20 Alvin E. Graham, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 16 October
2008, Phoenix, AZ, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified
Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Graham interview with date.
Charles H. Briscoe has been the USASOC Command 21 Graham interview, 16 October 2008.

Historian since 2000. A graduate of The Citadel, this retired 22 Jerald L. Peterson, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 6 April 2007, Fort
Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Army special operations officer earned his PhD from the Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Peterson interview and date and Peterson
University of South Carolina. Current research interests email to Dr. Briscoe, Subject: Personal Bio dated 28 November 2008, USASOC
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
include Army special operations during the Korean War,
23 Hapka interview, 3 November 2008.
in El Salvador, and the Lodge Act.
24 Hapka interview, 3 November 2008.
25 Armed Forces Pest Management Control Board, Living Hazards Database,
Bolivia at afpmb-webmaster@osd.mil.
Endnotes 26 Hapka interview, 3 November 2008.
27 Hapka interview, 3 November 2008.
1 MTT BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), 1st Special Forces,
Special Action Force, Fort Gulick, Canal Zone, Situation Report (SITREP) 28 Daniel V. Chapa and Jerald L. Peterson, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe,
SUBJECT: Report of Mobile Training Team to Bolivia (RCS CSGPO-125) dated 11 April 2007, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office
10 December 1967, hereafter cited 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREP with date Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Chapa and Peterson
and Ralph W. Shelton interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 12 April 2007, interview with date.
Sweetwater, TN, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, 29 Shelton interview, 1 October 2008.
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Shelton interview with date. MAJ Ralph
30 Graham interview, 16 October 2008.
Shelton was a Korean War veteran who was awarded his second Combat
Infantryman Badge for service in Laos in 1961. 31 Graham interview, 16 October 2008.

Vol. 4 No. 4  51
 “Today a New Stage Begins”:
Che Guevara in Bolivia
by Robert W. Jones, Jr.

52  Veritas
On 7 November 1966, Ernesto “Che” Guevara began
his diary with the entry, “Today a new stage
begins.”1 Disguised as a bald man with large glasses, Che
would lead to the final defeat of the ultimate enemy, the
United States. “It is the road of Vietnam; it is the road
that should be followed by the people; it is the road that
using the name Adolfo Mena González, an Organization will be followed in Our America. . .The Cuba Revolution
of American States researcher, entered Bolivia to launch will today have the job of. . . creating a Second or Third
a revolution.2 He had dreamed of bringing his version of Vietnam of the world.”5 His dilemma was where to start.
revolution to the heartland of South America while he was Che considered several countries, particularly Peru
fighting in the Sierra Maestras of Cuba a decade earlier: and his native Argentina. However, Bolivia seemed to be
I’ve got a plan. If some day I have to carry the revolution to the best candidate, based on Cuban intelligence reports
the continent [South America], I will set myself up in the selva and his personal experiences. As a young man traveling
[forest or jungle] at the frontier between Bolivia and Brazil. I through Latin America, Che stopped in Bolivia in 1953,
know the spot pretty well because I was there as a doctor. From the year after the Bolivian Revolution and was impressed
there it is possible to put pressure on three or four countries by the move toward radical social reforms. Since then
and, by taking advantage of the frontiers and the forests you can he became convinced that politicians, generals, and the
work things so as never to be caught. 3 United States had corrupted the Bolivian Revolution.
However, Che’s intelligence regarding Bolivian social
conditions in 1967 was highly inaccurate.
Foco Theory in a Thumbnail Two Bolivian communists, Roberto “Coco” Peredo
Liegue and Guido “Inti” Peredo Liegue, were his
Based on the Cuban revolutionary experience primary sources of misperception. They reinforced his
Che Guevara’s Foco Theory had three major tenets: earlier analysis during visits to Cuba in 1962 and again
1 - A small cadre of agile and dedicated fighters in 1965.6 They, like many other Bolivian communists,
becomes a “vanguard” or foco raising popular related stories of widespread dissent with the regime
discontent against a government. of President Rene Barrientos. They ignored the fact that
2 - The foco can then increase and manipulate Barrientos had won the election with more than 60% of the
the discontent, leading to a general revolt against vote.7 Guevara accepted the popular consensus that the
the government. Bolivian military was one of the most poorly organized
3 - The best place to begin the fight is from rural in Latin America.8 All of these elements convinced Che
areas and then expand upon gaining strength. 1 that Bolivia was the best candidate for a foco.
Endnotes
1 Ernesto Guevara (introduction by Marc Becker), Che Guevara on
Guerrilla Warfare (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1998),
8; Daniel James, Ché Guevara A Biography (New York: Stein and Day,
1969), 129.

Cuba became the advocate of “wars of national

liberation” when 400 delegates of the newly formed
Organization of Solidarity of Asian, African, and Latin
American Peoples (called the Tricontinental) met in
Havana in January 1966. A central topic of discussion
was Che Guevara’s revolutionary concept. Fidel Castro A copy of Che’s false Uruguayan passport identifying
publicly committed himself to this new international him as “Adolfo Mena González.”
revolutionary movement and subsequently created Che’s revolution would begin in the corazón, the “heart”
the Latin American Solidarity Organization (OLAS) to of South America – Bolivia.9 The Cuban revolutionary
control and coordinate revolutionary activities in the experience in the Sierra Maestras would be the template
Western Hemisphere, with Cuba in a leadership role.4 to spread insurgency throughout the South American
Within this new framework, Che Guevara was given continent. First, the foco would be established with Cuban
a major role in coordinating a revolutionary act in leadership and military support. Second, after organizing
South America. Following his failure in the Congo, Che his foco, building base camps and a logistical cache, and
needed time to recover. While abroad he had become an training guerrillas would begin. Then small groups
international Communist “boogey man,” mysteriously of guerrillas, using “hit and run” tactics, would harass
disappearing and reappearing. U.S. and allied intelligence the Bolivian Army and police. As the guerrillas became
agencies searched for him in the Dominican Republic, more effective, the Bolivian army had to disperse to
Venezuela, and Colombia. protect towns and infrastructure. This strategy made the
Che firmly believed that the only way to break free Army even more vulnerable to attacks. As this Cuban-led
of imperialist oppression was to involve the United revolutionary vanguard grew in strength it would gain
States. Multiple simultaneous uprisings in Latin America more support from the campesinos, farmers, and miners.

Vol. 4 No. 4  53
 There were several elements in the organization of the
Bolivian foco. The nucleus was the Cuban revolutionary
fighters. The majority of the foco would be locals, drawn
from the ranks of the Bolivian Communist Party (BCP).
The combined element would be called the Ejército de
Liberación Nacional de Bolivia (ELNB, or National Liberation
Army of Bolivia). The ELNB had to plan and build a
large support network. Cuba provided the monetary and
weapons support for the ELNB. Behind the scenes was a
network of agents collecting intelligence and providing
logistics assistance, some of whom had been in place for
years. The majority of the clandestine support apparatus
was built around Cuban agents coordinating with the
Bolivian Communist Party in La Paz. However, there
were two key foreign players, Haydée Tamara Bunke
Haydée Tamara Bunke Bider, Bider and Régis Debray who played significant roles as
AKA “Tania,” the Argentine- special agents for the Bolivian foco.
East German Communist, A young woman of dual Argentine-East German
became one of Guevara’s nationality, Haydée Tamara Bunke Bider was best known
main agents in Bolivia. (Above by her code-name, “Tania.” After meeting Che Guevara
counterclockwise, her Communist Party of in East Germany in 1960, she became enthralled with his
Cuba membership card from the Ministry of Education; revolutionary ideas. Tania subsequently traveled to Cuba
a photo in her Cuban revolutionary beret; and at the
where she became active in the Cuban revolutionary
Ñancahuazú camp taking photographs.)
movement and was recruited and trained as an agent for
Victories would demonstrate their ability to defeat the the Bolivia mission.13 Tania went to Bolivia in 1964 under
army and improve their legitimacy. the alias Laura Gutiérrez Bauer to establish contacts among
Eventually, the foco would gain enough strength the Bolivian upper class. In her cover as a researcher of
to strike three of Bolivia’s major cities: Cochabamba, indigenous folk music and as a German tutor for wealthy
Santa Cruz, and Sucre. Once the guerrillas isolated or children, she began collecting strategic and tactical
controlled these cities, they effectively split the country. information.14 Through her network of contacts and
Part of the strategy would be to sever the railroad line to Communist “fellow travelers” Tania obtained Bolivian
Argentina and the major oil pipeline between Santa Cruz press credentials for Che Guevara, Régis Debray, and
and Camiri, further isolating the country.10 Ciro Roberto Bustos (a Cuban agent from Argentina).15 In
As the guerrilla movement gained strength and La Paz she hosted a radio advice program for the lovelorn
momentum, Che was convinced that the United States and used it to send coded messages to Cuban intelligence.
would send military advisors as they did in the Republic Tania was a triple agent who also worked for the Soviet
of Vietnam. Conventional units would follow the advisors. KGB and the East German secret police, the “Stasi.”16 The
Che hoped to increase U.S. military obligations in Latin importance of her role in the Bolivian foco has become
America. As the second and third ”Vietnam” erupted, almost as mythologized as that of Che Guevara. The
the American army would rapidly exhaust itself in a vain second “agent provocateur” was a French intellectual.
attempt to support counterinsurgency efforts.11 From
Inti Peredo’s perspective: “As they become incapable
of defeating us, the U.S. Marines will intervene, and
imperialism will unleash all its deadly power. Then our Régis Debray, a French
struggle will become identical with the one being waged Marxist theorist and
by the Vietnamese people.”12 This was only a beginning intellectual. While in
to foster regional insurgencies. Bolivia he soon tired of
Once the Bolivian guerrilla vanguard was firmly life as a revolutionary
established, it would train and support other on the ground.
revolutionary movements (focos) in Peru, Argentina,
Brazil, and Paraguay. The Peruvian foco was scheduled
for the end of 1967. Eventually Che predicted that the
Bolivian foco would defeat the government and, like Régis Debray was a Marxist theorist and “wannabe”
Cuba, establish a revolutionary government. The focos revolutionary in his mid twenties. The Debray family was
still needed support, and Bolivia would become a wealthy and well connected and enjoyed a high position in
sanctuary for the various groups. Bolivia would be the French society. His father was a prominent lawyer and his
first to fall, triggering subsequent collapses to create a mother served on the Paris city council. He had obtained
South American “domino effect.” a position as a professor of philosophy at the University

54  Veritas
of Havana.17 While he was there he wrote,
Revolution Within a Revolution, chronicling
the Cuban Revolution as the harbinger of a
new revolutionary model for Latin America
and the world.18 Cuban intelligence sent him
to Bolivia to write a geopolitical analysis and
gather intelligence.
Debray traveled to Bolivia in September
1966 posing as a journalist and professor
“whose mission is to make a geopolitical
study of the chosen zone in the Beni.”19 His
travels did not go unnoticed “he [Debray]
had been sighted moving around the Bolivian
countryside—in Cochabamba, in the Chapare
and in the Alto Beni—all regions that had
been under discussion by the Cubans as
possible guerrilla sites.”20 He collected maps
and answered Che’s questions through
intermediaries in Cuba.21 Simultaneously,
other agents supporting the effort made
arrangements for the foco.22
Following the template for the Cuban
Revolution, agents purchased a ranch/farm
in Bolivia to serve as a foco base. In June 1966
the Peredo brothers bought a 3,000-acre farm
for 30,000 Bolivian pesos (about $2,500) near
Ñancahuazú in the rugged southeastern
region of Bolivia. It was dubbed the casa
calamina (the “zinc house” or “tin house”
for its shiny metal roof). Located fifty miles
north of Camiri, the Ñancahuazú farm sat
in a very rough environment in a sparsely
populated area.23 Bolivia with the guerrilla “Red Zone” framed. One of the justifications
Recruitment of Bolivians for the foco for selecting the Ñancahuazú area was easy access to borders and
began in the summer of 1966. Mario Monje population despite the fact that the terrain canalizes traffic to river
Molina, head of the Bolivian Communist valleys or the few roads. Map by D. Telles.

Party, promised twenty men from his organization.

Moisés Guevara Rodríguez, the Maoist mine labor
leader, was another source of manpower.24 While
the Bolivians would form the bulk of the new
insurgency, Che planned to use Cuban veterans
to train and lead the local recruits until they could
assume responsibility for liberating their country.25
Recruiting was a constant problem for the Cuban-
led organization.
The Cuban veterans began infiltrating from
Havana through various Eastern Bloc countries.
They then continued their journey using new
identities and false passports to enter different
Latin America cities before slipping into Bolivia. 26
The incremental deployment of the Cubans lasted
Moisés Guevara Rodríguez (right) was a mine labor leader through 1966. Che Guevara entered Bolivia on 3
who led a breakaway Maoist faction of Bolivian Communists.
November 1966.27
Orlando (“Antonio”) Pantoja Tamayo (left) was a veteran of
the Sierra Maestras and the Chief of Cuba’s Border Guard. Che Guevara’s revolutionary dream was to
This photo was probably taken in camp in late March 1967. liberate the Latin American people independent of
Notice Guevara’s fresh look compared to Antonio’s haggard Soviet influence. This supported the Tricontinental
appearance after the “Long March.” philosophy of an alliance of revolutionary

Vol. 4 No. 4  55
 governments in the Western Hemisphere with Fidel
Some of the Key Guerrillas and Their Castro as the ideological leader.28 As he waited in Cuba,
Nicknames/Pseudonyms Che was not alone in looking for the next revolutionary
fight. Several of his compatriots from the Sierra Maestras
One confusing aspect of Che’s Bolivian Diary is the
volunteered. Of the seventeen Cubans who accompanied
number of pseudonyms or nicknames used by the
him on the Bolivian mission, five were “commandantes” in
group members. Many had two or more nicknames.
the Cuban army; seven others were officers of lesser rank,
It is not known if this was a security move to disguise
and one was the chief of the Border Police.29 This nucleus
the names or to conceal the number of guerrillas.
of veterans formed the Bolivia foco.
Ernesto “Che”Guevara de la Serna = Ramón, Che Guevara thought the struggle in Bolivia could last
Mongo, Fernando, “seven to ten years,” and prepared for that eventuality.
Fernández Construction of a permanent foco base began less than one
Régis Debray = Dantón, El Frances, kilometer from the farmhouse.30 Che Guevara supervised
Debre the digging of underground caves and storage caches,
Haydée Tamara Bunke-Bider = Tania, María, Mary, and the building of an open-air classroom, a kitchen,
Tamara, Laura and a dispensary.31 The guerrilla support organization
smuggled supplies, ammunition, and weapons into the
Juan Vitalio Acuña Nuñez = Joaquín, Vilo
camp from La Paz, over 400 miles away. As the finishing
Ciro Roberto Bustos = Carlos, Pelao, touches were being applied to the foco base camp, Che
Mauricio directed that a second camp be built farther away from
Juan Pablo Chang Navarro = Chino, El Chino, the farmhouse.32 Upon his arrival, Che realized that the
Francisco, farm was not as isolated as he had been led to believe.
Emilio, Emiliano Their nearest neighbor, Ciro Algarañaz, made several
Octavio de la Concepción de la Pedraja = Moro,
unannounced visits, offering to sell pigs and chickens.
El Médico, Morogoro,
He suspected that the group was building a cocaine
Munganga,
factory because of the frequent day and night vehicular
Mugambo, Tavito
activity.33 In the sparsely populated remote area the
numerous visitors attracted unwanted attention. The
Moisés Guevara Rodríguez = Armando, Guevara, farm was compromised, but the Cubans remained.
Moisés The guerrillas settled into a daily routine. Supplies
José María Martínez Tamayo = Papi, Ricardo, were carried up from the farm. Che instituted a robust
Chinchu, Mbili education program for the guerrillas that included
Roberto
Peredo Liegue = Coco history, political economy, mathematics, Spanish, French,
Guido Alvaro Peredo Liegue = Inti
and Quechua.34 Only then did he realize that although
Quechua was the dominant Indian language, it was
Jorge Vázquez Machicado = Bigotes, Loro, Jorge spoken in the Bolivian highlands to the south and west.
Harry Villegas Tamayo = Pombo, Carlos The local population in the Ñancahuazú region spoke
Guaraní.35 The men began to treat the foco base as their
home. The veterans committed numerous security
A typical village in the Ñancahuazú area. In this violations: photographs were taken; diaries were kept;
area any stranger would be immediately noticed.

56  Veritas
and radio messages were sent almost daily.36
Visitors added to the complacency.
Mario Monje, the Bolivian Communist
chief, visited the camp for a strategy meeting
on 31 December. An ideological and strategic
clash between Guevara and Monje erupted
over command and control of the foco. The
exasperated Monje issued an ultimatum to
Che: “The conversation with Monje began
with generalities, but he quickly came down
to his fundamental premise, stated in three
basic conditions: 1) He would resign as party
leader but would obtain its neutrality, and
cadres would be brought for the struggle; 2)
He would be the political and military leader
of the struggle as long as it was taking place
in Bolivia; 3) He would handle relations
with other South American parties, trying
to persuade them to support liberation

Mario Monje Molina (left) and Che Guevara

(right) conduct a strategy meeting on
31 December 1966. The results would
have a negative effect on the foco. Two views of the typical terrain in the guerrilla area of operations.

movements.”37 Che agreed to the first and third points, issues and the group slowly began to coalesce. Suddenly,
but he immediately dismissed Monje’s second proposal, more trouble arrived at their doorstep.
replying that: ”I was to be the military chief and I was On 19 January 1967, the local police showed up
not going to accept ambiguities on this matter. Here the unexpectedly at the farmhouse. A four-man Bolivian
discussion ended stalled in a vicious circle.”38 Monje then police unit in civilian clothes arrived in an unmarked
took his case to the Bolivian guerrillas and issued them truck to investigate Ciro Algarañaz’s claim that the
an ultimatum: Stay and be purged from the party; or leave farm was a cocaine factory. The police found nothing
with him. “Everyone stayed, and this seemed to be a blow suspicious, but confiscated a pistol. The police lieutenant
to him,” wrote Che.39 Monje hastily left for La Paz the next solicited a bribe and then left with an invitation to come
day, disappointed at the turn of events, but promised to to the police station to retrieve the pistol.43 Apparently
return.40 The breach with the Bolivian Communist Party satisfied, no more police were heard from for almost two
was irrevocable and effective January 1967. It refused to months. Despite all of the interest, Che persevered with
actively support the ELNB.41 The lack of recruits would his plans and continued the train-up program.
haunt Che throughout his entire campaign.
As training, classes, and supplies were stockpiled The Long March – 1 February – 20 March 1967
in January 1967, the guerrilla band experienced further Guevara quickly realized that no one was familiar
problems. Several became ill because of the new field with the local terrain and the maps provided by Debray
diet and the hostile environment. The area was plagued were inaccurate. He decided that a conditioning march
with biting pests. “The insects we have seen, up to now, was needed to accomplish his three goals: “to harden
are yaguasas [a gnat like insect], gnats, mariguís [a yellow them, teach them how to adapt themselves to the rigors of
winged biting insect], mosquitoes, and ticks,” wrote Che.42 guerrilla life such as hunger and thirst; to get to know the
The Cubans gave the Bolivian recruits menial tasks and peasantry, and start winning them over, to establish a base
resentment soon developed. However, Che settled the of popular support in the region; and finally, to explore the

Vol. 4 No. 4  57
 terrain in order to familiarize themselves with it and try to Their maps proved very inaccurate. The rugged terrain
broaden their territorial base.”44 exhausted Che and his men. The group regularly became
With the two camps complete by the end of January, separated and radio communications failed in the canyons.
they could start the march. Che organized the foco of Disaster struck while crossing rain swollen rivers. Two
24-men (sixteen Cubans, one Argentine, and only seven men drowned, and valuable supplies and weapons were
Bolivians) into two equal fighting groups. He further lost.51 The lack of food added to their misery and weakened
organized for the march designating a vanguard, center, them further. Scavenging for edible plants and hunting
and a rear-guard element. Comandante Juan Vitalio Acuña animals for food became a daily routine as they slowly
Nuñez (Joaquín) was appointed the second-in-command wandered through the area. Everything from small birds,
of the foco.45 Because of their inexperience, the Bolivians monkeys, sparrow hawks, and finally their own horses
were not given leadership positions. Che emphasized that made the menu. Rather than unify them, the hardships
over time their status would change with experience and of the march increased stress and caused dissension and
ultimately they would become the leaders of the Ejército daily arguments between guerrillas.52
de Liberación Nacional de Bolivia.46 In their few brief encounters with locals, Che’s foco
Their equipment had come from Cuba or been bought only became more frustrated. The foco failed to gain any
in Bolivia. A high-powered short wave radio, packed on support from the local population. The few Bolivian
a mule was the communications link with Havana via guerrillas from the altiplano had difficulty understanding
coded messages. Their weapons consisted of a mix of the Guaraní dialect. The campesinos were curious, but
civilian rifles, US-made M-1 rifles and carbines, Bolivian they did not respond to the revolutionary fervor of the
Mausers, and Czech ZB-30 light machineguns. The strange band of foreigners. Many of the peasants were
eclectic mix would match the hodgepodge of Bolivian there because government land reforms had given ten-
Army weapons which, according to Che’s plan, would be hectare homesteads (about 25 acres) to 16,000 families.53
captured once fighting began.47 After being lost most of the march, the demoralized
The guerrillas began their planned 25-day conditioning and exhausted guerrilla force stumbled into the base
march on 1 February. It lasted a grueling 48 days, a camp on 20 March. The coded messages from Radio
harbinger for the coming campaign.48 The group was Havana had been tape-recorded to maintain contact with
attacked by insects and bad weather. Four of the Cubans Cuba.54 Che recorded a disturbing omen in his diary: “a
suffered from bouts of malaria, including the doctor. small plane was circling overhead.”55 Their “conditioning
It quickly became apparent that no one was physically march” had not gone unnoticed, and reports had reached
ready for the rigors of guerrilla combat, including their Bolivian authorities. There would be no time to rest.
leader. The physical stamina of the 38-year-old asthmatic
revolutionary had diminished considerably since his The Guerrilla Offensive 23 March – 20 April 1967
days in the Sierra Maestras ten years earlier.49 Three The “Long March” was over and the action was
weeks into the march Che wrote: “A bad day for me. I about to begin. Reports of a strange group of armed
was exhausted and made it through will-power alone.”50 men roaming the countryside had trickled into Camiri,
The tough terrain beat down the entire group. Santa Cruz, and eventually to La Paz. This made the
local police and army more suspicious
of the Ñancahuazú farm.
While the exhausted guerrillas were
recuperating, they received more
visitors. Moisés Guevara arrived with
several Bolivian recruits; most were
unemployed miners looking for a
change and a paycheck. However, Pastor
“Daniel” Barrera Quintana and Vincent
“Orlando” Rocabado Terrazas quickly
became disenchanted with the primitive
living conditions and camp discipline.
Leaving to hunt game on 11 March
1967, they simply deserted. Arrested
by the police when they tried to sell
their rifles in Camiri, they revealed the
Ñancahuazú guerrilla camp location
and other details under interrogation.
“Miguel,” Cuban Manuel Hernández Osorio, a Sierra Maestra The police went to the Fourth Army
veteran (left), and “Inti,” Bolivian Guido Peredo Leigue (right), Division headquarters in Camiri with
pause after a river crossing during the “Long March.” Notice the their information. At first the division
rocky river valley (or canyon) terrain the guerrillas moved over. commander, Colonel Humberto Rocha

