Volume 2 Issue 10 – October 2013

Editorial Board

American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

Dr. Moinuddin Sarker,

Qualification :PhD, MCIC, FICER, Dr. June II A. Kiblasan
MInstP, MRSC (P), VP of R & D Qualification : Phd
Affiliation : Head of Science / Technology Specialization: Management, applied
Team, Corporate Officer (CO) sciences
Natural State Research, Inc.
Country: PHIILIPPINES
37 Brown House Road (2nd Floor)
Stamford, CT-06902, USA.

Dr. Jonathan Okeke Dr. Narendra Kumar Sharma

Qualification: PHD
Chimakonam Affiliation: Defence Institute of Physiology
Qualification: PHD and Allied Science, DRDO
Affiliation: University of Calabar Specialization: Proteomics, Molecular
Specialization: Logic, Philosophy of biology, hypoxia
Maths and African Science, Country: India
Country: Nigeria
Prof. Dr. Shafique Ahmed Arain
Qualification: Postdoc fellow, Phd
Dr. ABDUL KAREEM Affiliation: Shah abdul Latif University
Qualification: MBBS, DMRD, FCIP, FAGE Khairpur (Mirs),
Affiliation: UNIVERSITI SAINS Malaysia Specialization: Polymer science
Country: Pakistan
Country: Malaysia

Dr. sukhmander singh

Qualification: Phd Dr. Alcides Chaux
Affiliation: Indian Institute Of Qualification: MD
Technology, Delhi Affiliation: Norte University, Paraguay,
Specialization : PLASMA PHYSICS South America
Specialization: Genitourinary Tumors
Country: India Country: Paraguay, South America

Dr. Nwachukwu Eugene Nnamdi Dr. Md. Nazrul Islam Mondal

Qualification: Phd Qualification: Phd
Affiliation: Michael Okpara University of Affiliation: Rajshahi University,
Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria Bangladesh
Specialization: Health and Epidemiology
Specialization: Animal Genetics and
Country: Bangladesh
Breeding
Country: Nigeria
 Volume-2 Issue-10

S.No. Title Name Page No.

Polyethylene Terephthalate (Pete) And High Density Polyethylene (Hdpe)