58  Veritas
 The Peruvian Communist leader Juan
Pablo Chang Navarro (known as
“Chino”) and Che in camp. The Mao
look-a-like had come to Bolivia to Che talks with Bustos, Debray, and several others at Camp
gain support for his foco. #1 at Ñancahuazú.
doubted them, “Guerrillas in Ñancahuazú, with Che Greatly disturbed by the Army’s discovery of the
Guevara as their leader? Impossible!”56 However later that base camp, Che assessed the situation. After learning
same day an oil worker (Epifano Vargas) arrived to report that Tania’s jeep and its contents had been discovered,
an encounter with strange speaking men in green Che was infuriated: “Everything appears to indicate that
clothing carrying automatic weapons and claiming Tania is spotted, whereby two years of good and patient
to be geologists. With a second report, Colonel Rocha work is lost.”60 With her cover destroyed he had no
ordered aerial observation of the Ñancahuazú site choice but to keep Tania with the foco. Outside support
(the plane Che had seen) and sent a patrol to verify was effectively cut off, except for radio messages from
the information. On 17 March, the patrol reached Cuba. Civilian transistor radios were now their only link
the farmhouse and discovered various documents, to the outside world.
including the diary of Israel Reyes Zayas’ (Braulio), Other reinforcements had come to the camp. Juan
various photos, and drawings. The soldiers captured Pablo “El Chino” Chang Navarro and two other Peruvians
another Bolivian, Saulstio Choque, apparently trying arrived to offer twenty men for training in Bolivia.61 Che
to desert with a mule. The would-be guerrilla and the promised to support his Peruvian foco with weapons, radio
intelligence items from the farm were brought back transmitters, and “$5,000 a month for ten months.”62 The
to the 4th Division headquarters at Camiri.57 Now the strategy meeting with El Chino was cut short when “Loro
government had hard evidence on the guerrillas who appeared and announced that he had killed a soldier.”63
were still three days march from the foco base. The revolution was beginning ahead of schedule.
Unbeknownst to Che, the guerrilla logistics and With his foco base discovered, support denied by the
intelligence networks were compromised and completely Bolivian Communist Party, and his supply network
broken by the Bolivian intelligence services. Tania had compromised, Che Guevara chose to take the offensive.
escorted Régis Debray and Ciro Roberto Bustos (Che’s Major Hernán Plata led a sixty-man patrol to the base
“coordinator” for Argentina and a journalist and artist) camp on 23 March 1967. En route the guerrillas ambushed
to the camp. Taking separate routes the trio rendezvoused the force. They killed seven soldiers, captured fourteen
in Camiri. From there Coco Peredo drove them to the (including four wounded), while the rest fled southward.
Ñancahuazú camp. However, Tania left her jeep parked More importantly they captured 16 Mausers with 2,000
on a deserted street in the town. The vehicle, with La Paz bullets, three 60mm mortars and 64 rounds, three
license plates, attracted police attention. They searched Uzi submachine guns with twenty-four magazines,
it and discovered a wealth of information about Che’s two “bazookas” (rocket launchers), and a .30 caliber
foco, including four of Tania’s notebooks listing the entire machinegun with two belts of ammunition.64 The
Bolivian network of urban contacts, friendly Communists prisoners were interrogated and endured a political
outside of Bolivia, and secret money accounts.58 Within speech. Stripped of their clothes, they were freed a day
the week, Communist safe houses throughout Bolivia later.65 The guerrillas’ baptism by fire was a success.
were raided and many of the contacts arrested. Whether Instead of immediately abandoning the foco base Che had
by design or stupidity, Tania, the experienced operative his guerrillas regroup at the camp and joyfully listened to
with East German, Soviet, and Cuban agent training, had transistor radio broadcasts of their victory. The remaining
compromised the operation through her actions.59 days of March were spent consolidating the force and

Vol. 4 No. 4  59
 Iripiti N
preparing for further operations. The foco had reached
its maximum strength of 45 combatants, (16 Cubans, 24 10 April
Bolivians, 2 Argentines, and the 3 Peruvians.66 Not all of Base Camp 2
the Bolivians on the “Long March” impressed Che. On
25 March he “announced the ‘discharge’ of Paco, Pepe,
Chingolo, and Eusebio. They were told that they will not Base Camp 1
eat if they do not work. I suspended their tobacco ration,
El Pincal
and redistributed their personal things and gear among
Farmhouse
other, needier comrades.”67 The “discharges” for these
1 April

Ñancahuazú
“quitters, slackers, and dregs” was a technicality; the
hapless Bolivians had to stay with the foco and continue to
25 April
work. The “visitors,” Tania, Debray, and Bustos, remained El Masón
with the guerrillas as “non-combatants,” although they
were armed. “The famous author of Revolution in the Bella Vista
17 April- Joaquin’s Rearguard
Revolution, known to us as Danton [Régis Debray], wanted Waits
to demonstrate that he was not simply a theoretician but
also a man of action,” said Inti Peredo.68
The guerrillas departed Ñancahuazú on 1 April 1967 and Ticucha Lagunillas
proceeded to raise havoc with the Bolivian army. During
April as the group moved, it twice encountered army
patrols southwest of Ñancahuazú between El Meson and
Muyupampa. On 10 April near Iripiti (only 12 miles north Taperillas
of the original camp,) the foco conducted two ambushes on
22 April
the same day, killing eight, wounding eight, and taking Monteagudo
28 prisoners. They captured 21 M-1 Garand rifles, 12 M-1
carbines, 9 Mausers, 4 M-3 submachineguns, another mortar,
and one Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR). They now had
more weapons than they needed.69 A Cuban, Jesús Suárez
Gayol (“Rubio”), one of Che’s best officers, was killed, but the
foco had successfully foiled the Bolivian army.70 Muyupampa
0 5 10 mi 20 April- Debray, Bustos,
The guerrilla force then turned south. En route to and Roth Captured
Muyupampa, Che divided his small force. On 17 April 0 5 10 15 km
north of that town (roughly 30 kilometers,) he detached the
rearguard under the command of “Joaquín” (Juan Vitalio The foco left its camp on 1 April first heading north
Acuña Nuñez). Inti Peredo noted, “We knew that Joaquín’s and then turning south toward Muyupampa. The
group did not have combat strength., with 4 “rejects,” 3 decisions of the first month, shown above, would
have disastrous consequences. Map by D. Telles.
ailing comrades receiving care [Tania, Moisés Guevara,
and a third guerrilla], and only 10 others who had to carry Realizing the significance of the guerrilla movement,
the load of the entire operations.” (Note: there is doubt President Rene Barrientos had requested U.S. assistance
concerning the numbers in Joaquín’s rearguard – numbers to combat the insurgency. The advanced element of a
vary from ten to seventeen).71 Staying at the village of Bella mobile training team was already in La Paz coordinating
Vista for two or three days, the rearguard was to rest and with the government. The Bolivian army designated a
wait for the return of Che’s vanguard from the south. large area surrounding the Ñancahuazú as “the Red
As the vanguard moved through the countryside, the Zone” and sent additional army units to find the guerrillas.
guerrilla’s presence became well known to the locals. The growing insurgent threat prompted action from U.S.
Helped by some curious children, George Andrew Roth, Southern Command and the Panama Canal Zone based
an Anglo-Chilean freelance journalist, wandered into the 8th Special Forces Group. 
guerrilla bivouac on 19 April.72 Debray and Bustos quickly
concocted a plan to leave the group with Roth. Debray
was anxious to leave after experiencing the realities Robert W. Jones, Jr. is an historian assigned to the USASOC
of revolutionary life. His three-week indoctrination to History Office and is a Lieutenant Colonel in the U.S. Army.
guerrilla field operations convinced Debray that his best A graduate of the University of Washington, he earned his
contribution was writing theory. After they left, Che MA from Duke University and his MS from Troy State
wrote: “The Frenchman stated too vehemently how useful University. Current research interests include Special
he could be on the outside.”73 As the three set out for Forces in Vietnam 1960–1966, military government and
Muyupampa, the rest of the vanguard moved away. Little civil affairs, special operations in World War II, Operation
did Che know how significant the events surrounding 20 JUST CAUSE, and Operation ENDURING FREEDOM.
March would become to the foco.

60  Veritas
Endnotes
1 Ernesto Che Guevara, edited by Mary-Alice Waters, The Bolivian Diary of 31 James, Che Guevara, 216-217; Thomas E. Weil, Area Handbook for Bolivia. DA
Ernesto Che Guevara (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1994), 77. Pamphlet 550-66, 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1974), 348.
2 Daniel James, Che Guevara (New York: Stein and Day, 1969), 191-192; Richard 32 James, Guevara, 216; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 78.
Harris, Death of a Revolutionary, Che Guevara’s Last Mission (New York: W.W. 33 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 79; James, Guevara, 220-221.
Norton and Company, Inc., 1970), 73-74.
34 James, Guevara, 223-224.
3 Jean Lartéguy (translated by Stanley Hochman), The Guerrillas (New York:
Signet Publishing, 1972), 27. 35 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 78.

4 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 64; Robert D. Hagan, “Che Guevara: An 36 Martin Ebon, CHE: The Making of a Legend (New York: Universal Books, 1969), 95.
epilogue,” (Unpublished Thesis, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, 37 James, Diaries, 95.
1969), 55. 38 James, Diaries, 96.
5 Andrew Sinclair, Che Guevara (New York: Viking Press 1970), 93. 39 James, Diaries, 96.
6 James, Che Guevara, 288-289; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 66-67; Guido 40 James, Che Guevara, 223-225.
“Inti” Alvaro Peredo and his brother Roberto “Coco” Peredo, will be referred
to by their nicknames throughout this article. 41 Ebon, Legend, 99-100; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 75, 152-154; James,
Diaries, 108.
7 Ernesto Guevara, edited by Daniel James, The Complete Bolivian Diaries of Che
Guevara and Other captured Documents (New York: Stein and Day, 1968), 71. 42 Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 78.
8 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 64-66. 43 Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 113; James, Diaries, 73.
9 Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 327. 44 James, Che Guevara, 225-226; James, Diaries, 291-292.
10 James, Che Guevara, 212. 45 Comandante Juan Vitalio Acuña Nuñez (Joaquín) was also a member of the
Central Committee of the Cuban Communist Party, had operated a guerrilla
11 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 68-69. school in Matanzas, Cuba, and served nine months in Vietnam; James, Che
12 Inti Peredo, “My Campaign with Che,” in Ernesto Che Guevara, edited by Guevara, 217.
Mary-Alice Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara (New York: 46 James, Che Guevara, 222-227.
Pathfinder Press, 1994), 239.
47 Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 54-55.
13 Marta Rojas and Moita Rodriguez Calderon, eds., TANIA, The Unforgettable
Guerrilla, (Random House, 1971, New York), 39 and 111-112; Harris, Che Guevara’s 48 James, Diaries, 291-292.
Last Mission, 73-74; James, Che Guevara, 197-198; Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: 49 James, Che Guevara, 227.
A Revolutionary Life (New York: Grove Press, 1997), 491-492 and 688. 50 James, Diaries, 116; Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 132.
14 Rojas and Rodriguez, TANIA, 146 and 187; James, Che Guevara, 199-202. 51 Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 146-147.
15 James, Che Guevara, 204; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 77; Anderson, Che 52 Weil, Area Handbook, 349.
Guevara: A Revolutionary Life, 688.
53 James, Che Guevara, 275; Ernesto Guevara (with an introduction and case
16 James, Che Guevara, 200-204. studies by Brian Lovemen and Thomas M. Davies, Jr.), Che Guevara on
17 Georgie Anne Geyer, “Why Che Guevara Failed. An Interview with Régis Guerrilla Warfare (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 343; Ten
Debray,” Saturday Review, 24 August 1968, 16. hectares is about 25 acres.
18 Régis Debray (translated by Bobbye Ortiz), Revolution Within a Revolution? 54 James, Che Guevara, 224-233.
(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967); Paco Ignacio Taibio II, translated by 55 James, Diaries, 126; Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 148.
Martin Michael Roberts, Guevara, Also Known as Che (New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1997), 464. 56 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 89; James, Diaries, 239.
19 James, Che Guevara, 212-213. 57 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 87-89; James, Guevara, 243.
20 Anderson, Che Guevara, A Revolutionary Life, 694-695; Ignacio, Guevara, Also 58 James, Che Guevara, 238; Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life, 713.
Known as Che, 465 and 469; James, Che Guevara, 212-213. 59 James, Che Guevara, 237-239.
21 James, Che Guevara, 213; Ignacio, Guevara, Also Known as Che, 488. 60 James, Diaries, 131.
22 James, Che Guevara, 204; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 77. 61 James, Che Guevara, 218; James, Diaries, 86-87.
23 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 72-77; Richard Gott, Guerrilla Movements in 62 James, Diaries, 127.
Latin America (New York: Seagull Books, 2008), 406; James, Che Guevara, 209;
63 James, Diaries, 127.
Guevara did just as Fidel Castro had done with the 26th of July Movement
ten years earlier. On a small farm in Mexico he had started training for their 64 James, Diaries, 129-130, Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 85-87.
invasion of Cuba. In Bolivia, the isolated farm would be the birthplace of 65 James, Diaries, 129-130; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 86-87.
the new foco.
66 James, Che Guevara, 248-249.
24 James, Diaries, 71; James, Che Guevara, 289.
67 James, Diaries, 131; The four Bolivians “discharged” by Che were: Paco (José
25 James, Diaries, 193. Castillo Chávez), Pepe (Julio Velasco Montana), Chingolo (Hugo Choque
26 James, Che Guevara, 193. Silva), and Eusebio (Eusebio Tapia Aruni).
27 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 75. 68 Inti Peredo, “My Campaign with Che,” in Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto
Che Guevara, 364.
28 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 65; Gott, Guerrilla Movements in Latin
America, 402. 69 James, Diaries, 138-139 and 248-249; James, Guevara, 250-251.
29 James, Che Guevara, 217-219; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 75; John D. 70 James, Diaries, 74-75 and 138-139.
Waghelstein, “A Theory of Revolutionary Warfare and its Application to the 71 Inti Peredo, “My Campaign with Che,” in Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto
Bolivian Adventure of Che Guevara”, Masters Thesis, Cornell University, Che Guevara, 367.
1973, 54.
72 James, Diaries, 144; James, Che Guevara, 254-255.
30 James, Che Guevara, 216; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 78.
73 James, Che Guevara, 132; Ignacio, Guevara, Also Known as Che, 72.

Vol. 4 No. 4  61
 “Welcome to Bolivia,
MTT-BL 404-67X”
by Charles H. Briscoe

Left to right – SGT Byron R. Sigg, CPT Barry McCaffrey, aide to MG William
DePuy, Special Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Counterinsurgency
and Special Activities (SACSA), and SFC Daniel V. Chapa during the general’s
visit to La Esperanza, 7-9 August 1967.

62  Veritas
Three weeks after being alerted for the Bolivia
mission, the 8th SFG MTT’s main body
flew from Howard AFB, Panama on 29 April 1967 to
organize, equip, and train an elite Ranger Battalion.
Two C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft carried fourteen SF
officers and sergeants, personal and unit equipment,
training materials, and supplementary foods to
support a deployment for up to 179 days, the maximum
allowable time for a temporary duty (TDY) assignment.
The mission was to train and prepare a special infantry
element to defeat a foreign-led insurgency in remote
southeast Bolivia. It was not an unusual assignment. U.S.
Army Special Forces teams had been serving as “force
multipliers” training foreign troops to counter insurgency
throughout the region and in Southeast Asia since the MAJ Ralph “Pappy” Shelton talks with SFC Ethyl
early 1960s. The SF soldiers had to learn all they could Duffield (left) and MSG Oliverio Gomez (right)
about the host country, its armed forces and police, and the at La Esperanza.
guerrillas. Since these small mobile training teams (MTTs) hour and a half to drive there, but we finished unloading
were the “tip of spear” of U.S. national strategy, they had shortly before sunset. Talk about a long day, that was one,”
to have solid support to accomplish their missions. With said MAJ Ralph “Pappy” Shelton.2 “As we taxied to the
SF teams deployed throughout Latin America, the 8th small terminal, I spotted MSG Milliard and SFC Rivera
SFG operations center (OPCEN) maintained a 24-hour Colon waiting for us. They were wearing their green
communications watch. The sensitivity of the Bolivia berets; ‘So much for a low profile!’ The major dealt with
mission required communications personnel with the this by having all of us put on our berets. Supposedly, it
highest security clearances. The 8th SAF (Special Action was important that we make a grand entrance,” said SGT
Force, Latin America) had 401st ASA (Army Security Graham. “So we put on our berets. But after that, we wore
Agency) Detachment radio operators in the OPCEN when them only on special occasions: when we introduced
MTT-BL 404-67X launched.1 ourselves to the new battalion, when visitors came, and
“It was a long non-stop flight, but we landed on the during ceremonies.”3 The following is a description of La
dirt airstrip at Santa Cruz, unloaded everything and put Esperanza by Dorys Roca, who lived there in 1967:
it aboard the waiting 8th Division [Bolivian] trucks, and “La Esperanza had somewhere between a hundred and
headed north to La Esperanza. It took more than the usual two hundred people living there when the Americans
Dorys Roca and family in La Esperanza.
and the Bolivian Rangers came to town in 1967. Only
a few indios [Indians] lived in the village. Most men
worked out of town and came home on weekends to be
with their families. There were a lot of people here in the
early 1960s before the sugar mill went out of business.
Still, we had no electricity and got our water from the
well in the plaza where the kiosks were,” said Dorys
Roca, who later married SF Sergeant Alvin Graham. “Our
house had three rooms filled with beds for the fourteen

Departing Santa Cruz airport with

the trucks crammed with equipment
and supplies. The two C-130s are
in the background.

Vol. 4 No. 4  63
 The Santa Cruz bus stop by Hugo’s
kiosko in La Esperanza.
of us. Because we had no heat, we slept huddled
together. The cooking was done in an outside
adjacent shed. Every family had an outhouse.
We used a nearby lake to wash and do laundry.
Once or twice a year we rode the morning or
afternoon bus or hopped a truck to Santa Cruz
to buy shoes and clothes. There was a church,
but the priest was responsible for several SSGs James Hapka (left) and
villages. You would call him a ‘circuit rider,’ Jerald Peterson cooking over a The sugar plantation had a well
I guess. But, every Christmas and All Saints stove in the team quarters. and storage cistern for water.
Day everyone walked in a procession around
the town. School was year round. No one had a car or surprise,” remarked SGT Graham. “When we drove into
truck; one either rode a horse or walked. Children were town, the local people were smiling and seemed happy.”5
delivered by a midwife. Compared to the States, living SSG Hapka’s first impression of the mill town was:
conditions were primitive, but daily life, though simple, “Lord have mercy! Other than some houses, there was
was pleasant.”4 no electricity, no running water, and only rudimentary
Some of the SF soldiers on their first MTT were sanitation.”6 CPT Edmond L. Fricke, the MTT deputy and
quite surprised. “I was amazed that the sugar mill still operations officer, described La Esperanza as “a town
had buildings with roofs. We brought tents expecting with 15 or 20 families, with a few dirt streets over which
nothing. The original power lines [220/240 volts DC cowhands occasionally drove thundering herds of cattle
(direct current)] were still there so we could hook up that covered the houses in huge clouds of dust. It seemed
our generator and have lights in our to have been made for a Western movie. Close your eyes,“
houses. I had seen no telephone poles said Fricke, “and think about Gunsmoke [a popular 1960s
nor power lines alongside the road television Western].”7 It did not really matter because the
to La Esperanza, so that was a nice mission eliminated thoughts of a social life anyway.
After the unloading was done and MAJ Shelton had
assigned everyone to a building for sleeping, MSG
Milliard and SFC Rivera Colon briefed everyone on the
latest guerrilla activity south of Santa Cruz and then gave
the team a tour of the area. “The only Bolivian troops there
were a small security force. We took the team around and
pointed out the areas available for training and showed
them where the marksmanship ranges were going to be
built by Harry Singh’s crew,” said MSG Milliard.8 “On the
tour we pointed out where the Frenchman, Régis Debray,
was being held prisoner. It was a one-story, dilapidated
building that looked like an old horse stable. The guard
outside was armed with a 7.62 mm Mauser. The Bolivians
moved Debray out the next day,” said SSG Thompson.9 “By
the time we finished, the biting bugs were out in force. No
Plantation building where Frenchman Régis Debray one had to be reminded to set up his mosquito net. While
(inset) was temporarily held before his trial in we had a meal of C-rations, MSG Gomez announced the
Santa Cruz. night’s guard detail, and we went to bed,” said Milliard.

64  Veritas
“The first Rangers began arriving in small increments. my mind because the existing school accommodated 240
And when they did, they came in several truckloads at a children of all ages who lived in and around the village.
time.”10 In the meantime, the SF soldiers established camp Jorgé and his wife provided what little grade school
and got ready for their initial classes. education the local population received. The people didn’t
Since American soldiers were most vulnerable in a have much, but they were proud of their little settlement
foreign country while they were getting settled, the SF and rightfully so,” said MAJ Shelton.13
leaders had to build rapport with the community authorities “I spent most of that first week, just ‘hanging out’
and develop an informal early warning system to protect as they say today, being friendly, to make the locals
themselves against guerrilla threats. While the rest of comfortable with me, and showing that we posed no
the team were setting up communications, taking care of danger. It’s amazing how much information you can get
field sanitation, and preparing camp the next day, MSG by just talking with people. By the end of the week, I
Milliard introduced MAJ Shelton, CPT Fricke, and CPT carried my Gibson guitar along. I can’t play that well, but
Margarito Cruz to the local dignitaries and shopkeepers the men could. It seems like they learned at birth. That
of La Esperanza. Though the mayor (alcalde) Erwin Bravo, ole guitar did the trick,” chuckled Shelton. “The truth is
a small businessman, was the ranking person, the school that was our primary intelligence collection method until
teacher, Jorgé, was the most respected personality. The we could train some Bolivian Rangers. Then, it became
Catholic priest only came by occasionally.11 secondary to the intelligence ‘agents’ trained by CPT
The Americans had to explain the following: why Cruz and MSG Milliard. But it had become a routine, so
they were there; what their mission was in La Esperanza; I kept it up.”14
how long they’d be there; and what kind of training was “MAJ Shelton wanted to promote good relations with
to be conducted. They emphasized their concern for the locals by giving them as much business as possible.
the safety of the townspeople; the medical capabilities Hugo and his wife ran the nearby kiosk (kiosko) selling
that SF brought; and that MAJ Shelton was in charge grain alcohol, beer, sodas, and sandwiches. He became
and responsible for his soldiers. He was the man to see our barber and shoe repairman and also pulled teeth
about any problems. They needed to hire a cook and for the people. Local women did the cooking, laundry,
helper, arrange to have laundry done, haircuts, and and cleaned our quarters,” said SFC Carpenter.15 The SF
buy small sundries as a start. “’Winning the hearts and established good communications with the locals but
minds’ of the community was the first step towards radio “commo” with Panama and La Paz proved much
accomplishing the mission more difficult.
and insuring our survival. The MTT’s primary radio was supposed to be the SF
Afterwards, we were given standard AN/GRC-109. SFC Roger L. Kluckman, the SF
a ‘tour’ of the village that communications supervisor, tried a variety of techniques.
included introductions to He installed the AT-292 antenna on the top of the tallest
some of the folks and, building, tried a field expedient directional antenna, and
not surprisingly, ended at asked the MILGP in La Paz to relay traffic to Panama with
the old schoolhouse,” said little success. The “back up” radio, a commercial Collins
MSG Milliard.12 KWM2A single sideband CW (Morse Code) and voice
“That quickly established radio with its 1,000 watt linear transceiver, became the
the civic action project in primary. Good CW and voice “commo” were established
with Fort Gulick by 5 May 1967 after adjusting report
MAJ Ralph “Pappy” Shelton times. The best link to La Paz was using the Collins.16
used his guitar to build “We used the AN/GRC-109 to connect the Ranger
rapport with the people Battalion to 8th Division in Santa Cruz. Situation reports
of La Esperanza. (SITREPs) from 8th Division kept us informed about the

Replacement of the old school would be the major civic action

project for MTT-BL 404-67X.

Vol. 4 No. 4  65
 Left to right, SFC Richard A. Kimmich, SSG
William W. Burkett, and SFC William R. Bush MSG Oliverio Gomez talks with some
relaxing at the kiosko. of the La Esperanza residents.

guerrilla contacts. A sergeant in the MILGP who was a Gomez, the team sergeant.18 By then, the Bolivians were
Ham radio enthusiast (Call Sign: CP1DS) arranged to get settled in the sugar mill warehouse, and it was time to
the MTT a Bolivian license, ‘Call Sign: CP6HY.’ The ‘CP’ start training.
stood for Bolivia. Then we ‘hammed’ with him nightly. “The Ranger Battalion had been organized much like
My parents became so used to my nightly MARS radio- U.S. Army infantry battalions in WWII. Since it had a
telephone call through W1AZP, a Sikorsky Helicopter very small headquarters, company officers were assigned
employee living in Stratford, Connecticut, that my Dad additional staff duties. There was a small radio section
got upset when I didn’t call,” laughed SSG Wendell and a reconnaissance platoon at battalion level. The rifle
Thompson.17 “Late at night, SFC (William R.) Bush, who companies had four platoons (called secciones): three rifle
replaced SFC Kluckman when his wife learned that she platoons and a weapons platoon equipped with French
was having twins, talked with the radiomen on the SS 82 mm mortars. There were four nine-man squads in a
Queen Mary as it sailed down the east coast of South rifle platoon: three rifle squads carried predominantly
America, through the Straits of Magellan and up the west 7.62mm Czechoslovakian-made Mauser rifles; the
coast of South America to Long Beach, California, where it weapons squad had two Czechoslovakian (BRNO) 7.92
was to become a tourist attraction. Since I spoke Russian, ZB-30 light machineguns (predecessor to the famous
Sergeant Bush would dial in Moscow so that I could listen British Bren gun of WWII). The other men in the weapons
to the Communist news,” remembered MSG Oliverio squad, carrying Mausers, served as assistant gunners
and ammunition bearers. Squad
1LT Harvey W. Wallender (left) leaders, selected by their peers, wore
replaced CPT Margarito Cruz red epaulets (tabs) on the shoulders
in October 1967. Here of their uniform shirt. The Ranger
SFC Daniel Chapa and he companies operated with about 140
talk with the “agents.” personnel,” said SFC Chapa.19
“It was better than Christmas in
La Esperanza when the ‘new’ WWII
and Korean War-vintage weapons
arrived from Panama,” said MAJ
Shelton.20 “Initially, we didn’t get
enough .30 cal M-1 Garands and .30
cal BARs (Browning Automatic Rifles) to equip all rifle
platoons, so one rifle platoon per company carried their
old Mausers and magazine-fed ZB-30s light machineguns.
The new .30 cal M-1919A6 light machineguns and 3.5 inch
rocket launchers went to the weapons squads in each rifle
company,” related SFC Chapa.”21 But the Bolivians were a
CPT Margarito Cruz, long way from firing weapons in early May 1967.  
MTT S2 Officer

CPT James Trimble,

MTT S1/S4 Officer

66  Veritas
 9 Wendell P. Thompson, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 7
January 2008, Pickerington, OH, hereafter cited as Thompson interview with
Charles H. Briscoe has been the USASOC Command date and Jerald L. Peterson interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 6 April 2007,
Historian since 2000. A graduate of The Citadel, this retired Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Peterson interview and date. Régis Debray
Army special operations officer earned his PhD from the had been captured on 20 April 2007 with Ciro Roberto Bustos, an Argentine
University of South Carolina. Current research interests revolutionary and artist, and George Andrew Roth, a free-lance English-
include Army special operations during the Korean War, Chilean photographer/writer, shortly after they left Che Guevara’s camp.
Ryan. The Fall of Che Guevara, 72.
in El Salvador, and the Lodge Act. 10 Milliard interview, 20 October 2008.
11 Milliard interview, 15 October 2008.
Endnotes 12 Milliard interview, 15 October 2008.
13 Shelton interview, 13 April 2007 and MTT-BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces
1 William G. Mullins, Sr. interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 20 May 2008, Fort Group (Airborne), 1st Special Forces, Special Action Force, Fort Gulick, Canal
Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Zone, Situation Report (SITREP) SUBJECT: Report of Mobile Training Team
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Mullins interview and date. to Bolivia (RCS CSGPO-125) dated 29 May 1967, hereafter cited as 8th SFG
2 Ralph W. Shelton, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 10 October MTT-BL 404-67X SITREP with date.
2008, Sweetwater, TN, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified 14 Shelton interview, 13 April 2007 and 8th SFG MTT-BL 404-67X SITREP dated
Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Shelton interview with date. 29 May 1967.
3 Alvin E. Graham, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 16 October 15 Daniel V. Chapa, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 18 April 2007, Fort
2008, Phoenix, AZ, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Graham interview with date. Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Chapa interview with date and Harold T.
4 Dorys Graham Roca, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 22 Carpenter, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 18 November 2008,
October 2008, Phoenix, AZ, digital recording, USASOC History Office Las Vegas, NV, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC. Dorys Roca was fifteen years old when the Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Carpenter interview with date.
Americans came to La Esperanza. She had only been shopping in Santa Cruz 16 8th SFG MTT-BL 404-67X SITREP dated 29 May 1967.
and lived away from home for several months while tending a sick relative
in Montero. She felt lucky to get a job cleaning the quarters and doing the 17 Thompson interview, 7 January 2008 and Carpenter interview, 6 November 2008.
laundry of the Americans. “It was kind of scary with the Americans there 18 Oliverio Gomez, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 14 November 2008,
and several hundred Bolivian soldiers wandering around our village on Pacific Grove, CA, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
the weekends, though we did have a policeman and a jail,” said Dorys Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Gomez interview with date and Graham
Graham Roca. Mrs. Graham Roca became a U.S. citizen in Phoenix, AZ, on interview, 21 October 2008.
21 September 1971. She has never returned home.
19 Daniel V. Chapa and Jerald L. Peterson, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe,
5 Graham interview, 16 October 2008. 11 April 2007, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office
6 James A. Hapka, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 3 November Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Chapa and Peterson
2008, Lawton, OK, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, interview with date.
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Hapka interview with date. 20 Shelton interview, 12 April 2007.
7 CPT Edmond L. Fricke quote from Henry Butterfield Ryan. The Fall of Che 21 Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007.
Guevara: A Story of Soldiers, Spies, and Diplomats (NY: Oxford University Press,
1998), 91.
8 Roland J. Milliard, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 20 October
2008, Dracut, MA, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Milliard interview with date.

SSG William W. Burkett

demonstrating how to
hold the 3.5-inch AT
rocket launcher. SSG Wendell Thompson checks the weapon
positioning of a left-handed Bolivian Ranger
firing a 7.62 Mauser.

Vol. 4 No. 4  67
 Field Sanitation,
Practicing Medicine, and
Civic Action in Bolivia
by Charles H. Briscoe

SFC Roland J. Milliard passes out

candy during a MEDCAP

68  Veritas
The Special Forces medic is the best-trained
combat emergency medical practicioner in the
American military. It takes two years of schooling and
practical experience to become fully qualified, and annual
re-certifications are mandatory. These soldiers have the
skills of physicians’ assistants and routinely perform
minor surgery in combat and remote areas. They are the
prime enablers and force multipliers who “win the hearts
and minds” of the populace as the SF ODA (Operational
Detachment Alpha) performs its missions. They are
especially important during foreign internal defense (FID)
assignments with counterinsurgency (COIN) training. The
two medics on the mobile training team (MTT) mission to
Bolivia in 1967 fulfilled their role with distinction.
The work for the two Special Forces medics on The slit trench latrine built by the SF medics was
MTT-BL 404-67X began with the arrival of the Bolivian treated like a shrine by the Bolivians and never used.
conscripts in the early days of May 1967. The smell
and accumulating filth around the warehouse where
the soldiers were billeted prompted immediate action.
The peasant soldiers had to be taught field sanitation
immediately and the critical necessity for it became
a top priority enforced by the Bolivian junior officers
and sergeants. If not, disease would threaten the team’s
ability to organize, field, and train a Ranger force.
Classes in health, field sanitation, and personal hygiene
were immediately given. Construction of several latrines
50-100 meters away from sleeping areas followed.
“It was hard to impress upon the Bolivian troops that
field sanitation was important. They simply did not know
any better. The majority were indios from the hinterlands
whose toilet since birth had been anywhere outdoors.

The large anaconda was added to the Bolivian “stew” pot.

Water was for drinking and cooking. Bathing was

optional based on available water sources. The slit trench
latrine ‘model’ that we built and demonstrated how to
use properly became almost a shrine. They never used
SFC Daniel V. Chapa it, and even those they constructed were rarely used,”
said SSG James Hapka, a team medic.1 “The conscripts
DOB: 22 August 1933 continued to head for the bushes. We finally convinced
POB: Alamo, TX them to relieve themselves at least twenty meters behind
HS : GED their billets. Because toilet paper was foreign to most of
Nat ive Speaker them, there weren’t any ‘warning flags.’ You really had to
keep your eyes open,” said SFC Dan Chapa. “Living with
Army: Joined 1953, Ft Campbell, KY, BCT 11
th

them was not an option.”2

Airborne Div, Abn School, Ft Benning, GA;
The Special Forces maintained a separate camp with
Japan, E Co, 2/187 ABRCT; 1956, SSG (E-5)
th

ol their own latrine and washing area. If they became sick their
Gyro to Ft Bragg, G Co, 505 Inf, J/M Scho
th

ID mission would be compromised. “SFC [Ethyl W.] Duffield

Instr; 1959, Germany, 3 Inf Division, 3
rd rd
and I dug most of our latrines. When you didn’t follow
Mark sman ; 1962 ,
AMU; 1961, Distinguished MSG [Oliverio] Gomez’s instructions exactly, the team
Div; 1965 ,
Ft Bragg, C Co, 2/325 Inf, 82 Abn
nd
sergeant used ‘hole digging’ to enforce discipline. He’d
d SF;
SSG (E-6), 82 Abn Div, Dom Rep, Joine
nd
be up waiting for ‘Duff’ and me when we came back late
1966, SFC, B Co, 8 SFG, Panama, 8 SFG Abn
th
th
from a ration run to Santa Cruz. While we were digging at
School-GT Abn Bn cadre course.
1
night, he’d inspect our progress with his Coleman lantern.
If it wasn’t shoulder high yet, he’d say, ‘Keep digging,’ and
walk off,” chuckled SFC Chapa. “It was a way to keep us
in line, and, because it was imposed at night, the Bolivians

Vol. 4 No. 4  69
 SSG James Hapka treats a Bolivian soldier with a glandular
infection in his armpit.

Assessing the general health of

the Bolivian soldiers by conducting
rudimentary physical examinations
familiarized the SF medics with several
common health problems. “Most of the
conscripts were illiterate, so reading
an eye chart would have been futile.
Dental hygiene was atrocious; care was
nonexistent. Though very hardened by
a tough rural life, they had a lot of skin
never knew. It kept the guys on diseases and infections, most attributable
the team laughing.”3 One other to poor personal hygiene. Since these
medical responsibility associated with sanitation was soldiers had only grown up with a single shirt, a pair
inspection of the Bolivian “mess.” of trousers, some sandals, and a poncho, it seemed quite
“It was actually an outdoor fireplace where local normal to just have one uniform,” related SSG Hapka.
women occasionally cooked. Each morning the soldiers “That did not promote good hygiene.”6
were given a piece of bread and a cup of sweet black “The training area where we did tactical field exercises
coffee. Lunch in the field was another piece of bread that had a lot of bull thorn trees that the soldiers used for cover
was carried in a pocket. Dinner was served from the half and concealment. Those thorns were about an inch and
of a 55-gallon drum in which a “stew” of questionable half long and caused nasty scratches. Personal hygiene
ingredients simmered,” said SSG Peterson. “After MAJ was so poor that they became infected very quickly. To
Shelton tasted the concoction, we were told not to eat make matters worse, the bull thorn trees had a symbiotic
there.” 4 “One day, out of curiosity, I asked the ‘cook’ what relationship with red ants. The branches being pushed
was in the caldron,” recalled SFC Chapa. “He gave me a aside by the first man usually triggered red ant ambushes
dirty look and said, ‘I’m doing what I’m told.’ I responded, on all those following the same route,” remembered SSG
‘But, you’re the cook.’ He replied, ‘I’m not really a cook. Peterson. “However, the worst infections were caused by
I’m just doing a job.’ I decided that there was no reason flies or boring insects (venchugas) that attacked the raw
to pursue it.”5 After their collective experiences at the gashes. They deposited eggs inside creating boils. These had
Bolivian “mess,” SSGs Peterson and Hapka concentrated to lanced, scrubbed out with stiff, soapy brushes, antiseptic
on practicing medicine since only a few conscripts had applied, and then penicillin given to the hapless victims.
ever been treated by a doctor. Sometimes, this had to be repeated several times.”7
SSGs James Hapka (left) and Jerald L. Peterson (center) gave
these Bolivian soldiers their first physical exams.

70  Veritas
 After proper treatment of the infection on his face
this Ranger served as the senior Bolivian medic in
the SF aid station.

“Our best medic was one of these victims. His face

SSG Jerald L. Peterson attending one of the casualties
looked like someone had thrown acid on him. It was
of the mortar accident.
something straight out of a horror movie. We loaded
him up with penicillin and twice a day scrubbed his callback. When the surgeon in Panama could suggest
face clean for almost two weeks before he started healing no better treatment, we continued with compresses and
up properly. It turned out that he was really a handsome cortisone shots. The next morning Chapa was no better,
guy. We decided to use him in the dispensary as the senior but no worse either,” continued Peterson.13
Bolivian medic. He became a real asset,” said SSG Peterson. “By then word of his condition had spread among the
“Hygiene precautions were taken by the Americans, but villagers and a local healer (bruja) recommended applying
the place was full of ‘biting critters.’” 8 a piece of raw meat to the lump on his forehead to draw
“MSG Gomez warned us about the venchugas, so we out the poison. Since he was unconscious, we didn’t think
tucked the mosquito nets under our air mattresses,” said that would hurt anything. So, we bandaged a slab of beef
SFC Chapa.9 Since the SF soldiers spent most of their time onto his forehead. Thirty-six hours later, when Chapa
training Bolivian troops in the field, they encountered a came to, we warned him not to touch his head or look
variety of venomous scorpions and snakes on the ground in the mirror. When he dozed off, I removed the meat
and flying insects, spiders, and tree vipers in the wooded slab from his head. We didn’t want Chapa to think that
areas. Only one American SF soldier, SFC Chapa, suffered the SF medics had used voodoo medicine to cure him.
a near fatal injury in Bolivia.10 That was our little secret,” said SSG Peterson, “but it was
“C Company was getting ready to conduct a night pretty scary there for awhile.”14 “I was checked out by
attack. I remember walking under a tree when something CPT Quiñones, the group surgeon, when he visited La
hit my forehead. The next thing that I felt was a hot Esperanza in November and when we returned to Fort
tingling spreading down my arms and legs and general Gulick in December,” said SFC Chapa. “I had no after
weakness. I was having a hard time standing up,” effects, but the guys tried to play tricks on me saying that
recalled SFC Chapa.11 there was wasp behind my head.”15
“MAJ Shelton got Chapa into the carryall provided by In addition to treating their own and the Bolivian
the MILGP and took him back to camp. By then, Chapa soldiers, the two medics had handled forty night
was semi-conscious when we manhandled him into emergency medical calls in the community by mid-May.
the aid station. Jim Hapka and I suspected a snake bite They started sick call for the community every Saturday
because tree vipers were common. We cut off his clothes morning beginning on 15 May. Night emergency visits
and examined him all over, but we couldn’t find fang continued. By the end of December 1967, the two had
marks anywhere. He was mumbling that his skin was on responded to 124 night calls for medical assistance. They
fire and tingling and that he felt very weak. All that we treated 410 men, 589 women, and 1,375 children in La
could see abnormal was a large lump on his forehead. Esperanza alone.16 Hapka and Peterson were expected to
Because Chapa’s arms and legs were swelling, Jim began train the field medics for the battalion.
treating him for anaphylactic shock, injecting cortisone “The medic training, while oriented around U.S. Army
between his fingers and toes,” said Peterson.12 basic medic [today’s 68W MOS (military occupational
“Since the nearest doctor was in Santa Cruz, almost specialty)] skills, emphasized treatment for gunshot and
two hours away, Hapka radioed Fort Gulick to call in the explosive injuries and broken bones normally associated
Group Surgeon for an emergency consult. We took shifts with them. They needed to have emergency medical
applying wet, cool compresses while we waited for the skills to perform immediate first aid. Today, they’re called

Vol. 4 No. 4  71
 ‘Combat Lifesaver’ skills. We taught shock symptoms, lieutenant ordered a soldier to clean his pistol without
wound cleansing, proper bandaging, when, how, and clearing it beforehand. The accidental discharge
where to apply a tourniquet, starting IVs (intravenous occurred in the crowded troop billets area. Fortunately,
fluids), splinting broken bones, and sucking chest no one else was hurt. The Bolivian soldier died enroute
wound treatment. The medics were shown how to make to Santa Cruz.20 The most serious training accident was
field expedient stretchers, splints, and bandages from on Sunday, 11 August.
clothing,” said SSG Hapka. “Pete (SSG Jerald Peterson) “This incident involved the smooth bore French 82
and I built small medical aid bags for each of the field mm mortars. A Bolivian sergeant (sub-official), on his own
medics and resupplied as necessary. Emergency medical initiative, decided to take his squad out for additional
evacuation was a truck to the civilian hospital in Santa training one Sunday afternoon. No one in the Bolivian
Cruz.”17 Along with their medical training Hapka and chain of command nor any of the Americans were
Peterson presented weapons classes. notified. How he got the ammunition was unknown. The
“SSG Hapka and I taught the hand grenade to the sergeant had his squad set up the French mortar for a
battalion en masse. Throwing is a part of many American fire mission. Then, he took several men about a hundred
sports, but it was not a natural skill for most Bolivian meters in front of the position along the gun-target line to
peasants. We showed them first how to throw rocks show them how to call for fire. The first round fell short,
accurately. That skill mastered, we started using practice killing one (the sergeant) and seriously wounding several
hand grenades. When we took them to the range, they others. The explosion caught us by surprise. It was caused
enjoyed watching the explosions so much that we had by a combination of errors: wrong mortar elevation; firing
to constantly remind them to drop down into the prone into the wind without compensation; and ammunition
after tossing the grenade to avoid fragments. It took a from old stocks. SSG Hapka did an emergency triage
few cuts and nicks before they got the message. Even and started first aid, got IVs flowing, and stabilized
though we alternated shouting the commands and them as best he could. Then, the dead man and the two
demonstrations, we were both hoarse afterwards. All most seriously injured were loaded aboard a truck. SFC
we had was a small, conical megaphone. The altiplano Kimmich accompanied them to the province hospital in
conscripts spoke Quechua and Aymara primarily, but Santa Cruz. The primitive, early 1900s-vintage, medical
understood some rudimentary Spanish. While classes facility did have a doctor on duty. One of the wounded
often evolved into ‘monkey see, monkey do,’ learning, the died in the hospital,” remembered SSG Peterson.21
soldiers were always enthusiastic and eager to learn,” said The third accident occurred during refresher tactical
SSG Peterson.18 “During the bayonet fighting, Bolivian training provided to nine infantry companies after
officers were interspersed in the formation because they the Ranger Battalion mission. “We were teaching the
used weapons with unsheathed bayonets,” said SFC Bolivian soldiers how to determine where a shot came
Chapa.19 In addition to the compass, map reading, hand from and its approximate distance away. It’s commonly
grenade, bayonet fighting, and combat medic classes, called the ‘crack-thump’ method [the crack of the rifle
medical emergencies, sick call, and medical coverage on shot provides direction while distance from the shooter
the ranges, the SF medics dealt with training accidents. to the target is determined by the amount of time elapsed
Surprisingly, there were only three fatal accidents before the thump of the bullet is heard]. I’m convinced
during the six month mission. No Americans were that the shooter selected by the Bolivian officers did not
injured in these. The first happened on 28 July after a understand exactly what he was supposed to do nor did he
Bolivian Rangers conducted rifle bayonet fighting
drills with unsheathed bayonets.

72  Veritas
 (Left) SGT Byron R. Sigg,
a radioman, helps SSG
Hapka with an ear exam.

(Right) Bolivian Ranger medics practice splinting

a broken leg.

(Above) Since one SF medic had to be present in camp on radio standby while marksmanship, live fire exercises,
and field training were being conducted, SFC Robert Owens (who replaced SSG Jerald Peterson 3 October 1967)
and SSG James Hapka rotated the MEDCAP missions. Here Hapka explains to a mother what must be done to
cure her daughter’s problem.

factor in the bullet’s trajectory when he supposedly syringe and needle that I had, a 20 cc syringe with an 18
aimed over the heads of the infantry soldiers sitting in gauge needle, to inject 20 million units of penicillin into
makeshift bleachers. He was told to make it realistic and that old nag. While we brought a field dental set, I don’t
did. When the soldiers did hear the sound of the thump, recall doing any extractions. Hugo, the barber and kiosk
half turned right and the other half, less one man, turned owner in La Esperanza, did some ‘dentistry’ on the side.
left. The man who didn’t turn, tumbled forward, shot in He gave his ‘patients’ a few hits of aguardiente (highly
the chest. He died enroute to Santa Cruz,” remembered potent grain alcohol distilled from sugar cane juice) and
SFC Tom Carpenter, a light weapons sergeant on the took several belts before going to work,” chuckled SSG
MTT.22 These were the worst moments for the medics. Hapka. “We had no desire to compete with him.”25 The
The best were during the MEDCAPs (medical capability) American medics treated more than 2,500 civilians and
in nearby villages and towns. expended $10,000 dollars in medicine, bandages, and
MAJ Shelton expanded his civic action efforts by medical supplies.26 MAJ Shelton was so well regarded
supporting the requests from several Peace Corps by the Indian conscripts that they asked him to help the
volunteers for MEDCAP visits to their towns. In 1967, indigenous squatters on the plantation.
there were more than 220 volunteers serving throughout A few soldiers brought the leaders of the large Indian
the country.23 When the visiting regional director “squatter” community to MAJ Shelton when they were
introduced himself to the Shelton during a MEDCAP, he about to be evicted. The New York bank holding the lien
emphasized the “PEACE” part. The nonplussed, good on the sugar facility wanted to sell the land to a group of
humored SF major from Mississippi calmly responded, Japanese and Okinawan farmers living west of Santa Cruz.
“Pleased to meet you. I’m Major Ralph Shelton from the “MSG Gomez and I made a trip to visit their community
‘WAR’ corps. I’m glad that my medics can help out by and meet the leaders. We invited them to La Esperanza
treating these folks, seeing how most couldn’t afford to to talk with the spokesmen for the Quechua-speaking
see a doctor in Santa Cruz.”24 The volunteers who lived squatters. The fat, bald-headed bank representative
and taught English and farming techniques in the small accompanied them. After touring the plantation and
villages appreciated the military medics. realizing what their land purchase would do to the poor
“We did three MEDCAPs in Las Cruces and three in folks that had built homes on the property, the Japanese
Los Chacos at the invitation of the Peace Corps volunteers. and Okinawans empathized with their situation. They
We treated kids primarily. There were very few old folks. recalled that it hadn’t been that many years since they had
Everyone seemed to have the same skin diseases and come virtually penniless to Bolivia. The deal collapsed.
infections that plagued the Rangers for basically the Gomez and I became heroes in the eyes of those squatters.
same reasons: poor personal hygiene and contaminated We both felt really good about how that turned out” said
water. I treated one sick dog and a horse with the biggest the tenant farmer’s son from Mississippi.27

Vol. 4 No. 4  73
 A group of Bolivian Ranger Traditionally, local priests in Bolivia sanctified
musicians joined MAJ community construction projects with a blessing.
Pappy Shelton’s quartet to Working with local people proved to be lot easier
provide entertainment for than with the USAID at the embassy in La Paz.
the school fiesta in June
1967. The Americans are up pressure on the regional USAID director, Sanford
left to right, MAJ Shelton, White, in Santa Cruz, who dribbled the money down a
SFC Harold T. Carpenter, tight funnel to Harry Singh, the road builder. The three
the Bolivian professional month project was dragged out almost six months by the
cazador, Manuel Jesus, embassy bureaucrat.32 Intervention by GEN Porter in late
and SFC William R. Bush.
August to get the windows and a roof on the building
before the rains came actually slowed the project. To
Shelton also made a very conscious effort not to demonstrate who was in charge in Bolivia, Ambassador
undermine the local economy. Beer and sodas were Douglas Henderson directed that USAID delay funds
not to be bought in Santa Cruz and brought back to the another month. “Though the bureaucratic pettiness of the
camp. The team would patronize the establishments of State Department folks frustrated me to no end, it was
La Esperanza who got their supplies via the busses from seen as normal by Jorgé, who had to depend on a national
the city.28 Getting U.S. Embassy support for a new school ministry and province officials to fund the school and
became Shelton’s toughest challenge. pay his salary. That man had the patience of Job,” said
The biggest civic action project for MTT-BL 404-67X was Shelton.33 It was mid-October when White came to visit
the construction of a new school for La Esperanza. MAJ the school project in La Esperanza. He left $800 for the roof
Shelton made that decision in late April before training and said that the ambassador was holding $300 in reserve.
began. Erwin Bravo, the mayor, arranged a meeting with In his November report the MTT commander wrote that
the town leaders, Harry Singh from the Paul Hardeman window sills (without windows) had been installed and
Construction Company, Sanford White from USAID, the roof was almost completed.34 The six-room (an office
Shelton, and LTC José R. Gallardo, the Ranger Battalion and five classrooms) school was finished about a week
commander, to get support for a new, larger school. before the American soldiers returned to the Canal Zone
on 22 December. “Still, it was the best Christmas present
we could have given those folks,” said MAJ Shelton.35
“Our musical group was usually me on
While field sanitation was critical to the training
my Gibson guitar, Fricke on the wash tub mission success, it was the practice of medicine and civic
bass, Bush on the spoons, and someone on action projects that “won the hearts, minds, and loyal
the shakers,” said MAJ Shelton.31 support of the people.” These set positive conditions that
enabled the SF MTT to mold 650 peasant conscripts and
Labor was to be provided by the La Esperanza villagers their officers into a well-trained, elite Ranger Battalion
and Ranger Battalion personnel with construction skills. capable of defeating the Cuban-led insurgent threat in
The lion’s share of the money for the building materials Bolivia in 1967.  
would come from USAID. Bravo suggested a school fiesta to
launch the effort. It was set for 25 June 1967 when the priest
was available to give a blessing to the project. He wanted Charles H. Briscoe has been the USASOC Command
to get the whole community behind the effort. He thought Historian since 2000. A graduate of The Citadel, this retired
that donations, regardless of the amount, would bolster Army special operations officer earned his PhD from the
commitment.29 Construction materials arrived in mid-July University of South Carolina. Current research interests
for local workers to get started on the new school.30 include Army special operations during the Korean War,
Progress on the new school was constantly slowed in El Salvador, and the Lodge Act.
down by USAID payments. MAJ Shelton doggedly kept

74  Veritas
 Endnotes
1 James A. Hapka, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 3 November
2008, Lawton, OK, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified
Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Hapka interview and date.
2 Daniel V. Chapa, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 18 April 2007, Fort
Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Chapa interview with date.
3 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007 and Oliverio Gomez, interview by Dr.
Charles H. Briscoe, 13 November 2008, Pacific Grove, CA, digital recording,
USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as
Gomez interview with date.
4 Daniel V. Chapa and Jerald L. Peterson, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe,
11 April 2007, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Chapa and Peterson
interview with date.
5 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007.
6 Hapka interview, 19 November 2008.
7 Jerald L. Peterson, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 6 April 2007, Fort
Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Peterson interview with date and Chapa
interview, 18 April 2007.
8 Peterson interview, 6 April 2007.
9 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007.
10 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007.
11 Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007.
12 Peterson interview, 6 April 2007 and Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007.
13 Peterson interview, 6 April 2007, Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April
2007, and Hapka interview, 7 November 2008.
14 Peterson interview, 6 April 2007 and Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007.
15 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007, MTT BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group
(Airborne), 1st Special Forces, Special Action Force, Fort Gulick, Canal Zone.
SUBJECT: Report of Mobile Training Team to Bolivia (RCS CSGPO-125), 30
November 1967, hereafter cited as 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREP dated 30
November 1967, and Roland J. Milliard, telephone interview by Dr. Charles
H. Briscoe, 15 October 2008,, Dracut, MA, digital recording, USASOC
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Milliard
interview with date.
16 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X After Action Report dated 22 December 1967.
17 Hapka interview, 3 November 2008.
18 Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007.
19 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007.
20 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREP dated 29 August 1967.
21 Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007, 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X
SITREP dated 29 August 1967, and Harold T. Carpenter, telephone interview
by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 29 October 2008, Las Vegas, NV, digital recording,
USASOC History Office Classified Files, Ft Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as
Carpenter interview with date.
22 Carpenter interview, 29 October 2008.
23 Kari Abood email to Dr. Troy J. Sacquety, subject: Peace Corps Historian
dated 10 November 2008, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC., hereafter cited as Shelton interview with date.

The Special Forces officer in the top photo is 24 Ralph W. Shelton, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 18 November
2008, Sweetwater, TN, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified
Captain LeRoy Mitchell, who replaced Captain Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Shelton inteview with date.
Edmond L. Fricke as the MTT deputy and 25 Hapka interviews, 3 and 19 November 2008.
operations officer. In the second photo down,
26 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X After Action Report dated 10 December 1967.
the mayor, Erwin Bravo, surveys progress.
27 Shelton interview, 12 April 2007, Gomez interview, 14 November 2008, 8th
In the bottom photo, the local priest holds a SFG MTT BL 404-67X After Action report dated 22 December 1967, and
special Mass to bless the new school. Henry Butterfield Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara: A Story of Soldiers, Spies, and
Diplomats (NY: Oxford University Press, 1998), 95.
28 Carpenter interview, 18 November 2008.
29 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREP dated 29 June 1967.
30 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREP dated 29 July 1967.
31 Shelton interview, 18 November 2008.
32 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREPs dated 29 May 1967, 29 June 1967, 29 July
1967, and 29 August 1967.
33 Shelton interview, 13 April 2007 and 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREP dated
30 September 1967.
34 8th SFG MTT BL 404-67X SITREP dated 30 November 1967.
35 Shelton interview, 13 April 2007.

Vol. 4 No. 4  75
 Turning the Tables on Che:
The Training at La Esperanza
By Kenneth Finlayson

76  Veritas
A hallmark of Army Special Forces is
the ability to organize and conduct
the training of indigenous military forces in
less than ideal situations. When the main
body of the 8th Special Forces Group Mobile
Training Team (MTT) BL 404-67X arrived
in La Esperanza, Bolivia on 29 April 1967 to
begin a 179-day deployment, the men were
struck by the primitive conditions of the tiny
village. “It was pretty spartan,” Sergeant First
Class (SFC) Harold T. Carpenter recalled.1
With a population of less than two hundred
persons, La Esperanza had no electricity,
running water, or indoor plumbing. Selected
by the team leader Major (MAJ) Ralph W. The village of La Esperanza had no electricity, running water,
“Pappy” Shelton for its access to suitable or indoor plumbing. Many aspects of village life, such as
training areas, the town’s remote location grinding corn (insert), had changed little for generations.
provided the operational security necessary
to train the new Bolivian Ranger Battalion.
When guerrillas ambushed a unit of the Bolivian
Army in March 1967, President René Barrientos Ortuño’s
response was to create a 650-man Ranger infantry
battalion and ask the United States to assist in training the
unit.2 The task was given to the 8th Special Forces Group
(8th SFG), who deployed MAJ Shelton’s 16-man team.3
This article will describe the Ranger training program,
the follow-on training requirement, and the experiences
of the team members on this very successful mission.
MAJ Shelton and his team developed a comprehensive
19-week training program with four phases. The training
began with six weeks of basic individual training, a
necessity for the untrained conscripts. Phase Two was
three weeks of advanced individual training. Phase
Three was three weeks of basic unit training starting
with the rifle squad, progressing to the platoon (Bolivian The Rangers used an
section or sección), and company tactics. Phase Four abandoned sugar mill at La
lasted seven weeks and concentrated on advanced unit Esperanza. The mill provided
and counterinsurgency training, which culminated in a housing and a site for rappelling
two-week field training exercise at the end.4 The team’s and a confidence course. Food
mission was to turn brand-new draftees into Rangers. for the Rangers, a mixture of
The Bolivian troops arrived in groups beginning in early rice, corn and some meat, was
May 1967. It was immediately apparent to the SF soldiers prepared in 55-gallon drums
that served as communal
that they were starting at “Square One.”
feeding barrels. Observing the
The Bolivian soldiers had the one uniform on their preparation is the Battalion S-4,
backs and a variety of weapons. They had no load-bearing a 1930s Chaco War veteran.
equipment (LBE), canteens, or ponchos. The Bolivian
Army did not have a packaged field ration. Food and was just miserable. They took a 55-gallon drum, filled
water determined how far from La Esperanza they could it with water, dumped in rice, potatoes, and maybe a
train. Despite the best efforts of the SF team, the soldiers small piglet, boiled it up, and everyone would eat out
would not get these critical items until the training was of the barrel.”6 The poor diet did not provide enough
nearly complete. The team worked through LTC Joseph calories to sustain troops undergoing rigorous training.
Rice of the U.S. Military Group (MILGP) to obtain the The situation improved after the Bolivian Minister of
equipment from war stocks in storage in the Canal Zone.5 Defense, General Suarez Guzman, and the Army Chief
Another hindrance was the quality of food provided by of Staff, General Alfredo Ovando Candia, visited on 31
the Bolivian Army. May. They approved additional funds to buy specific,
Sergeant (SGT) Alvin E. Graham, a radio operator high calorie food, and the strength and stamina of the
recalled, “They would fold up a piece of bread and troops steadily improved.7 In spite of these problems,
stuff it in their pocket for lunch. Their regular chow the SF team started training.

Vol. 4 No. 4  77
 Phase I was designed to train the soldiers in basic
skills. The assembly, disassembly and cleaning of
the M-1 Garand was one of the tasks.
SGT Alvin E. Graham(r) training Bolivian infantrymen on
Sergeant First Class (SFC) Daniel V. Chapa, a light the Browning M-1919A6 .30 caliber light machinegun.
and heavy weapons sergeant said, “The troops had no On Graham’s right is a cameraman from a SOUTHCOM
film crew. SGT Graham, SSG Wendell P. Thompson, and
previous military training. Their education level was just
SGT Byron R. Sigg were all radio operators who served
about zero. Most of them could speak some Spanish”8 as assistant instructors on the firing ranges.
SFC Hapka noted the difference between the soldiers and
their officers. “The troops were untrained conscripts. The officers, and cadets as assistant instructors to foster a
officers were of European descent. Most of them were train-the-trainer philosophy. Then, they could work with
pretty well-educated.”9 those troops that required more training,” said Staff
The team made a special effort to incorporate the Sergeant (SSG) Jerald L. Peterson, a medical specialist.11
Bolivian officers and non-commissioned officers (NCOs) Forcing this interaction began in the initial basic training
into the training. “We interacted a lot with the Bolivian phase to build a bond between the officers and men that
officers and NCOs, particularly the company commanders grew as the training progressed.
and platoon leaders. We tried to get them involved as Phase I was designed to bring the soldiers to a basic level
much as we could. It enhanced their credibility with their of proficiency in their individual soldier skills. “We used
men,” said SFC Harold T. Carpenter, the heavy weapons World War II-vintage training manuals from the School
sergeant.10 “We used the Bolivian lieutenants, warrant of the Americas at Fort Gulick [the Canal Zone, Panama]
that had been translated into Spanish,” said SFC Dan
Chapa.12 Physical training (PT), weapons training, land
navigation, camouflage techniques, and basic patrolling
were the primary topics.13 “We did about thirty minutes
of calisthenics with the Bolivians and then went on runs
to the range and back. They simply took off their fatigue
SFC Harold T. Car penter shirts for PT,” said Chapa.14 “We ran every morning,”
said SGT Alvin E. Graham. “Those guys would even run
DOB: 4 May 1941 on patrols.”15 Following PT, the troops would head out
POB: Martins Fer ry, OH for the day’s instruction, which in Phase I emphasized
HS : GED basic weapons training (assembly, disassembly, cleaning,
Spanish: 8th SFG Courses and marksmanship).
The weapons specialist on the team, SFC Dan Chapa,
SC,
Army: Joined in 1956, BCT Ft Jackson, was responsible for the weapons training. Other team
AIT 101 Abn Div as infantrym an, A Co, 506 th
st
members, notably SSG Wendell P. Thompson, SGT Byron
Co,
Inf; 1957, Gyro to Mainz, Germany w/ A R. Sigg, and SGT Alvin E. Graham, served as assistant
505th Inf, SGT FO Wpns PLT A/505; 1961, Fort instructors according to the daily training plan developed
Co,
Campbell, KY, 101 Abn Div, Inf Sqd Ldr C and monitored by the team sergeant, Master Sergeant
st

502 Inf & A Co, 506 Inf; Mar

nd th 1963 , Panama, (MSG) Oliverio Gomez. “We would have a meeting every
8th SFG “Q” Course, A Co 8 SFG, May 1965th
th , morning to review the day’s assignments,” said SFC
5 Carpenter. “Then each evening we would have a little
MTT Honduras; Feb 1966, Vietnam, B-52, 1
8 SFG, Hvy Wpn s SGT. debrief at the end of the training day.”16 The eclectic mix
SFG; Mar 1967, B Co,
th
of Bolivian weapons and the supply problems associated
with getting the proper ammunition was a daily challenge
for the “Weapons Committee.”

78  Veritas
 MSG Roland J. Milliard said. “We did rappelling
SSG Wendell P. Thompson, a radio operator, off a thirty-foot high wall at the sugar mill.”
trained the Rangers on the Browning .30 caliber Rappelling, obstacle and confidence courses were
M-1919A6 light machinegun. Cross-trained as a all run at the mill and were designed to toughen
light weapons specialist, Thompson worked as an the Rangers physically and build their confidence.
assistant instructor during weapons training.

“As the primary light weapons instructor, I was told Army Chief of Staff visited training with an Argentine
to prepare a marksmanship POI [program of instruction] Army major. The major was critical of the range firing.
and to order everything and anything that was needed Chapa inquired when the last time he or the Argentine
to support the training, get the repair parts for weapons, Army had seen combat. That silenced the major.20 The
the targets and the ammunition based on the number of training week at La Esperanza ran Monday through Friday,
rounds per man per day,” said SFC Chapa. “Most would with Saturday used for making up missed training events
be .30 cal ball ammo for the M-1 Garands and carbines. and for additional instruction. Training lasted until late
The M-1919A6 light machineguns had belted ammo with afternoon because the soldiers had to return to the camp
tracers. Since we started before all the M-1 rifles and to eat dinner and clean weapons before dark. Inclement
machineguns arrived from the Canal Zone, I had to really weather was hard on the poorly clothed troops and played
squeeze the Bolivian supply officer for the ammunition havoc with the training schedule.
for the [Czech] Mausers and [Argentine] FALs.”17 Until June, the soldiers only had one uniform, and no
The supply officer was a lieutenant colonel and a hoary ponchos or field jackets. If it rained, time had to be allowed
veteran of the 1935 Chaco War who was loath to part with for them to dry their clothes.21 During Phase II in June (the
“his” ammunition. “He always gave me half of what I start of the Bolivian winter), four training days were lost
requested each time. It was a constant fight to get what when the surazos, a cold, rain-laden south wind blowing
was needed to train the soldiers properly,” said Chapa. out of sub-Antarctic Patagonia swept through the area.22
“We were in Phase II before all the Bolivian soldiers were The troops huddled in their warehouse barracks. Lost
equipped with U.S. weapons.”18 training days were made up when the surazos ceased.
The ranges, just outside of town, needed to be inspected Advanced individual training was the focus of the
daily before firing commenced. “We had to clear the second phase. Three weeks (19 June to 9 July) were
area around the ranges and areas where we did live fire devoted to the different military occupation specialties
training every day because there were peasants wandering (MOS) requirements such as medical, communications,
all around the place, collecting firewood and tending advanced marksmanship for snipers, and crew-served
animals,” said Chapa.19 General Ovando, the Bolivian weapons gunners, and leadership and staff training for

Home on the range. It was a daily ritual to clear the range and training areas of livestock and people before
the commencement of live fire training.

Vol. 4 No. 4  79
 “The Rangers loved
cane truck weigh station,” said SFC Chapa. “It was high
the Slide for Life,” said
MSG Roland J. Milliard. enough to give them the feel of rappelling and having a
“It was like a carnival flat wall emphasized the need to get your legs horizontal
ride for them.” to the ground, lean back and walk down.”25 There was a
one-rope bridge constructed to cross a water obstacle for
training on the “Ranger Crawl.”26 The confidence course
proved to be a daunting task for many.
“The Indians from the altiplano didn’t have much upper
body strength,” said SSG Peterson. “They struggled
with rope climbing and we had to put more upper body
exercises into the PT program.”27 The obstacle course
around the mill required the Rangers to jump off a large
storage tank. The SF team placed mattresses at the base of
the tank after a spate of twisted ankles.28 The courses built
up confidence and toughness. The Rangers particularly
loved the Slide for Life. “It was a carnival ride for them,”
said MSG Milliard.29
Phase II also focused on improving the soldier’s
individual proficiency and training on assigned
specialties. CPT Margarito Cruz and MSG Milliard
worked with the battalion reconnaissance section on
intelligence collection. Cruz provided his “agents” with
pistols and wristwatches and sent them out to gather
The SF team set up an obstacle course using storage
information about the insurgents30
tanks in the sugar mill. SSG Jerald L. Peterson noted,
“The Indians didn’t have much upper body strength.
SFC Dan Chapa developed a program for snipers.
They struggled with the rope climbing.” “I told SGTs [Alvin E.] Graham and [Byron R.] Sigg
to identify three or four of the best riflemen in each
company for advanced training as snipers. We had a few
M-1D Garands, the sniper version. Their 7 mm Argentine
Mausers were good sniper weapons, but the ammunition
was too old and of poor quality,” said Chapa. “So I used
the M-1Ds with binoculars and spotting scopes. I had
some .30 caliber match ammunition to teach them the
basics: factoring for the effects of wind; and extended
range shooting by elevating the sights. The M-1D had a
heavier, harder barrel and the lands and grooves were
well defined for accuracy.”31 In addition to the mechanics
of firing, Chapa explained proper employment of snipers.
“I taught them counter-sniper techniques. The best
SFC Dan Chapa directed firing from the makeshift
range tower. Chapa had a daily battle with the
battalion supply office, a Chaco War veteran, over
the allocation of Mauser ammunition.

the officers and NCOs. “Ranger training” was introduced.

It consisted of rappelling, Ranger operations (ambushes,
raids, and patrols), and combat conditioning exercises
with makeshift confidence tests and obstacle courses.23
This phase was designed to bring the troops to a high
level of individual soldier proficiency before the collective
training in small unit operations began. The abandoned
sugar mill structure provided the training platform.
CPT Margarito Cruz and MSG Roland J. Milliard trained
“We did rappelling off the side of the mill, about thirty
the Ranger Battalion Reconnaissance section in
feet high,” said MSG Roland J. Milliard, an intelligence intelligence collection. These Ranger/agents were sent
specialist. “We set up a confidence course there with out to gather information about the insurgents. They
a rope climb and the “Slide for Life” into the [nearby were issued wristwatches to be able to accurately record
village] pond.”24 “The rappelling was done from the the time when they collected the intelligence. Two men
flat roof of the sugar mill laboratory next to the sugar were captured by Che’s foco, but released unharmed.

80  Veritas
 and patrolling.37 From 10 July to 29 July, the training
progressed from the squad-level up through platoon
tactical operations.38 Heavy emphasis was placed on
directing movements with hand and arm signals, and
to control the squads during fire and maneuver. This
concluded with live-fire exercises. “Our pop-up targets
for the live-fire immediate action drills were simple, but
effective,” said Dan Chapa. “Some were hinged to trees
with rubber tire tubing and pulled around with commo
wire. Others were mounted in a row on logs and we
“daisy-chained” the targets together so that you could
SFC Richard J. Kimmich
demonstrates loading the
pull all of them up simultaneously.”39 The live fire events
M20A1 3.5-inch rocket were very popular with the Rangers. “The Bolivian
launcher. The team used a officers always wanted to do the immediate action lanes
pile of paper boxes to show twice, especially if they missed a target. They were very
the effects of the weapon’s competitive among themselves,” said Chapa.40 It was
back blast. SSG James A. during the small-unit collective training that the number
Hapka (right), a medical of officers became a problem.
specialist instructs on the M2 During the first two phases, the officers had been
60 mm mortar. Along with
“dual-hatted” to perform the battalion staff duties.
the Browning M-1919A6 light
machinegun, the M2 mortars
During the collective training, the officers were needed
were used in the heavy to lead their companies and platoons. MAJ Shelton noted,
weapons section in “In the past, the company commanders doubled as the
each Ranger company. battalion staff, which was sufficient. However, with the
The “collar” on the Ranger battalion about to go operational, this problem became
is a carrying pad. more apparent and severe.” 41 The situation was further
exacerbated by the loss of three military academy cadets
defense against a sniper is another sniper,” he said. “The who were assigned as platoon leaders. They returned to
men assembled outside my ‘hootch’ after training, and I La Paz to complete their coursework for graduation and
worked with them one-on-one with sniping skills, and did not return until December. Officers were not the only
tactics, and explained how they would be used to the best things in short supply.
advantage in a rifle company. A sniper works on soldiers The lack of individual equipment still had not been
psychologically because he represents the unknown, the rectified in July. Canteens and LBE were not available for
constant long-range threat to the infantrymen.”32 While all troops. Gasoline for the trucks and jeep was in very
Chapa trained the individual snipers, other team members short supply. SFC Del Toro from the MILGP’s Cochabamba
worked with the gunners of the crew-served weapons. detachment came to La Esperanza twice to give driver’s
To demonstrate the effects of the M20A1 3.5-inch training and preventative maintenance, but the lack of
antitank rocket launcher, the SF troops stacked up three fuel and spare parts prevented him from conducting any
55-gallon drums to form a pyramid. They put a pile meaningful instruction.42 Still, as the third phase ended,
of paper boxes behind the anti-tank team to show the morale in the battalion was high and the Rangers were
danger of the weapon’s back blast. “SGT Alvin Graham eager to get into their final four weeks of training.
loaded the weapon, and SSG Wendell Thompson fired it. General René Barrientos Ortuño, the President of
The Bolivian soldiers were impressed with the firepower Bolivia, visited La Esperanza on 29 July to talk with the
of the weapon and could readily see the need to stay out Rangers. “His address was a great morale booster to the
of the zone of the back blast when the boxes caught fire,” Battalion,” said MAJ Shelton. “It came at an opportune
said SSG Peterson.33 Graham and SFC Chapa trained the time and carried them through some of the more arduous
mortar crews on the U.S. 81 and 60 mm mortars and the training in Phase IV.” 43 As part of the celebration of the
older French 82 mm systems. Bolivian Army’s birthday on 7 August, the troops donned
“We had about twenty guys for the mortar squads. We green berets, the distinctive unit headgear chosen for the
tried to take the smartest guys we could find,” said Graham.34 Ranger Battalion (an initiative of CPT Edmund Fricke).44
The crews learned the proper techniques for employing the It was a sign that the training was nearing completion.
system, fire direction procedures, and forward observer Phase IV was advanced unit training, which included
duties.35 “We taught them how to use the mortars to cover operations at the company and battalion level, and
dead space and support the riflemen,” said MSG Milliard.36 counterinsurgency training. It ended with a battalion
The completion of the advanced individual training was Field Training Exercise (FTX). This phase lasted from 30
followed by small unit tactics in Phase III. July to 17 September. The capstone FTX was conducted 15
The basic collective training concentrated on squad and miles southwest of the town of Santa Cruz (75 miles from
platoon-level movement techniques, fire and maneuver, La Esperanza) because it closely replicated the “Red Zone”

Vol. 4 No. 4  81
 terrain where the Rangers would soon be operating.45
The SF team worked to inject as much realism into
the instruction as possible. “As part of the immediate
action training, we set up a little mock village to teach
the soldiers how to properly clear buildings without
harassing the local people,” said SFC Dan Chapa. “Some
of the role players dressed up as women. That got a real
‘hoot’ from the troops, but they did learn.” 46 This was
their final evaluation before being committed to combat
against Che Guevara and his guerrillas.
A formal graduation ceremony and parade was held
at the headquarters of the 8th Division (the Rangers’
parent headquarters) on
17 September in Santa
Cruz. His Excellency,
Ranger graduates proudly wear green berets,
Adolfo Siles, the Vice President their distinctive unit headgear.
of Bolivia, officiated with Colonel
Joaquín Zenteno Anaya, the 8th
Division commander. A religious The Condor Wings, the distinctive qualification badge of the Bolivian Ranger
Battalion. CPT Edmond L. Fricke was instrumental in obtaining the berets
mass concluded with the blessing of
and badges for the Rangers.
the company guidons. Vice President
Silas, Colonel Zenteno, and MAJ
Shelton addressed the troops in turn, The Rangers completed
and it was broadcast on Bolivian their 19-week training
National Radio. Each member
47 course on 17 September
1967. A parade was
of the SF team was given a special
held at the 8th Division
certificate. “The Vice President
Headquarters in Santa
gave each of us a Diploma de Honor,” Cruz. In less than two
recalled SGT Alvin E. Graham.48 weeks, the Rangers
During the graduation, the Rangers were in combat with the
were awarded the coveted “Condor insurgents. Captain Celso
Badge,” their distinctive qualification Torrelio leads Company A
badge. MTT BL 404-67X returned in a “pass in review.”
to La Esperanza when the Rangers
boarded trucks for the “Red Zone.”

SFC Harold T. Carpenter receives his Diploma de Honor

from Bolivian Vice President Adolfo Siles. Each member
of the team received a certificate to recognize his
training efforts with the Rangers.

An arduous two-week field training exercise was the

culminating event of the 19-week training program.
The exercise was held 75 miles southwest of La
Esperanza, 15 miles south of Santa Cruz in terrain
similar to the “Red Zone.”

82  Veritas
 companies that came to La Esperanza were
already organized. “The infantry rifle
companies that came for refresher training
had already received some rudimentary
training and had assigned officers and some
NCOs. They were already equipped,” recalled
SFC Dan Chapa. “They wore camouflage
fatigues unlike the Rangers.”52 The refresher
training was conducted by Special Forces
soldiers to help the Bolivian Army to train its
The second phase of the SF team’s mission own cadre. La Esperanza would become an
was to give refresher training to nine Bolivian official Bolivian Army training site.
infantry companies at La Esperanza. The site In the second rotation, Colonel Constantino
became an official Bolivian Army training Valencia assumed command of the new Centro
center when the Special Forces team left in de Instrucción Especial de Operaciones (CIEOP).
December. (Left) CPT James Trimble and SFC “The POI was changed to reflect his emphasis,
Dan Chapa observe a field expedient method which was on counter-guerrilla operations,”
of cleaning a 60 mm mortar. said MAJ Shelton. “Courses in intelligence
collection, target detection, and more practical
work in patrolling and operations against
Beginning just twelve days after their graduation, the irregular forces were added.”53 The Special Forces
Rangers engaged and defeated the insurgents, ending soldiers shifted to a “train-the-trainer” role. In the third
Che’s dream of inciting a revolution in Bolivia. For the SF rotation, they handed over the primary responsibility for
team, they had a brief respite before starting their new
mission, training nine Bolivian infantry companies. These
companies would be ready to continue the fight against
the insurgents if the Rangers did not destroy them.
“In early July [10 July] I was called back to Panama
by GEN [Robert W.]Porter, the U.S. Southern Command
(SOUTHCOM) commander,” said MAJ Shelton. “Before
leaving La Paz, the [CIA] Station Chief and I had a long
conversation. He felt that the U.S. needed to
maintain a training presence in Bolivia after
we finished with the 2nd Ranger Battalion.
This became the genesis for our follow-on
mission: to provide refresher tactical and COIN
[counterinsurgency] training to nine Bolivian SSG Wendell P. Thompson, SGT Alvin E.
infantry companies.” Ten team members flew
49 Graham and SFC Daniel V. Chapa with a
back to the Canal Zone to see their families. Shelton Bolivian officer prior to conducting an airborne proficiency
jump near La Esperanza on 7 July. The jump was made
and four men remained at La Esperanza to secure the
from a Bolivian version of this USAF H-19B helicopter (L).
equipment. Eleven men and 4,000 pounds of ammunition,
M-1 carbines, and equipment returned to Santa Cruz on instruction to the Bolivian cadre. The Americans ended
4 October to begin Phase II of their mission.50 Several of their active participation on 15 December, halfway into
the men were new replacements. the third cycle. The team’s advance party left Bolivia on
Three rotations of three infantry companies each trained 19 December for Fort Gulick and the main body returned
at La Esperanza. Each rotation was four weeks long. The to the Canal Zone on 22 December. All together the team
first iteration was Company A, 4th Division, Company B, trained 1600 Bolivian Army Rangers and infantrymen.54
5th Division, and Company C, 3rd Division, for a total of The experience of Mobile Training Team 404-67X was
337 officers and men. The second cycle was Company B, typical in most respects for SF teams deployed throughout
4th Division, Company C, 5th Division, and the Esquadron Latin America during the 1960s. Long, arduous training
(Squadron) Baun, 8th Division, for 338 men in all. The final days and primitive living conditions were commonplace.
rotation included Companies A and C, 7th Division and Mandatory jump proficiency training and a multitude
Company E, 3rd Division, totaling 316 soldiers.51 of American and Bolivian VIP visits were all part of
The POI for the infantry tactics refresher was similar the package. During their deployment, the members of
in many respects to the one used for the Ranger Battalion. the team did airborne proficiency jumps to avoid pay
It placed emphasis on weapons training, advanced interruptions. One was from an H-19 helicopter near La
individual skills, small unit tactics, and counter-guerrilla Esperanza, and the other from a Bolivian C-46 with the
operations. Unlike the Ranger conscripts, the infantry Bolivian Airborne School students at Cochabamba.55 The

Vol. 4 No. 4  83
 General Robert W. Porter, Endnotes
SOUTHCOM Commander 1 Harold T. Carpenter, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Charles
with MAJ Ralph W. H. Briscoe, 24 October 2008, telephonic digital interview, USASOC History
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Shelton during a visit to
2 The Ranger battalion was formed on the U.S. Army’s World War II
La Esperanza. A staunch Infantry Company Table of Organization. It had three rifle companies,
supporter of the mission, one heavy weapons company, and a very small headquarters section with
Porter provided gold and communications and reconnaissance capability. Gary Prado Salmón, The
silver watches to the Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in Bolivia,
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1987), 245.
outstanding Ranger
3 The MTT was composed of four officers and 12 enlisted men. It was a composite
officers and soldiers. from both the 8th SFG companies. The team reflected the assessment that
communications and the training of the battalion staff officers would be
important. Hence the team had more officers and communications personnel
team received a steady stream of visitors that included than would normally be on a mission of this type.

Bolivian President Barrientos, Major General William E. 4 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “Program of
Instruction: Infantry Unit Operations,” April 1967, page 2, USASOC History
Depuy, the U.S. Special Assistant for Counterinsurgency Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
and Special Activities (SACSA), and GEN Robert W. 5 Listed in the MTT After Action report as the Ranger Battalion Project Officer,
Porter, the SOUTHCOM Commander.56 Porter was the LTC Rice and MAJ Shelton were at odds about roles and responsibilities
throughout the deployment. The soon-to-retire Shelton felt little need for
“Godfather” for the sensitive mission, and during a visit diplomacy when dealing with Rice. 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT
on 25 August, he presented gold wristwatches to the BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report, 29 May 1967 through 29 June 1967, dated
29 June 1967, page 1, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg,
outstanding Bolivian officers and silver ones to the best NC; Ralph W. Shelton, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Charles H.
Rangers from each company.57 The team also hosted Briscoe, 12 April 2007, Sweetwater, TN, digital interview, USASOC History
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
film crews from SOUTHCOM, the Department of the
6 Alvin E. Graham, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Charles H.
Army, and from Granada Television of England, who Briscoe, 21 October 2008, telephonic digital interview, USASOC History
documented the last two weeks of training. For the team, Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
the highpoint of the deployment came not at the end, but 7 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report,
29 May 1967 through 29 June 1967, dated 29 June 1967, page 1, USASOC
on 8 October 1967 when the news reached them that Che History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Guevara had been captured. 8 Daniel V. Chapa, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Kenneth
Their pride in the Rangers was immense. “We trained Finlayson, 19 November 2008, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC
those guys like they were our own,” said SFC Dan History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
9 Hapka interview, 3 November 2008.
Chapa.58 “Pappy Shelton had built up a terrific relationship
10 Harold T. Carpenter, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Charles H.
with the whole battalion,” said First Lieutenant Harvey Briscoe, 29 October 2008, digital interview, USASOC History Office Classified
Wallender. “The men worshipped him, followed him Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
around. Down in the jungle, Che Guevara kept offering 11 Jerald L. Peterson, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Charles H.
Briscoe, Fort Bragg, NC, 6 October 2007, digital interview, USASOC History
‘Two, three, many Vietnams,’ but what these soldaditos Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
wanted was lots more guys like Pappy.”59 SGT Alvin E. 12 Chapa interview, 11 April 2007.
Graham remembers, “Once we heard the Rangers got 13 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “Program of
Che, we felt like we were coasting.”60 Looking back, MSG Instruction for Infantry Unit Operations,” April 1967, pages 3-7, USASOC
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Roland J. Milliard felt “It was one of the most successful
14 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007.
SF missions ever. We have different people searching for
15 Graham interview, 21 October 2008.
Che Guevara in different countries. First in Latin America,
16 Carpenter interview, 24 October 2008.
in Southeast Asia and down that way. But here I guess his
17 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007. During the team’s deployment, over 362,000
luck ran out. And those Rangers just ate him up.”61 The rounds of .30 caliber ammunition were expended. The average Bolivian
Team Leader, MAJ Ralph “Pappy” Shelton summed it up rifleman received 10 rounds annually for marksmanship training. M-1s and
carbines with ammunition came on a regular basis as part of the resupply
by saying “We turned the tables on Che. He wrote the from the Canal Zone. It was August before all the Rangers were carrying
book, but our guys did it.”62   U.S. rifles.

Kenneth Finlayson is the USASOC Deputy Command

Historian. He earned his PhD from the University of
Maine, and is a retired Army officer. Current research
interests include Army special operations during the
Korean War, special operations aviation, and World War II
special operations units.

Several film crews visited the team at La Esperanza. While

SFC Dan Chapa gives instruction to a Bolivian infantryman on
the M-1919A6 light machinegun, a motion picture cameraman
from the Department of the Army films the training. A still
photographer from Granada Television in England takes
photographs for use in their documentary. Crews from
Southcom, ABC and CBS News also filmed the team.

84  Veritas
18 One night the camp was alerted to the possible presence of armed groups 43 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report,
in the area. The old Bolivian S-4 was nowhere to be found. The team had 30 June 1967 through 29 August 1967, dated 29 August 1967, page 1, USASOC
to shoot the lock off the storage shed to get the ammunition for issue to the History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
troops on the perimeter. Needless to say, the colonel was not pleased with 44 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report,
the ruined lock. Chapa interview, 18 April 2007; Mobile Training Team BL 30 July 1967 through 29 September 1967, dated 30 September 1967, page 1,
404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “After Action Report,” 22 December 1967, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Logistics Annex, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
45 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report,
19 Daniel V. Chapa and Jerald L. Peterson, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 29 August 1967 through 29 September 1967, dated 30 September 1967, page 1,
11 April 2007, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
46 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007.
20 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007.
47 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report,
21 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007. 30 June 1967 through 29 July 1967, dated 29 July 1967, page 1, USASOC History
22 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report, Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
29 May 1967 through 29 June 1967, dated 29 June 1967, page 1, USASOC 48 Graham interview, 21 October 2008.
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
49 Ralph W. Shelton, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Charles H.
23 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “Program of Briscoe, 1 October 2008, telephonic digital interview, USASOC History Office
Instruction for Infantry Unit Operations,” April 1967, pages 8-11, USASOC Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
50 CPT Edmond L. Fricke, CPT James Trimble, CPT Margarito Cruz, SFC
24 The Slide for Life is a confidence building exercise in which an individual Richard A. Kimmich and SSG Jerald L. Peterson were replaced by CPT Leroy
rides down a cable suspended at an angle over a body of water. Holding Mitchell, 1LT Harvey W. Wallender, SFC Harold T. Carpenter, SFC Johnnie
the handle of a rolling pulley on the cable, the rider slides down. The ride E. Reynolds and SFC Robert L. Owens. 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne),
ends when the rider releases the handle and drops into the water. Roland J. MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report, 30 September 1967 through 29 October
Milliard, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 22 1967, dated 1 November 1967, page 1, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
October 2008, telephonic digital interview, USASOC History Office Classified Fort Bragg, NC.
Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
51 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “After Action
25 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007. Report,” 22 December 1967, page 3, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
26 The Ranger Crawl is accomplished by lying horizontally on a single rope. By Fort Bragg, NC.
hooking one foot over the rope, the individual pulls himself along. Shelton 52 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007.
interview, 12 April 2007.
53 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “After Action
27 Jerald L. Peterson, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Kenneth Report,” 22 December 1967, page 3, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
Finlayson, 19 November 2008, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC Fort Bragg, NC.
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
54 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “Report of
28 Peterson interview, 19 November 2008. Mobile Training Team to Bolivia (RCS CSGPO-125),” 10 December 1967, page
29 Roland J. Milliard, 8th Special Forces Group, interview by Dr. Charles H. 2, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Briscoe, 22 October 2008, telephonic digital interview, USASOC History 55 On 7 July 1967, U.S. Air Force CPT “Hoss” McBride, 605th Air Commando
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC. Squadron of the 6th Special Operations Wing, flew a Bolivian H-19B helicopter
30 CPT Margarito Cruz was attached to the MTT from the 801st Military from Cochabamba to La Esperanza to support a training jump of the MTT
Intelligence Detachment of the 8th SAF. He and MSG Milliard trained a team members. The parachute drop, at an 800’ altitude, was made on 8 July near
of seven agents to go out and collect information on the guerrillas. They a Swiss-owned operational sugar mill. The mill was about 10 miles east
were deployed into the area of operations when the Rangers went after the of La Esperanza. Several airborne-qualified Bolivian officers jumped with
insurgents. The soldier/agents were rewarded with wristwatches and pistols. the Americans. The Bolivian Airborne Battalion at Cochabamba furnished
31 Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007. Lands are the raised portions parachutes. The second jump operation was conducted at Cochabamba,
between the grooves in the bore of the rifle that impart spin to the bullet. located at an altitude of 10,000’ from a C-46 on 19 October. Both jumps were
Frank A. Moyer, Special Forces Foreign Weapons Handbook (Boulder, CO: for pay purposes. 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT
Panther Publications, 1970), 306. Activity Report, 30 June 1967 through 29 July 1967, dated 29 July 1967, page 2,
USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC; 8th Special Forces
32 Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007. Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report, 30 September 1967
33 Chapa and Peterson interview, 11 April 2007. through 29 October 1967, dated 1 November 1967, page 1, USASOC History
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
34 Graham interview, 21 October 2008.
56 MG William E. Depuy was a noted author on military tactics and asked MAJ
35 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “Program
Shelton if he was familiar with the concept of the mobile defense. Shelton
of Instruction for Infantry Unit Operations,” April 1967, page 9, USASOC
replied he had read about it in Infantry Magazine. “Well I’m the author,” said
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Depuy. “No s**t, you wrote that,” said the irrepressible Shelton.
36 Milliard interview, 22 October 2008.
57 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report,
37 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “Program of 30 July 1967 through 29 August 1967, dated 29 August 1967, page 2, USASOC
Instruction for Infantry Unit Operations,” April 1967, pages 12-14, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC. One of Bolivian NCOs, SGT
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC. Huanca of B Company would later distinguish himself during the fight
38 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in against Che’s guerrillas.
Bolivia, 245. 58 Chapa interview, 19 November 2008.
39 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007. 59 Andrew St. George, “How the U.S. Got Che,” True, April 1968, 97.
40 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007. 60 Graham interview, 21 October 2008.
41 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report, 61 Milliard interview, 22 October 2008; Michèle Ray, “In Cold Blood: How the
30 June 1967 through 29 July 1967, dated 29 July 1967, page 2, USASOC History CIA Executed Che,” Ramparts, March 1968, 29.
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
62 Shelton interview, 12 April 2007.
42 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), MTT BL 404-67X MTT Activity Report,
30 June 1967 through 29 July 1967, dated 29 July 1967, page 2, USASOC History
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.

Vol. 4 No. 4  85
 Che’s Posse:
Divided, Attrited, and Trapped
by Robert W. Jones, Jr.

Examples of wanted posters distributed throughout

the country depicting the guerrillas.

86  Veritas
In the morning of 20 April 1967 as three
disheveled men hesitantly entered the
small farming community of Muyupampa, they
were immediately apprehended by the army.1
Their paperwork identified them as journalists;
however, their stories, and documents, raised
suspicions. George Andrew Roth was a
legitimate freelance journalist. Argentine Ciro
Roberto Bustos had a forged passport and
fake Bolivian press credentials (obtained by
Tania).2 Frenchman Régis Debray claimed to
be a journalist and professor. Under cursory
interrogation, Roth’s legitimacy emphasized
that the documents and behavior of the other
two were phony. The quick arrests of Debray and
Bustos were a severe blow to the strategic goals
of the foco. 3 In his diary Che wrote: “Danton
Bustos’ sketches prove invaluable to the Bolivian Army for identifying
[Debray] and Carlos [Bustos] fell victim to their the guerrillas. The drawing of Che was compared to his captured
own haste, their near desperation to leave, Uruguayan passport and older photos by Bolivian intelligence.
and my lack of energy to stop them, so that
communication with Cuba (Danton) has been cut, and the us.”8 After two years of speculation as to his whereabouts,
plan of action in Argentina (Carlos) is lost.”4 there was no doubt that the revolutionary “boogeyman,”
The fate of the divided guerrilla foco then became Che Guevara, was in Bolivia.
irrevocably linked to what happens to the three separate The public announcements did little to affect Che’s
parties. The arrest of Régis Debray and Ciro Roberto determination to continue. None of the captured guerrilla
Bustos caused a media frenzy as trial preparations diaries define a specific objective for the coming months.
began. The Frenchman got more attention in the One can only surmise that he had a long-range plan and he
international press because of his family connections.5 was sticking to it. The foco mission remained the same; the
Joaquín’s (Cuban Comandante Juan Vitalio Acuña Nuñez) timetable had merely been accelerated. Instead of creating
“rearguard” first waited as ordered for three days, then more base camps and training a larger guerrilla force,
resumed movement, searching vainly for Che’s element. fighting would begin with what they had in place. The foco
Che’s “vanguard,” with the majority of the foco, wandered would continue moving and ambush Bolivian army units.
around the area, searching for Joaquín and inevitably They were operating on the premise that as news of the
bumped into Bolivian units. Unbeknownst to Che and guerrilla victories spread, the peasant population would
Joaquín, the fate of the Bolivian foco had been sealed by mobilize to support them, and volunteers would rally to
Debray and Bustos. the cause. Guerrilla successes would be the catalyst that
solidified support for the growth of the movement. In
April, Che wrote: “We had four additional actions, all with
positive results in general and one very good: the ambush
The commander of the in which Rubio [unfortunately] died.”9 The foco fight, albeit
rearguard “Joaquín” done separately, continued with Che in charge.
(Cuban Comandante While escorting Debray, Bustos, and Roth to
Juan Vitalio Acuña Muyupampa, Che had divided his small force into a
Nuñez), from his vanguard and a rearguard. On 17 April, he detached the
forged Panamanian
rearguard under the command of “Joaquín” (Juan Vitalio
passport photo.
Acuña Nuñez). The fifteen-guerrilla rearguard included
a doctor, three sick guerrillas (Tania, Moises Guevara,
The two “revolutionaries” and journalist provided a and Alejandro), and the four recently “discharged”
wealth of information. Debray confirmed that Che Guevara Bolivian dregs.11 The rearguard was to rest and wait for
was leading the insurgency to add more excitement. He the vanguard at the village of Bella Vista for two or three
was also carrying a coded message for Fidel Castro.6 Most days. That was Che’s plan until he discovered a large army
devastating for the foco was a series of sketches Bustos force at Muyupampa and shifted his route northwest
drew of the guerrillas, including Guevara.7 Inti Peredo, towards Ticucha.12 The circuitous route prevented him
one of the few escapees [survivors] later admitted that: from rejoining Joaquín’s unit in three days.
“We were . . . not very surprised that he [Bustos] became a Without a radio Joaquín was unable to communicate
useful collaborator of the army, identifying the bodies of with Che’s vanguard. With only extremely vague orders,
our dead comrades, and making drawings of our faces, in Joaquín left Bella Vista three or four days later, as directed.
addition to supplying a series of factual descriptions about The two units wandered about the operational area for the

Vol. 4 No. 4  87
 next four months looking for one another. Despite losing
The foco of the Ejército de a third of his foco and most of the supplies (especially
Liberación Nacional de Bolivia critical food and medicines), Che was still upbeat. His
end of the month summary for April read: “A month in
The foco of the Ejército de Liberación Nacional de Bolivia
which everything resolved itself in a normal manner,
was a mixed bag of guerrillas, with an almost equal
considering the hazards of guerrilla warfare. The morale
split of Bolivians and “foreigners.” The 45 guerrillas
is good among all the combatants who have passed their
included 16 Cubans, 24 Bolivians (of which 4 were
preliminary test as guerrillas.”13
“discharged dregs”), 3 Peruvians, and 2 Argentines
The two units remained on separate courses. During
(Che and Tania).1 On 17 April the force was split in
May and June, Che’s vanguard moved north towards
two elements.
the Ñancahuazú base camps over very rugged terrain
Che’s Vanguard and defeated small police and Army units at El Pincal,
Che (Argentine) Ricardo (Cuban) Caraguataenda, Muchiri, and Abapo.14 Most of the
Aniceto (Bolivian) Rolando (Cuban) movement was done on foot, with a few mules and
Antonio (Cuban) Serapio (Bolivian) horses carrying supplies (that eventually became food).
Arturo (Cuban) Tuma (Cuban) At one point they seized a Bolivian oil company truck to
Benigno (Cuban) Urbano (Cuban) speed their movement, but got it stuck after only four or
Camba (Bolivian) Willy (Bolivian) five kilometers. Worse though was losing “a package of
Chapaco (Bolivian) dollars [$2,000], which fell from Pombo’s bag,” when they
Chino (Peruvian) Joaquín’s Rearguard abandoned the truck.15 Despite the victories, life in the
Coco (Bolivian) Joaquín (Cuban) field was taking its toll on the guerrillas.
Darío (Bolivian) Alejandro (Cuban) The majority of Che’s vanguard were “Long March”
Eustaquio (Peruvian) Apolinar (Bolivian) veterans who had not rested sufficiently to regain their
Inti (Bolivian) Braulio (Cuban) strength. Hacking their way through dense underbrush
Julio (Bolivian) Ernesto (Bolivian) with machetes exhausted them even further. As the force
León (Bolivian) Marcos (Cuban) moved, looking for food became a preoccupation. Che
Loro (Bolivian) Moisés (Bolivian) cited the various birds and animals shot by his force. The
Miguel (Cuban) Pedro (Bolivian) small stock of canned food was sparingly doled out to the
Moro (Cuban) Serapio (Bolivian) fighters. At Ñancahuazú Camp #2 (“Bear” camp) on 7 May,
Ñato (Bolivian) Tania (Argentine) the foco found one undiscovered cache. They had hoped to
Negro (Peruvian) Víctor (Bolivian) restock their meager supplies, but “the only food left was
Pablito (Bolivian) Water (Bolivian) the lard. I [Che] felt faint and had to sleep for two hours
Pacho (Cuban) Paco (“discharged” Bolivian) before I could continue, at a slow and vacillating pace. In
Pombo (Cuban) Pepe (“discharged” Bolivian) general, this was the tenor of the whole march. We ate
Raúl (Bolivian) Chingolo (“discharged” Bolivian) “lard soup” at the first waterhole. The men are weak, and
Eusebio (“discharged” Bolivian) some of them are suffering from edema [swelling of feet
Endnotes and hands from lack of protein],” wrote Che on 9 May.16
1 Daniel James, Che Guevara (New York: Stein and Day, 1969), 222-227 As they continued, the group fell into a pattern.
and 248-249; Ernesto Guevara, edited by Daniel James, The Complete Using the Cuban Revolution as his template, Che
Bolivian Diaries of Che Guevara and Other Captured Documents (New
York: Stein and Day, 1968), 324-327. established a routine. In the small towns along their route
of march, the guerrillas would either buy food or seize it
as retribution for alleged or perceived cooperation with
the government. Che might conduct a small medical
clinic using their limited supplies, and conclude the event
with a political recruiting speech to the villagers. Most
did not understand the high Cuban-Spanish dialect. The
ragged band then left.
On the international level, the news of the guerrilla
movement was followed. But on the local level, the
guerrillas gained no support. Someone usually reported
their unit to the police or Army. Wounded Bolivian
soldiers were treated and then given a political talk with
the other prisoners. The guerrillas took their weapons
and clothes and then sent them on their way.17
Che Guevara examines a map in Citanos in an attempt The lack of food and the unrelenting pace over tough
to gain intelligence about the Bolivian Army in the area. terrain began wearing out the entire group. Che ran
At this stage of the foco’s campaign the peasants out of medicine and suffered violent asthmatic attacks,
probably reported the guerrillas presence as soon which incapacitated him. He fought a daily battle with
as they left the village.

88  Veritas
his health. Despite his
personal adversity he
remained upbeat. In his
end of May analysis, Che
wrote: ”The guerrilla
movement is acquiring a
Samaipata
powerful morale, which, 6 Jul Peña Colorada
if well administered, is a 2 Jul
guarantee of success.”18
The June analysis, bolstered
by several small military
successes was: “The legend 14 Jul
Mizque
of the guerrilla movement El Filo
continues to grow. Now we Vallagrande
26 Jun
are super-men guerrillas.”19

Rosi
Florida
Although there were no

ta
recruits, Guevara believed Moroco
the propaganda effect of Jahue 26 Sep
his foco would convince the Pucará
peasants that the revolution 19 Jun
was gaining momentum. 20
La Higuera Cabezas
nd
e
ra
While Che was deluding o G
Citapos Ri
himself, the international Alto Seco 26 Aug

ri
media frenzy generated Abapó

Masicu
by Régis Debray and Ciro 18 Sep
Bustos sealed his fate. 31 Aug
Vado de Yeso
Debray and Bustos were San Isidro 31 May
moved from Camiri to
isolation in La Esperanza.
Ri

Masicuri Bajo
oG

Both proved to be intelligence Muchiri

ra

Guerrilla
nd

bonanzas, providing detailed

e

information on the foco. Movements Caraguataenda

29 May
5 May - 8 October, 1967 25 May
Debray’s mother and father Iripiti El Espino
uazú

Che’s Route
came to plead his case in
Joaquín’s Route
Ñancah
Azero

person. American journalists

Joaquín Ambushed Itai
and intellectuals called 9 Jul 7 May
for Debray’s release on Clashes w/
Bolivian Army 16 Apr N
the grounds that he was a Gutiérrez
0 5 10 15 20 mi
correspondent for Mexico’s El Pincal
0 10 20 30 km
Sucesos para todos and the
French publisher Maspero.21
17 May
The widows and children 20 Jul 9 Aug
of slain Bolivian soldiers
petitioned the president to
The two guerrilla bands meandered throughout the area looking for each other.
reinstate the death penalty Ironically when Joaquín’s rearguard is ambushed and destroyed on 31 August,
(abolished in January 1967).22 they were within one or two days of bumping into Che’s vanguard element.
The President of France,
Charles de Gaulle, demanded that President René radios to listen to the news. Several times Che commented
Barrientos convene a “special tribunal” for Debray that “Debray is talking too much.”25
because of his “intellectual” status.23 Barrientos testily Despite the food shortages and personnel losses in June,
replied: “It is possible that there in France, and in your Che decided to raid Samaipata, almost 80 miles north of
generous opinion, he may be considered a young and Ñancahuazú. The guerrillas blocked the Cochabamba-
brilliant university student. Unfortunately here, in Santa Cruz highway on the night of 6 July. After stopping
Bolivia, we know him only as a meddling subversive several vehicles and detaining the passengers, a six-man
gravely implicated in the assassination of twenty-seven element piled into a truck and headed into Samaipata
soldiers, civilians, and officers of our armed forces, and as for supplies. At 11:45 PM they pulled into a truck stop
a theoretician of violence aimed at destroying institutional and surprised the police chief, Lieutenant Vacaflor, two
order.”24 The guerrilla groups gathered around transistor policemen, and an Army sergeant at the snack stand.

Vol. 4 No. 4  89
 The captured police, the sergeant, and the patrons were by the guerrillas, they could not call for help from a
stunned when the guerrillas bought them cold drinks. motorized reserve. More and larger composite units were
Four guerrillas then marched Lieutenant Vacaflor and the quickly formed and moved into the towns near the “Red
sergeant at gunpoint to the schoolhouse where the Army Zone,” to cut off access to food. To counter the guerrillas,
squad was temporarily billeted. A short firefight ended the Army launched two offensives. The 4th Division in
with one killed, and nine more prisoners. While two Camiri immediately launched “Operation Cynthia” to
guerrillas guarded the squad, the remaining two guerrillas aggressively patrol south of the Rio Grande River. As
bought food and searched the local pharmacy for medical they fled northward during July and August to the Río
supplies. Then they loaded the supplies and prisoners into Grande, Joaquín’s group periodically clashed with these
the truck and sped out of town. A few miles from town 4th Division patrols. The 8th Division in Santa Cruz did
the prisoners were unloaded and forced to strip off their not launch its offensive, “Operation Parabano,” until early
clothes, before being released. The six guerrillas continued August, patrolling north of the river.29
on in the truck, to meet the rest of the force. The reunited Except for getting a few supplies, no particular military
foco quickly fled southward on foot.26 objective was accomplished.30 Ironically, the raiders did
The raid was a publicity coup for the guerrillas, not accomplish their main task; they did not find Che’s
which made national and international headlines. “The asthma medication.31 Since Joaquín had medical supplies,
action took place before the whole village and many the vanguard had to find the rearguard. But following
travelers in such a way that the news spread like fire,” the Samaipata raid, Che’s group moved southwest while
wrote Che.27 To cover their ineptitude both the mayor Joaquín’s unit traveled northwest. The two forces would
and Lieutenant Vacaflor claimed that the famous Che never meet.
Guevara had led a huge raiding force into town. Although
the “eyewitness” reports were wildly exaggerated, Nearing the end: 7 July – September 1967
the display of operational arrogance by the guerrillas While Che’s force raided Samaipata, Joaquín was
demeaned President Barrientos and the Army. The trying to move his detachment back into the Ñancahuazú
media proclaimed that the guerrillas were overrunning area, as elements of the 4th Division doggedly pursued
the southeast and had cut the country’s major east-west them. Morale problems plagued the rear guard. Many of
highway between Cochabamba and Santa Cruz.28 the Bolivians were disenchanted with the hardships and
Since President Barrientos could not convince dangers of life as a revolutionary. On 9 July, the Army
Major Shelton to prematurely commit the Rangers, the surprised Joaquín’s guerrillas while they rested in Iquira
Army had to get troops into the region. The Samaipata Canyon. Forced to flee, they left behind a number of
raid demonstrated that the Army’s tactics were not documents: a unit roster, photographs, and a codebook.
working. The small isolated garrisons had no radios The next day the soldiers found the guerrillas and attacked
and communicated with their headquarters using either again, killing a Bolivian.32 As Joaquín’s rearguard fled
telephones or the telegraph, both of which were unreliable northward with the army in close pursuit, two of the
under the best circumstances. Once these lines were cut “discharged dregs,” Chingolo and Eusebio, deserted and

The Press Followed Che & His Posse

The Bolivian
national press
covered the
guerrilla campaign
from beginning to
end. The coverage
intensified as foreign
guerrillas were
identified, but there
was a media frenzy
when Régis Debray
and Ciro Bustos
were captured.

90  Veritas
surrendered. They subsequently led the soldiers to some Tania, Joaquín, Moisés Guevara, and Braulio, were killed
of the hidden Ñancahuazú supply caches.33 in the opening salvo. The lone survivor, “Paco,” one of
As Joaquín fled south, Che was moving southeast the “dregs,” was captured and immediately cooperated
towards Florida and Moroco. On 27 and 30 July, Che’s with the Army.38 It would be days before Che learned
vanguard clashed with Army patrols. Both sides suffered about the disaster.
casualties, but the guerrillas were being attrited – two Ironically during August, Che had turned southwest
dead and one wounded. More significantly, during the towards the Río Grande River. Desperate for his
confusion of the second fight, Che’s group lost eleven asthma medicine he sent a small patrol to Ñancahuazú
rucksacks with critical food, medicine, and ammunition. to get some from the supply caches. Shortly after the
Most critical was the loss of their tape recorder to collect patrol departed, he heard on a transistor radio that two
coded messages from Cuba.34 Their isolation was now deserters from Joaquín’s group had led the army to the
almost complete. The short wave radio had been broken original campsite.39 The Bolivian soldiers discovered
during movement and could only receive. Che had to Che’s medicine, as well as documents, several rolls of
admit in his July analysis that ”the negative aspects of film, and weapons. The news was a severe blow to his
last month prevail.” The vanguard, now reduced from the morale. ”Now I am condemned to suffer asthma for an
original 31 to 22, made a final attempt to find Joaquín.35 indefinite period. It [the loss of medicine] is the hardest
Meanwhile, Joaquín’s group now turned north to the blow they have given us.”40 He was so weak that he had
Rio Grande, continuing to look for Che. At the home of to ride a pack mule.
Honorato Rojas, Joaquín bought food and asked where Hunger and thirst plagued them in the inhospitable
the best fording site across the Río Grande was. The terrain north of the Rio Grande. They ate anything they
peasant explained that it was possible to wade across the could find. “They [the hunters] caught a condor and a
river at El Vado del Yeso.36 Joaquín asked Rojas to mark rotten cat. Everything was eaten together with the last
the fording site with a white flag if it was safe to cross, piece of the anteater meat. I am quite ravenous,” lamented
or with a red flag if it was not. Rojas agreed and crossed Che.41 The patrol sent to the cache sites returned empty
the ford. Once on the other side, he set up the white flag. handed, but they had current intelligence on the Army.
Safe across the river Rojas ran to an Army patrol base to The foco, now reduced to 22, needed every man. Unaware
tell the commander, Captain Mario Vargas Salinas, about of the destruction of Joaquín, Che summarized August
the guerrillas’ plan.37 Captain Vargas quickly moved his as ”without a doubt, the worst month we have had so far
41-man force to El Vado del Yeso. in this war.” The usual optimism and confidence was
Just before dusk on 31 August 1967, Joaquín’s group missing. But the demoralized and exhausted vanguard
appeared at the ford. Seeing Rojas’ white marker, they continued forward.42
did not secure the opposite bank, but began to slowly After clashes with Bolivian army patrols on 3 and 6
wade across the ford in a file. When the majority of the September near Masicuri Bajo, Che and his men moved
guerrillas were in the water Vargas sprang the ambush back to the northwest. En route to the village of Alto
from both banks of the river. Most the group, including Seco, the guerrillas were jolted by two radio broadcasts.

The remnants of the foco crossing the Río Grande River in mid-September 1967. Che Guevara is third from
the right, without a rucksack. Every river crossing meant added risk for the fatigued guerrillas.

Vol. 4 No. 4  91
 One detailed the ambush of Joaquín’s group. The
second announced the arrest of 16 members of the La
Paz support network. The documents and photographs
collected by Bolivia’s intelligence service, police, and
army had finally paid off.43 More bad news for the
guerrillas was yet to come.
Unknown to Che and the vanguard, the Ranger
Battalion was ready to join the fight. On 15 September 1967,
the 2nd Ranger Battalion completed the 19-week counter-
insurgency training provided by the 8th Special Forces
Group Mobile Training Team.44 After the 17 September
graduation ceremony the battalion would be sent to the 8th
Division’s area to hunt down the remaining guerrillas.45
By then, the guerrilla threat had lost most of its potency.
The dejected remnants of the foco finally reached La
Higuera, near the Río Grande River, on 26 September. As
they entered the village, Che noticed that it was nearly
deserted, except for a few women. While securing the
telegraph office, Coco Peredo found a telegram warning
the mayor that the guerrillas were in the area. As the
guerrillas fled, an Army unit ambushed them just outside
of town. In their efforts to escape annihilation, they lost
three men, all killed, including the invaluable Coco, one
of the few Bolivian leaders.46 Che summarized September
as a repeat of August, except that the peasants refused to
help and were “ turning into informers.”47
Of the three foco elements, two were effectively
neutralized. The Debray-Bustos case was slowly moving
along through the court (it would last until November).48
Che poses with his mule Chico in September 1967.
The trial had brought negative international attention to
Ill from the effects of asthma and malnutrition he
Bolivia. President Barrientos and the Army leadership could no longer endure the pace and had to ride
dreaded a repetition of the international leftist sympathy to keep up with the vanguard.
for Che Guevara if he was captured. Some Army officers
feared that another highly publicized trial would rally
dissident factions in Bolivia to mount another revolt.49 Endnotes
The elimination of Joaquin’s force had given the Army 1 Paco Ignacio Taibio II, translated by Martin Michael Roberts, Guevara, Also
and the government a large morale boost. The Bolivian Known as Che (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 511; Henry Butterfield
Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 73;
Army that Che had considered the worst in South “The Case of Regis Debray,” Time, 28 July 1967, online article, http://www.
America had proved better than he thought and was time.com/printout/0,8816,837239,00.html.
about to send an elite counterinsurgency force to deliver 2 Daniel James, Che Guevara (New York: Stein and Day, 1969), 204; Richard
the coup de grace.   Harris, Death of a Revolutionary, Che Guevara’s Last Mission. (New York:
W.W. Norton and Company, 1970), 77; According to Daniel James the fake
Bolivian press credentials were obtained by Tania through her network
of “fellow travelers.” That included President Barrientos’ brother in law,
Robert W. Jones, Jr. is an historian assigned to the USASOC Marcelo Galindo, in the Ministry of Press and Information (James, Guevara,
204; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 77; Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara, A
History Office and is a Lieutenant Colonel in the U.S. Army. Revolutionary Life (New York: Grove Press, 1997), 765.
A graduate of the University of Washington, he earned his 3 Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara, 73; Gary Prado Salmón (trans by John Deredita),
MA from Duke University and his MS from Troy State The Defeat of Che Guevara (New York: Praeger, 1987), 88-89.
University. Current research interests include Special 4 Ernesto Guevara, edited by Daniel James, The Complete Bolivian Diaries of Che
Guevara and Other captured Documents (New York: Stein and Day, 1968), 152.
Forces in Vietnam 1960–1966, military government and
5 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 94-100.
civil affairs, special operations in World War II, Operation
6 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 94-96; Ignacio, Guevara, Also Known as Che,
JUST CAUSE, and Operation ENDURING FREEDOM. 519; “Unwitting Betrayal,” Time, 24 November 1967, online article, http://www.
time.com/time/magazine/0,9171,844152,00.html; “Operation Cynthia,” Time,
28 July 1967, online article, http://www.time.com/printout/0,8816,837099,00.
html; Jean Lartéguy (translated by Stanley Hochman), The Guerrillas (New
York: Signet Publishing, 1972), 219.
7 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 95-97; Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 95-97.
8 Inti Peredo, “My Campaign with Che,” in Ernesto Che Guevara, edited by
Mary-Alice Waters, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara (New York:
Pathfinder Press, 1994), 368.

92  Veritas
9 James, Diaries, 151 and 144; James, Guevara, 254-255; in that ambush. 33 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 112-113; Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara,
10 James, Guevara, 222-227 and 248-249; If one counts the combatants there are 21 144-145.
foreigners, 20 Bolivians, and the 4 Bolivian “discharged dregs,” as Che called them. 34 James, Diaries, 77 and 189-190.
11 James, Diaries, 43 and 131; Paco is José Castillo Chávez, Pepe is Julio Velasco 35 James, Diaries, 190.
Montana, Chingolo is Hugo Choque Silva, and Eusebio is Eusebio Tapia 36 Harold T. Carpenter, 8th Special Forces Group, telephone interview by
Aruni. Note: The exact numbers in Joaquín’s rearguard still vary, with Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 29 October 2008, Las Vegas, NV, digital recording,
numbers from ten to seventeen; Inti Peredo, “My Campaign with Che,” in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Guevara, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, 367.
37 Carpenter interview, 29 October 2008. This was a composite unit hurriedly
12 James, Diaries, 143; Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 105; Inti Peredo, “My thrown together from the NCO School in Cochabamba. It had two officers,
Campaign with Che,” in Guevara, The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara, three NCOs, three NCO candidates, seventeen soldiers from the 12th Infantry
369; Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 85-86. Regiment, and sixteen from the 8th Cavalry Group. Prado, The Defeat of Che
13 James, Diaries, 152; James, Guevara, 255-257. Guevara, 151; James, Diaries, 48-50.
14 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 106-109. 38 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 119-120; Anderson, Che Guevara: A
15 James, Diaries, 146-147; Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 90-91. Revolutionary Life, 724-726; Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara, 118-120; The
Bolivian, “Paco,” José Catillo Chavez, was one of the “discharged dregs.”
16 James, Diaries, 156; Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 92-93. There are reports that a second guerrilla survived the river ambush, Freddy
17 James, Diaries, 155-156, 163-164, 173-174. (“Ernesto”) Maymura. He was supposedly shot by the soldiers after he
surrendered, Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life, 724-725; Prado, The
18 James, Diaries, 164.
Defeat of Che Guevara, 150-152.
19 James, Diaries, 176.
39 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 149.
20 James, Diaries, 176.
40 James, Diaries, 195.
21 Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara, 71; “Letter to the Government of the Bolivian
41 James, Diaries, 199.
Republic on the behalf of Régis Debray,” The New York Review of Books,
Volume 9, number 1, 13 July 1967, http://www.nybooks.com/articles/12024; 42 James, Diaries, 202.
Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 95-99. 43 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 122; Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 165.
22 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 97. 44 James, Guevara, 277.
23 Lartéguy, The Guerrillas, 223. 45 James, Guevara, 279-280.
24 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 99-100. 46 James, Guevara, 268-269.
25 James, Diaries, 175-176. 47 James, Diaries, 219-220.
26 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 136-137. 48 “Unwitting Betrayal,” Time, 24 November 1967, online article, http://www.
27 James, Diaries, 179-180. time.com/time/magazine/0,9171,844152,00.html.
28 James, Guevara, 262-263. 49 Harris, Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 128-129; Anderson, Che Guevara: A
Revolutionary Life, 736-737.
29 John D. Waghelstein, “A Theory of Revolutionary Warfare and its Application
to the Bolivian Adventure of Che Guevara,” (Master’s Thesis, Cornell
University, 1973), 87.
30 James, Guevara, 262-263.
31 James, Diaries, 179-180.
32 James, Guevara, 264-265; Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara, 100-101.

By September 1967 battery-powered

commercial transistor radios were the
guerrillas’ only link with the outside world.

A Bolivian Army unit searches the Ñancahuazú guerrilla

camp #1. The Army kept the area under surveillance in
case the foco attempted to return. The Army discovered
hidden supply caches as late as August 1967.
Many of the villages the foco passed through
were just a collection of thatched huts. The
guerrillas, while suspicious of the peasants,
needed food to survive.

Vol. 4 No. 4  93
 The 2nd Ranger Battalion
and the Capture of Che Guevara
By Kenneth Finlayson

On 26 September 1967, the ragged band of 22 insurgents

led by Ernesto “Che” Guevara, entered the small
hilltop town of La Higuera above the Rio Grande in
The troops were loaded to capacity on stake bed sugar
cane trucks. The battalion was headed for the Zona Rosa,
the “Red Zone” along the Rio Grande near the town of
Bolivia’s Cochabamba Province. Finding the town deserted Vallegrande. This was the reported area of operation of
except for a handful of old women, Che discovered that the band of guerrillas led by Che Guevara. The battalion’s
the Bolivian authorities knew his presence in the area mission was to destroy the insurgents.
when he found a telegram to the village mayor warning of The 650-man 2nd Ranger Battalion was Bolivian
his approach. When the sick, dispirited guerrillas left the President René Barrientos Ortuño’s response to the
village, the Bolivian Army ambushed them, killing three guerrilla attacks in March 1967. Barrientos directed
men. The guerrillas fled two kilometers to the west, into the creation of the unit and asked the United States for
the rugged, broken canyons leading down to the river.1 assistance in training. A 16-man Mobile Training Team
(Two Bolivian guerrillas deserted during the move into the (MTT) from the 8th Special Forces Group in the Canal
canyons). This article will look at the final episode in Che’s Zone, Panama, under the command of Major (MAJ) Ralph
Bolivian adventure when he is captured on 8 October by W. Shelton arrived in April. Over the course of nineteen
the 2nd Rangers. weeks, the team turned the untrained conscripts into
Following the graduation ceremony on 19 September “the best-trained unit in the Bolivian Army.”2 Within
1967, the Bolivian Army’s 2nd Ranger Battalion departed two weeks of their graduation, the Rangers lived up to
the 8th Infantry Division headquarters at Santa Cruz. that assessment.

94  Veritas
 MAJ Ralph W. Shelton and MTT-BL 404-67X trained using an arduous
19-week program to turn the new recruits into an effective combat unit.

The training of the 2nd Ranger

Battalion was hard and realistic. When
the battalion finished training, they
were immediately committed to seek
out and destroy Che’s guerrilla band. The ravines running into the Rio Grande provided the
cover for Che’s guerrilla band when it was ambushed
leaving La Higuera. The steep ravines and thick
vegetation made movement extremely difficult.
After the 2nd Ranger Battalion was trucked to
Vallegrande on 26 September, Colonel Joaquín Zenteno
Anaya, the 8th Division commander, sent Company B
(Captain Gary Prado Salmón) in pursuit of the guerrillas
that fled La Higuera.4 Prado’s men rode to the village
of Pucará and marched through the night to take up
positions at the southern entrance of San Antonio Canyon.
The Bolivian Rangers, equipped with M1919A6 By 30 September the insurgents were bottled up. Che
machineguns and 3.5 inch rocket launchers,
and his forces were given a brief respite as Army troops
routed Che’s forces in El Churo Canyon.
conducted thorough sweeps along the Rio Grande, but
Since late June, Che and his now seventeen-man force did not venture into the narrow canyons.
were under constant pressure from the Bolivian Army. Company B searched along the north and south banks of
His original force had been divided and decimated in the Rio Grande until October 4th when they set up a patrol
contacts with the Bolivian Army. Forced into constant base near Abra del Pichaco at the mouth of San Antonio
movement, shortages of food, medicine and equipment Canyon. Two sections (platoons) from A Company (Captain
had worn the guerrillas down and caused several Celso Torrelio) were attached to Prado’s company and
desertions. Units from the Bolivian Army’s 4th and 8th positioned near La Higuera. Prado now had 200 Rangers
Divisions cordoned off the area north and south of the under his command. The remainder of Torrelio’s company
Rio Grande and gradually surrounded the guerrillas. was given the mission of combing the ravines to the east
The terrain had rolling hills with deep, densely wooded, of San Antonio Canyon. The Ranger companies continued
thorn infested ravines that generally ran north to south. searching the area without success until 8 October. Then, a
Narrow riverbanks sporadically disappeared into the crucial piece of intelligence was received.
canyon walls. The canyon sides were covered with dense That morning (8 October) at 6:30 am, Second Lieutenant
thickets of reeds, trees, vines, and cacti. Hilltops were Carlos Perez, the First Section (Platoon) Leader in Company
largely barren except for small trees and scrub vegetation.3 A (attached to B Company), reported that Pedro Peña, a
In the rough, broken terrain of deep ravines and thick local campesino, watched seventeen men skirt his potato
vegetation, the Army could not find the guerrillas. Che field to enter El Churo Canyon the evening before.5 Perez
and his men continued to move, seeking a way to break contacted Prado on his AN/PRC-6 radio and was directed
out of the encirclement. to move the two A Company sections to the north end

Vol. 4 No. 4  95
 N southerly confluence of the two canyons. The rear guard
(Chapaco, Moro, Pablo, and Eustaquio) slipped out before
the Rangers got into position. Che stayed hidden in the
Pucará
center of El Churo with the remaining guerrillas. His
8 Oct
intent was to block the troops from entering the canyon
and escape with his main body by climbing to the high
La Higuera ground. The Ranger forces began searching the canyons,

Rio La P
26 Sep
closing in on Che. Immediately there was contact at the
north end of El Churo.
Ri

Second Lieutenant Perez’ men were taken under

es
oG

ca
ra

fire when they began to cautiously enter the north end

nd
e

El Fuerte 24 Sep
Los Sitanos of El Churo. Two Rangers were killed in the initial
Alto Seco exchange. The movement halted as the Rangers tried

Rio M
Ri
o

asicur
El Churo Canyon
Pi
ra
im 18 Sep
irí

í
Che’s Capture 8 October 1967
18 Sep - 8 Oct 1967
Che
Rio Grande

Che Captured
La Higuera
0 5 10 15mi
0 10 20km
Sgt Huanca

Che and his men fled from La

Higuera into the San Antonio A Co 1/2 Platoons Blocking Position
Canyon complex between the
village and the Rio Grande. Che Captured
Map by D. Telles
Ranger Section (Platoon)
of El Churo Canyon while Prado
positioned himself with one rifle CP
section, two 60 mm mortars and 2. Huanca attacks,
one Browning M1919A6 .30 cal 1. First breakout,
Che tries to escape
machine gun on the high ground Che wounded
overlooking the south end of the
small ravine. The Ranger company
immediately began to close off the
ends of the canyon. The net around
Che’s posse was closing.
El Churo Canyon, about 300
meters long, ran downhill northeast
to southwest. At the southern end,
it merged with La Tusca Canyon
and fed into San Antonio Canyon. Captain Gary Prado’s positioning of his platoons. SGT Huanca’s section
The steep ravine, as much as 200 advanced into El Churo canyon. While attempting to escape, Che is captured
meters deep, was thickly vegetated, near Prado’s command post.
particularly along the canyon floor, becoming sparser near to maneuver to take the insurgents under fire. They had
the top. In addition to the two sections from A Company at cut off movement to the high ground from the north end
the top of El Churo Canyon, Captain Prado sent his Third of El Churo, but could not penetrate down the narrow
Section (Sergeant Huanca) up to the north end of La Tusca. ravine. Prado called Sergeant Huanca on the radio and
He set up his command post and established a blocking told him to rapidly clear La Tusca and get to the canyon
position with his two mortars and single machine gun at confluence. Before the Rangers arrived, Che made his
the southern confluence of the two canyons.6 By 12:30 pm, first attempt to break out.
Prado’s elements were in position and the search of the Captain Prado had positioned his crew-served
canyons began. weapons to overwatch the area where El Churo and La
Che had split his force into three groups, sending Tusca canyons converged. When the guerrillas emerged
four men (Pombo, Inti, Darío, and Ñato) forward into to begin their breakout, he engaged them with mortar
the upper part of El Churo Canyon and four others to the and machine gun fire. The guerrillas retreated back

96  Veritas
into El Churo with casualties. Che was wounded in the Of Che’s guerrilla band that once numbered more than
right calf, and his M-1 carbine was destroyed.7 A second fifty, only five survived. Che’s dream of starting “one,
breakout attempt resulted in another wounded guerrilla. two, many Vietnams” in the jungles of Bolivia died in El
The tide of battle began to run against the guerrillas. Churo Canyon under the guns of the Rangers. Major
Prado used his AN/PRC-10 radio to call in his appraisal Ralph Shelton, commander of the MTT who trained them,
of the encounter to 8th Division Command Post (CP) at summed up Che’s end “Che was trapped by and tried to
Vallegrande. Two North American AT-6 Texan airplanes break through the best platoon in the best company in the
carrying napalm bombs and armed with machine guns Ranger Battalion, Gary Prado’s B Company and the 3rd
were launched from Santa Cruz to assist. The narrow, Platoon commanded by Sergeant Huanca.”13 
near vertical canyon walls and the close proximity of
friendlies precluded using the close air support. An
OH-23 helicopter also arrived at Prado’s CP to help with Kenneth Finlayson is the USASOC Deputy Command
the evacuation of dead and wounded Rangers.8 The Historian. He earned his PhD from the University of
restricted maneuver room meant that it would be an Maine, and is a retired Army officer. Current research
infantry slugfest at point blank range. interests include Army special operations during the
Sergeant Huanca and his section, having completed Korean War, special operations aviation, and World War II
their sweep of La Tusca Canyon, were directed into El special operations units.
Churo to drive the guerrillas against the two sections
of A Company atop the ravine in a “hammer and anvil”
maneuver. Huanca courageously attacked Che’s main Endnotes
body with hand grenades, killing two guerrillas. This 1 Gary Prado Salmón, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla
forced the insurgents to fall back and enabled the Rangers Challenge in Bolivia, (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1987), 172-173. Retired Major
General Gary Prado Salmón commanded B Company, 2nd Ranger Battalion.
to get into the canyon. Now Che had no choice but to try His book is an eyewitness account of the events surrounding Che’s capture.
to escape, and the only way out was up. 2 Mobile Training Team BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group, “Report of
Separated from the rest of his men the wounded Che Mobile Training Team to Bolivia (RCS CSGPO-125),” 10 December 1967, page
2, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
with “Willy” helping him began climbing out of the
3 Daniel James, Che Guevara (New York: Stein and Day, 1969), 214; Richard
canyon. Two Rangers manning an observation post near Harris, Death of a Revolutionary, Che Guevara’s Last Mission. (New York: W.W.
Prado’s CP caught sight of the two fleeing guerrillas. They Norton and Company, 1970), 77.
held their fire and stayed hidden, allowing the insurgents 4 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
Bolivia, 173.
to climb up the ravine. When they were ten feet away,
5 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
the two Rangers stood up and took them prisoner. Che Bolivia, 174.
had been caught within 15 meters of the command post.9 6 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
When asked by Captain Prado to identify himself, he Bolivia, 175.
replied, “I am Che Guevara.”10 Prado radioed to the 8th 7 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
Bolivia, 176-177.
Division CP the news of Che’s capture, then turned his
8 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
attention back to the battle. Bolivia, 176-177.
The fighting lasted the rest of the afternoon as the 9 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
Rangers continued to sweep the canyons for insurgents. Bolivia, 177-178.
Che was detained at Prado’s CP until dusk, and then he and 10 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
Bolivia, 177.
Willy were marched by their captors the two kilometers
11 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
to the village school at La Higuera. There they were kept Bolivia, 1182-183. The media frenzy surrounding Ciro Bustos and his captured
along with the bodies of two other dead guerrillas. French cohort Régis Debray forced the hand of the Bolivian President. With
no death penalty in Bolivia, a trial and imprisonment would have created an
Che and Willy were held through the night of 8 impossible situation for the Bolivian government. Present at the time of his
October in the schoolhouse at La Higuera. The next execution was another United States Government person. Felix I. Rodriguez
and John Weisman, Shadow Warrior: The CIA Hero of a Hundred Unknown
morning, on orders from the Bolivian President, they Battles (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
were executed by Bolivian troops.11 In the fighting that 12 Prado, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in
lasted until 14 October, the Rangers had nine men killed Bolivia, 257-265.
in action and four wounded. Of Che’s force, eleven were 13 Ralph W. Shelton, letter to John D. Waghelstein, 1972, reprinted in “How
the Green Berets Got Che!” Eagle, September 1985, reprint in the USASOC
killed, one captured, and five (three Cubans and two History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
Bolivians) escaped into Chile.12

Vol. 4 No. 4  97
 The Special Forces
Mission to Cochabamba,
Bolivia 1967
by Charles H. Briscoe

In the summer of 1967, after MTT-BL 404-67X deployed to

Bolivia to organize and train a Ranger Battalion at La
Esperanza, the MILGP sent two personnel TDY to Cochabamba
for 179 days to serve as advisors to the Airborne Battalion
and Parachute School. The officer would also teach COIN
(counterinsurgency) classes to Bolivian lieutenants
and captains in la Escuela de Armas (The Combat Arms
School) and the sergeant would instruct aspiring
noncommissioned officers (NCOs) at the fledgling NCO
Academy. Major (MAJ) John D. Waghelstein (who later
commanded USMILGP-El Salvador and 7th SFG) and
Master Sergeant (MSG) Gustavo Fabian were sent to fill
those assignments. Since the Bolivian paratroopers could
help a coup d’etat, they were based far from the capitol
of La Paz like the Rangers were. The two SF worked for
Lieutenant Colonel (LTC) Joseph P. Rice, the head of the
MILGP detachment in Cochabamba and project officer for
the Rangers.1 That Cochabamba element twice sent Sergeant
First Class (SFC) Del Toro, to La Esperanza to teach vehicle
maintenance to the Rangers and give driver training to a
select few. Since the 8th Division issued insufficient fuel for the
few trucks assigned, that effort was futile.2 The only contact that
MAJ Waghelstein and MSG Fabian had with the SF on the Ranger
Battalion training MTT was supporting proficiency jumps to keep their
parachute pay from being stopped.3 The Cochabamba assignment was
not very demanding. Simply monitoring the progress of the Bolivian
Army against Che Guevara and his guerrillas eventually proved
too tempting for the two advisors when the Airborne Battalion was
alerted to assist.4
MAJ Waghelstein and MSG Fabian arranged for a truck and a
Bolivian paratroop sergeant to drive them, and the trio headed
south towards the “Red Zone.” Though they had an AN/PRC-10
radio, it proved useless in the mountainous terrain. Armed with
a variety of foreign weapons, Waghelstein carried an Israeli Uzi
submachinegun. The narrow “highway” from Cochabamba to
Santa Cruz dated to the 1930s Chaco War. They started at 7,500
feet, climbed the precipitous one and a half lane road to 18,000
feet to cross the mountains, and then abruptly descended to 900
feet in the Amazon headwater region. Learning that some of the

MAJ John D. Waghelstein near

Vallegrande in the “Red Zone”.

98  Veritas
 MAJ John D.
Waghelstein, the
SF advisor to the
Airborne Battalion
and Parachute School
and COIN instructor
at la Escuela de
Armas (Combat Arms
School) prepares
to jump with
a group of Bolivian
airborne trainees
at Cochabamba.
SFC Robert Owens, senior medic, jumped with Bolivian
airborne students at Cochabamba. Female parachute MSG Gustavo Fabian studies the map in a small
riggers always jumped with the students. Their town while MAJ Waghelstein and Bolivian Sergeant
presence eliminated any “jump refusals” by the men. Mars ask questions of the locals.
guerrillas had escaped the 8th and 4th Division cordons,
the trio studied their map, selected the best egress route
to Chile, and headed southeast towards that border.5 “We
meandered, asking questions and scouting the dirt wagon
roads that emptied into our selected egress route. Confident
that any locals who had encountered the guerrillas would
gladly tell us, we pushed south. It was an adventure for
which I would ask forgiveness later. The survivors were
evading, and they had several days head start on us. I
don’t think we ever got closer than a day behind them
before they crossed into Chile,” said Waghelstein. “Why
did we do this? Sometimes you just get a ‘wild hair’ as all
SF soldiers can attest to. That was one of my more exciting
‘wild hairs,’” mused the retired colonel.6
While MAJ Ralph W. “Pappy” Shelton’s men
conducted the final field training exercise (FTX) in early
September about ten miles south of Santa Cruz along
the main highway, they did not accompany the Ranger
Battalion when it went operational on 17 September
1967. They had already received another mission and
returned to La Esperanza to prepare. The MTT was to
provide four weeks of infantry tactics refresher and
COIN training to nine separate infantry companies in
three iterations.7 The only SF personnel that got into the
“Red Zone,” MAJ John Waghelstein and MSG Gus
Fabian, were conducting a reconnaissance for the
Bolivian Airborne Battalion that had been alerted to join
the hunt for guerrilla escapees.   MAJ Waghelstein, MSG Fabian, and Bolivian
Sergeant Mars “surveyed” the rugged terrain
along the suspected guerrilla egress route.
Charles H. Briscoe has been the USASOC Command
2 MTT-BL 404-67X, 8th Special Forces Group (Airborne), 1st Special Forces,
Historian since 2000. A graduate of The Citadel, this retired Special Action Force, Fort Gulick, Canal Zone. SUBJECT: Report of Mobile
Army special operations officer earned his PhD from the Training Team to Bolivia (RCS CSGPO-125), 29 June and 29 July 1967,
hereafter cited as MTT-BL 404-67X Report with date.
University of South Carolina. Current research interests
3 Ralph W. Shelton, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 13 April 2007,
include Army special operations during the Korean War, Sweetwater, TN, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
in El Salvador, and the Lodge Act. Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Shelton interview with date and MTT-BL
404-67X Reports, 29 July and 1 November 1967.
4 Waghelstein interview, 12 June 2007.
Endnotes 5 Waghelstein interview, 12 June 2007.
1 John D. Waghelstein, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 12 June 6 Waghelstein interview, 12 June 2007.
2007, Bristol, RI, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, 7 Shelton interview, 13 April 2007 and MTT-BL 404-67X Report, 10 December 1967.
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Waghelstein interview and date.

Vol. 4 No. 3  99
 The Aftermath:
Che, the Late 1960s, and the
Bolivian Mission
By Troy J. Sacquety
Illustration by Mariano Santillan

100  Veritas
100  Veritas
News of the death of Ernesto “Che” Guevara on
9 October 1967 reverberated around the
world, but it quickly lost relevance in the maelstrom of
Troops from the 1st Cavalry Division battle North
Vietnamese troops in Hue, South Vietnam in 1968.
The Tet Offensive shook American’s faith that an end
to the war was in sight.
other world events. His demise
gained more significance many
years later when Che’s image
became mainstream popular
culture. From the perspective
of U.S. Army Special Forces, his
elimination as an insurgent is
attributed to Mobile Training
Team MTT-BL 404-67X. The
Bolivian mission remains one
of the few unqualified strategic
COIN successes. This article will
briefly explain the immediate
reaction to Che’s death, the events
in the late 1960s that eclipsed it,
how his image was later distorted
to that of a revolutionary martyr, After the death of
and sum up the accomplishments Che Guevara, the
of the 1967 Bolivian MTT. media scrambled
to purchase the
There was an immediate
publication rights
reaction in Bolivia to Che’s death. to his captured
Many who saw his body before diary. A smuggled
it disappeared, likened it to copy was printed
that of Jesus Christ. The media in Cuba. The
scrambled for “first rights” to original was sealed
Che’s diary, because it might be in the Bolivian
“the most important narrative of Archives.
the last few years.” Their effort
1

failed because the Minister of Internal Affairs, Antonio President John F. Kennedy challenged America to put
Arguedas, was a Cuban sympathizer. He secretly mailed a man on the moon by the end of the 1960s. Apollo
a copy to Havana, where it was immediately published. 11, consisting of astronauts Michael Collins, Edwin
The revelation that President René Barrientos had a “Buzz” Aldrin, and Neil A. Armstrong, completed
closet Marxist in a top cabinet position threatened to Kennedy’s vision. Capturing the reflection of both
himself and the lunar module in Aldrin’s visor,
topple the government. Violent demonstrations resulted,
Armstrong took one of the first photographs from
and they were the closest Che came to accomplishing the moon’s surface.
his goal in Bolivia. Che’s death spurred protests in the
United States as well. housed in hotels in Saigon, were suddenly in “harm’s
On 11 October 1967, the Special Assistant for National way.” Americans, watching the war nightly on television,
Security Affairs, Walt W. Rostow, told President Lyndon saw the drama unfold. Historian Don Oberdorfer wrote:
B. Johnson that Che was dead. His memo read: “It “the Tet Offensive shocked a citizenry which had been
shows the soundness of our “preventive medicine” . . . led to believe that success in Vietnam was just around
it was the Bolivian 2nd Ranger Battalion, trained by our the corner.”5 Perhaps the most momentous event of the
Green Berets . . . that cornered him and got him.”2 On 1960s—a counter-response to the Soviet initiated space
21 October, a crowd of more than 50,000 war protesters race—shadowed the death of Che Guevara.
gathered in Washington D.C. to show their respect for On 12 September 1962, President John F. Kennedy
Che with a moment of silence.3 In Moscow, 200 foreign explained why America should put a man on the moon;
students demonstrated outside the U.S. Embassy.4 But, because it was hard, not easy.6 President Kennedy’s
Che’s downfall quickly became just a “blip” on the Cold promise was fulfilled on 20 July 1969, as more than 600
War radar screen. million television watchers saw Apollo 11 astronauts Neil
The Vietnam War had gotten America’s attention. Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin walk on the moon.
In late 1967, the Communist North Vietnamese Army The triumph marked the best of man’s achievements,
and the insurgent Viet Cong launched the Tet Offensive while domestic events showcased America’s problems.
countrywide. Even though they were dealt a shattering The struggle for Civil Rights had turned violent. In
defeat, the Saigon attacks proved to be a major psychological mid-1967, a wave of race riots spread across the northern
victory for the Communists. The international press corps, U.S. The largest, in Detroit, began on 23 July 1967. Forty-

Vol. 4 No. 4  101

 three people were killed, hundreds injured, and over 2,500
stores were burned and/or looted. President Johnson
quelled the riots with federalized National Guard and
the 82nd Airborne Division. On 4 April 1968, Civil Rights
leader Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in
Memphis, Tennessee. One of the first to break the news
was Senator Robert F. Kennedy, who personally implored
Americans not to turn to violence.7 His plea was ignored
by many. The Washington D.C. riots, starting that night,
were the most significant, lasting until 8 April when
The Detroit Riots exemplify the series
President Johnson again called in federal troops. Even of race riots that spread across the
counter-culture frivolity turned bad in 1969. U.S. in 1967. They were further
The Altamont Free Concert in northern California on 6 inflamed by the assassination of
December 1969, was promoted as the “Woodstock West,” Civil Rights leader Dr. Martin Luther
after the vastly popular festival four months earlier. King Jr. in Memphis, TN, on 4 April
The violence during Altamont destroyed the counter- 1968. By late 1968, the Civil Rights
culture image. While the Rolling Stones were performing Movement had left its pacifist roots.
the finale, Meredith Hunter approached the stage At the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City,
athletes Tommie Smith and John W.
with a drawn revolver. Members of the Hell’s Angels
Carlos gave defiant “Black Power”
Motorcycle Club, tasked to provide security, stabbed and salutes while the American national
kicked Hunter to death in front of the crowd. Unaware of anthem was played.
what was happening, the Stones continued playing. The
counter-culture drug and free-love rock festivals ended
soon after. Cuba’s proclamation of Che’s martyrdom went
unnoticed by the party-goers, but the Argentine became
a symbol of the era.
In a secret 1967 memo, the U.S. Department of State
announced that Havana would eulogize Che Guevara
“as the model revolutionary who met a heroic death,” and
warned that other leftist elements would follow suit.8 On
19 October 1967, Fidel Castro delivered a lengthy eulogy
praising Che for his sacrifices and encouraged everyone
to follow his example.9 Memorials were built to honor
him. By the time Che’s body was returned to Cuba in
July 1997, he had been transformed into a global symbol The Woodstock Festival, 15-18 August 1968, was noted
of revolution, resistance, anarchy. Che’s image had also for its brotherhood and came to exemplify the 1960s
counter-culture movement. Meant to be the West Coast
been commercialized.
version, the Altamont Free Concert became the opposite
Alberto Korda’s 5 May 1960 photograph of Che in Havana,
of Woodstock. Members of the Hell’s Angels Motorcycle
entitled Guerrillero Heroico, first reproduced as a print and Club, hired as security, killed concert-goer Meredith
poster, became emblazoned on clothing as a symbol of Hunter as the Rolling Stones played their set.
popular culture. The British Broadcasting Cooperation
(BBC) called it “perhaps the most reproduced, recycled the weakest armies in the hemisphere.”12 But others tried
and ripped off image of the 20th Century . . . It began to adapt his foco ideas to fit insurgencies in Nicaragua, El
to be used as a decoration for products from tissues to Salvador, Guatemala, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Brazil, and
underwear.”10 “Che” mania became so crazed that a lock of Venezuela.13 The Cuban revolutionary model was hard to
his hair, snipped off his head after death, and other personal apply in the rest of Latin America.14 This was especially
effects sold at auction in October 2007 for $119,500.11 For true when SF soldiers trained enthusiastic, dedicated,
a dedicated Communist like Che, commercialization was proficient infantrymen to effectively counter insurgency.
the ultimate insult. Most who wear his image on a T-shirt The Bolivia mission demonstrated that Special Forces
know little about him and what he represented, and are truly force multipliers. They can have a strategic
capitalist entrepreneurs have had the last laugh . . . all the impact with COIN training. When MTT-BL 404-67X left
way to the bank. One question remains to be answered. the Canal Zone to perform their mission they did not
Che’s foco theory of guerrilla warfare was largely know that Che—in modern terms a High Value Target
disproved in Bolivia. The U.S. Department of State (HVT)—was in Bolivia, only that the country needed help
determined in 1967 that those attempting to “initiate countering a Communist guerrilla threat. They performed
Cuban-style guerrilla warfare will be discouraged, at this sensitive mission to the highest standards. American
least for a time, by the defeat of the foremost tactician of training enabled the Bolivian Rangers to capture Che less
the Cuban revolutionary strategy at the hands of one of than two weeks after finishing their course of instruction.

102  Veritas
Che was eliminated, his foco theory discredited, and MTT-BL 404-67X
Latin American militaries were shown that even the most
poorly-resourced armies can defeat Communist insurgencies.
This MTT-BL 404-67X forty years ago did what today’s
Special Forces are trying to do in Afghanistan, Iraq,
Colombia, and the Philippines: help their armed forces
end insurgency.  

Troy J. Sacquety earned an MA from the University of

Nebraska–Lincoln and his PhD in Military History from
Texas A&M University. Prior to joining the USASOC
History Office staff he worked several years for the Central
Intelligence Agency. Current research interests include Havana has dedicated several memorials to Che, one at the
Army and Office of Strategic Services (OSS) special site of his victorious battle at Santa Clara, and another, an
operations during World War II, and Special Operations iconic version of Guerrillero Heroico on the side of the Ministry
Units in Vietnam. of the Interior building, where he formerly worked. In Bolivia
the site of Che Guevara’s death in La Higuera has become a
“pilgrimage” site. Forty years after his death, Che’s image still
Alberto Korda’s well-known photograph, haunts Latin America.
Guerrillero Heroico, has become a
worldwide icon signifying revolution
and anarchy. The image has been
modified into many forms, not all of
which flatter Che. T-Shirts emblazoned
with Guerrillero Heroico represent
capitalism’s appropriation
of Che’s persona.

7 Robert Kennedy, Statement on the Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.,

http://www.rfkmemorial.org/lifevision/assassinationofmartinlutherkingjr/, accessed
30 September 2008.
8 U.S. Department of State; Director of Intelligence and Research, “Guevara’s
Death-the Meaning for Latin America,” 12 October 1967, found online
at: www.gwu.edu/~nsaarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB5/che11_1.htm , accessed 21
November 2008.
9 The text of the speech can be found at Foreign Broadcast Information Service,
“Fidel Casto Delivers Eulogy on Che Guevara,” 19 October 1967, found
online at: www.gwu.edu/~nsaarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB5/che13_1.htm, accessed
Endnotes 21 November 2008.
10 Stephanie Holmes, “Che: The icon and the ad,” BBC News, http://news.bbc.
1 Michèle Ray, “In Cold Blood: How the CIA Executed Che,” Ramparts, March co.uk/2/hi/americas/7028598.stm, accessed 6 November 2008.
1968, 26.
11 Ed Stoddard, “Lock of “Che’s Hair Sold at Dallas Auction,” Reuters News
2 Walt Rostow, Memorandum for the President, “Death of “Che” Guevara,” 11 Service, 26 October 2007, http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN2545861
October 1967, found online at: www.gwu.edu/~nsaarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB5/ 520071026?feedType=RSS&feedName=topsNews, accessed 4 December 2008.
che7_1.htm , accessed 21 November 2008.
12 U.S. Department of State; Director of Intelligence and Research, “Guevara’s
3 Henry Butterfield Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara: A Story of Soldiers, Spies, and Death-the Meaning for Latin America,” 12 October 1967, found online
Diplomats (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1998), 162. at: www.gwu.edu/~nsaarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB5/che11_1.htm , accessed 21
4 Lewis H. Diuguid, “Guevara’s Stature In Life Grows in Death,” The Washington November 2008.
Post, January 7, 1968. 13 For the Central American foco wars, see William E. Odom, On Internal War:
5 Don Oberdorfer, Tet!: The Turning Point in the Vietnam War (New York, New American and Soviet Approaches to Third World Clients and Insurgents (Durham,
York: De Capo, 1984), xii. North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1992), 97, 119-120, 122. For the South
6 President John F. Kennedy, “Address at Rice University on the Nation’s Space American foco wars, see Robert L. Scheina, Latin America’s Wars: The Age of the
Effort,” (speech, Rice University, Houston, TX, 12 September 1962), online Professional Soldier, 1900-2001; Volume Two (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s Inc,
at http://www.jf klibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/ 2003), 265-277, 293.
Speeches/JFK/003POF03SpaceEffort09121962.htm, accessed 17 October 2008. 14 Georges Fauriol, ed., Latin American Insurgencies (Washington D.C.: National
Defense University Press, 1988), 135.

Vol. 4 No. 4  103

 Postscript
These thumbnail biographies complete the post-Bolivia mission careers of the MTT-BL 404-67X members
interviewed for this article. CHB
MAJ Ralph W. “Pappy” Shelton finished his career at Fort Campbell, KY, by getting the Garrison Command through
the Annual IG in 1968; 1968-1980, Memphis, TN, HS JROTC instructor & GI Bill student at Memphis State Univ, BA,
Pol Sci (1974), MA Ed (1980); 1980-1994, GS Civilian, Memphis Area Office, Office of Personnel Mgt; 1994, Retired &
moved to Sweetwater, TN; 2000-2006, City Commissioner.
MSG Oliverio Gomez was promoted to SGM and rotated in 1968 to Fort Bragg, NC, 7 th SFG; 1969-1970,
Vietnam, 5 th SFG, B Team SGM, Ban Me Thout; 1970-1972, Fort Hunter-Liggett, CA: Retired SGM, 1972 in CA
after 30 years service.
MSG Roland J. Milliard returned to 5th SFG in Vietnam in 1969, MSG (E-8); 1970-1971, Panama, 8th SFG, USARSO
NCO Academy; Retired MSG, Dec 1971, Fort Devens, MA; 1972-1975, AA Business, Newberry Jr College, BS Business
Admin, New Hampshire College; 1975-1990, Purchaser, Giant Telephone Co; 1990-1998, Ovido, FL, Police Academy,
Correctional Officer; 1998. Retired in MA.
SFC Daniel V. Chapa went to Vietnam in June 1968, FOB 2, Kontum, Hatchet Force 1SG, Nha Trang, Log Spt Cmd,
5th SFG; 1969-1971, Fort Bragg, USAJFKSWC, Enlisted “Q” Course Instructor; 1971-1973, 1SG, XVIII Abn Corps NCO
Academy; 1973, 1SG retired to begin 24-year second career with the U.S. Post Office, Fayetteville, NC, AA Management,
Lafeyette College; 1997. Retired in NC.
SFC Harold T. Carpenter returned to Vietnam in June 1968, II Corps Mike Force, 5th SFG; May 1969-summer 1970,
Ft Bragg, NC, C Co, 6th SFG; 1970-1973, Panama, B Co, 8th SFG, El Sal MTT, OAS Observer Msn-HO/ES border; Dom
Rep MTT; 1973-1975, Ft Bragg, MSG, B Co, 2/7th SFG & Bootstrap Campbell College (BA-Sociology); 1975-1978, ROTC
Washington & Jefferson College, Washington, PA (MA in Educational Psychology); 1978-1979, SGM Academy; 1979-80,
Germany, 3rd Inf Div G-3 SGM; 1980-1984, Germany, 10th SFG, A Co SGM, 1/10th SFG, 10th SFG S-3 SGM; 1983-1984, CSM,
Ft Lewis, WA, 3/1st SFG; 1985-2005, Nevada Test Site security; 2005. Retired in NV.
SSG Jerald L. Peterson got out after Bolivia to finish college, re-enlisted in 1968 for SF; SGT, Asst S-3 NCO, D Co, 7th
SFG, O&I course; 1969-1970, Vietnam, SSG, B Co, 5th SFG; 1971-1982, Panama, SFC, 8th SFG, AST 3/7th SFG Honduras,
Colombia and El Salvador MTTs; 1983, SFC retired, finished BS (LATAM Affairs) FSU; 1985-1995 DA Civ, 470th MI GP
and DIA, El Sal & Panama; 2008, Iraq, contract O&I Instructor.
SSG James A. Hapka returned to A Co, 8th SFG, MTT Nicaragua before going to Vietnam with SFC Carpenter;
1968-1969, Vietnam, Sr Medic, IV Corps Mike Force, 5th SFG; 1969-1970, Key West, FL, USAJFKSWCS SCUBA
Det; 1970-1973, Panama, 8th SFG, Recondo School Instr, USARSA, Sr Medic SCUBA Det; 1973-1974, San
Antonio, TX, US Army Physicians Assistant (PA) Class 4; 1974-1975, BS, Cameron University, 1979; CW2 PA Intern,
Ft Sill, OK; 1980, CW2 retired began 21 years as PA, Internal Med Clinic, Lawton, OK; March 2001-Dec 2007, Fort Sill,
OK, Reynolds Army Hospital ER PA; 2008. Retired in OK.
SSG Wendell P. Thompson, Jr. left Panama for 5th SFG in Vietnam in June 1968; November 1969, 615th MP Co, Long
Binh; Jan 1970-Sep 1973, Panama, B Co, 8th SFG, Distinguished Marksman (1971); 1973-1974, Fort Huachuca, AZ,
Counter Intelligence Agent course, DLI, Japanese; 1974-1978, Japan, 500th MI Gp; 1978-1981, Panama, 470th MI Gp;
1981-1985, Fort Benning, GA, MSG, Army Marksmanship Unit; 1985-1989, Japan, 500th MI GP; 1989-1993, SGM, Fort
Meade, MD, MI & Security Bn, 902nd MI GP; 1993 retired SGM; 1993-2003, Limited Stores Sec Supv & Mgr, Cleveland,
OH; 2006-present, Sec Mgr, J.C. Penney Distro Ctr, Cleveland, OH.
SGT Alvin E. Graham returned to Bolivia on leave to marry Dorys Roca. They came back to Panama. She stayed
in Phoenix, AZ, while he out-processed from the Army; 1968-1970, Arizona State University, BA Health Education
& Spanish; 1970-1972, Phoenix HS teacher; 1972-1975, Heavy Construction foreman; 1975-1977, Phoenix JHS & HS
teacher again; 1977-2007, Owner & manager of several construction businesses; 2008. Retired in AZ.

Thank You: This special edition of Veritas would not have been possible without the wholehearted support of the
Bolivia veterans, and Dorys Graham Roca, Ben Sigg, son of SGT Byron R. Sigg, retired Colonels John D. Waghelstein,
and Gary A. “Mickey” Riggs, LTC Luis O. Rodriguez, and Mrs. Shilah Felder, wife of COL Louis F. Felder, former
commander, 8th SFG. They provided interviews, official after action reports, briefings, unit orders, personal photo
collections, original Bolivian and other Spanish language newspaper and magazine articles that covered the short-
lived Cuban-led insurgency, American media coverage, and memorabilia. These contributions have enabled us to not
only document the 1967 mission, but to make that history truly personal and more interesting. I would like to extend
a sincere thanks from the USASOC History Office. CHB

104  Veritas
Notes on Sources by Troy J. Sacquety

Writing well-documented Special Forces history distorted the history to create mythical images of
is difficult because it takes a concerted effort to wade him. Many of Che’s published papers are edited and
through volumes of subject material. Our “anchors” approved by his widow, Aleida March (the director
for Veritas are primary sources: photographs, of the Che Guevara Studies Center in Havana), and
original documents, and interviews. We were the Communist Party of Cuba. While valuable, the
lucky to have amassed a large photographic record reader must be aware of the bias in these accounts
of Mobile Training Team MTT-BL 404-67X. After that makes deriving “ground truth” difficult.
Action Reports provided important details which For example, in his forward to The Bolivian Diary:
participants forgot over time. Veteran interviews Authorized Edition, Che’s son Camilo writes that
are the most important. Without them, there would the Bolivian Rangers were “an entire army trained
be no “voices” in the articles. For all veteran and financed by the empire [U.S] and its Praetorian
assistance, we thank you. Secondary sources can rangers.6 This is a pretty distorted polemic
be problematic. description for a 16-man SF MTT that trained one
There is a lot of misinformation surrounding Che 650-man Ranger Battalion in 19 weeks. Fortunately,
Guevara and the Special Forces training mission in some of Che’s discourse, such as Guerrilla Warfare
Bolivia in 1967. Memoirs, normally written years and his speeches, are unaltered, but the translations
afterwards, often contain faulty recollections and/ can vary.7 Biographies of Che are also problematic;
or deliberate embellishments of actions. Widely however, Jon Lee Anderson’s, Che Guevara: A
available “popular” histories, designed to appeal Revolutionary Life, offers a balanced view.8 We have
to a large audience, usually lack documentation. conscientiously endeavored to present an objective
While engaging, historians cannot rely on writing account of the SF role while avoiding the minefields
based on a “trust me” premise. The historian must in current literature.
separate the “wheat from the chaff” and evaluate
what can be substantiated and what must be taken Endnotes
“with a grain of salt.” 1 Gary Prado Salmón, The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to
That said, one of the better accounts, written Guerrilla Challenge in Bolivia (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1990).
2 John David Waghelstein, “A Theory of Revolutionary Warfare and
by Bolivian General Gary Prado Salmón, is a day- its Application to the Bolivian Adventure of Che Guevara” (Master’s
by-day account of his experiences as the company Thesis, Cornell University, 1973). Colonel (retired) Waghelstein was
commander of the Rangers who captured Che.1 a former MILGP commander in El Salvador during the war and a
Commander of the 7th Special Forces Group.
The master’s thesis of John David Waghelstein, A
3 Waghelstein, “Know This, You Are Killing a Man,” Eagle: For the
Theory of Revolutionary Warfare and its Application to American Fighting Man September 1985, 64-74., Andrew St. George,
the Bolivian Adventure of Che Guevara offers a solid “How the U.S. Got Che,” True, April 1969. (photocopy in the USASOC
History Office Classified Files).
American perspective. While not on the MTT,
4 Felix Rodriguez and John Weisman, Shadow Warrior: CIA Hero
he was the Bolivian Airborne Battalion advisor of a Hundred Unknown Battles (New York, New York: Simon and
in Cochabamba. His 1973 assessment is more Schuster, 1989).
accurate than many of those published later.2 5 Henry Butterfield Ryan, The Fall of Che Guevara: A Story of Soldiers, Spies,
and Diplomats (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1998).
Magazine articles in which MTT members are
6 Ernesto Che Guevara, The Bolivian Diary: Authorized Edition, with an
quoted were also valuable.3 Felix Rodriquez’s self- introduction by Fidel Castro and preface by Camilo Guevara (New
serving account, found in Shadow Warrior, offers York, New York: Ocean Press, 2006), 2. Other examples of Guevara’s
writing include Ernesto “Che” Guevara, The African Dream: The
a CIA officer’s perspective.4 Henry Butterfield Diaries of the Revolutionary War in the Congo, with a forward by Aleida
Ryan’s book, The Fall of Che Guevara, is the most March (New York, New York: Grove Press, 1999).
objective and thorough account because he got 7 Two examples of this translation are Che Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare,
with an introduction by Marc Becker (Lincoln, Nebraska: University
access to declassified documents and interviewed of Nebraska Press, 1998) and Che Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare, with
numerous participants.5 an introduction and case studies by Brian Loveman and Thomas M.
Trying to understand and explain Che and his Davies, Jr. (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1985).
8 John Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life (New York:
foco in Bolivia was difficult. The International Left, Grove Press, 1997).
Cuban Government, and Che’s family, all have
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