01. Mixture To Fuel Production 01-10
Moinuddin Sarker, Mohammad Mamunor Rashid
Lightning Protection of Floating Roof Tanks
02. Adekitan, Aderibigbe Israel, 11-21
Performance of C.I Engine by Using Biodiesel-Mahua Oil.
03. sudheer nandi 22-47
Emotional and Spiritual Intelligence as Predictors of Eco Friendly Behavior
04. of Undergraduate 48-51
Dr. Indira Sharma
Medical image processing using a service oriented Architecture and
05. Distributed Environment 52-62
Himadri Nath Moulick, Moumita Ghosh
An Efficient Spam Filtering Techniques for Email Account
06. S. Roy, A. Patra, S.Sau, K.Mandal, S. Kunar 63-73
Fuzzy gc-super Irresolute Mappings
07. M. K. Mishra, Manisha Shukla 74-76
Experimental Analysis of Particle Size Distribution using Electromagnetic
08. Sieve 77-85
Ujam, A.J., and Enebe, K. O
Common Fixed Point Theorems for Sequence Of Mappings Under
09 Contractive Conditions In Symmetric Spaces 86-91
T.R.Vijayan
Internet of Car: Accident Sensing, Indication and Safety with Alert system
10. Md. Maminul Islam, Md. Rabiul Hasan, Imran Chowdhury, 92-99
Md. Towhid Chowdhury
Fault Tree-Based Reliability Assessment of a 132-kV Transmission Line
11. Protection Scheme 100-106
Isaac A. Samuel, Ayokunle A. Awelewa, James Katende,
and Ishioma A. Odigwe
Robot Selection Using Analytic Hierarchy Process and System Of
12. Equations of Matrices 107-111
R. Naveen kumar, A. Sreenivasulu Reddy, and G. Padmanabhan
 A Study on Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Groundwater in the
13. Industrial Zone of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 112-116
Dr. Yerramsetty Abbulu, Dr. G.V.R.Srinivasa Rao
Component Cost of Fuel Oil of Waste Transportation Cost
14. Burhamtoro, Achmad Wicaksono, M. Bisri, Soemarno 117-127
Prioritization of sub-watersheds in semi arid region, Western Maharashtra,
15. India using Geographical Information System 128-135
Abhijit M.Zende, R. Nagarajan, K. R. Atal
VLSI Architecture for Fast Computation of 2D-Discrete Wavelet Transform
16. and Low Power Feed Forward Neural Network Architecture for Image 136-145
Compression
Mr. Murali Mohan. S, Dr. P.Satyanarayana
Design, Load Analysis and Optimization of Compound Epicyclic Gear
17. Trains 146-153
Syed Ibrahim Dilawer, Md. Abdul Raheem Junaidi, Dr.S.Nawazish
Mehdi
Inrush Current Limitation in Wind Generators by SCR Based Soft-starter
18.. during grid connection 154-159
Sanjay Mishra, Prof. S Debdas,Prof. Y Kashyap
Multi performance characteristic optimization of shot peening process for
19. AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel using grey relational analysis with 160-172
principal component analysis and Taguchi method
Dr. Lakhwinder Singh, Dr. RA Khan, and Dr. ML Aggarwal
Design of Automobile Driveshaft using Carbon/Epoxy and Kevlar/Epoxy
20. Composites 173-179
R. Srinivasa Moorthy, Yonas Mitiku & K. Sridhar
Enhancing E-Voting Systems By Leveraging Biometric Key Generation
21. (Bkg) 180-190
V. C. Ossai, I.C. Okoro, E.O. Alagbu, A.O. Agbonghae and I.N. Okafor
Shear Reinforcements in the Reinforced Concrete Beams
22. Moayyad M. Al-Nasra, Naiem M Asha 191-199
Water Quality Assessment of Ake Stream, Near College of Advanced and
23. Professional Studies Makurdi, Nigeria. 200-
Dr. Aho, I.M., Gbayan, N.T. and Engr. Lagasi J.E 204
Detection of Hazardous Elements in Foundation Layers in Carbonate
24. Coastal plain, Port-Sudan – Suakin, Red Sea, Sudan 205-213
Al-Imam, O. A. O.; Elzien, S. M.; Mohammed A. A.; Elkrail, A.B.;
& Mustafa A.A.
 Analysis of Black Hole Effect and Prevention through IDS in MANET
25. Nisha, Simranjit Kaur, Sandeep Kumar Arora 214-220
Design, Construction and Effectiveness Analysis of Hybrid Automatic Solar
26. Tracking System for Amorphous and Crystalline Solar Cells 221-228
Bhupendra Gupta, Neha Sonkar, Brahman Singh Bhalavi, Pankaj J
Edla
Prospect of Buchanan’s Traffic Planning Approach in Small Towns of India:
27. A Case Study in Tezpur Town 229-238
Prakash Jyoti Saikia, Dr. Abani Kumar Bhagabati
Pollution Control: How Feasible is Zero Discharge Concepts in Malaysia
28. Palm Oil Mills 239-252
Yahaya S. Madaki, Lau Seng
Cyber laws encompassing the Security of E-Quran in Saudi Arabia
29. Naasir Kamaal Khan 253-257
An Experimental investigation of sea sand as an Abrasive material in
30. vibrating chamber by using Tungsten Carbide Nozzle in Abrasive Jet 258-263
machining Process
N. S. Pawar, R.R. Lakhe, R. L. Shrivastava
Forming of universal optimal operation model of frame for coil winding with
31. finished yarn according to selected measuring points based on the effect of 264-270
mechanical oscillations
Professor dr. Slobodan Stefanović, Professor dr. Radoje Cvejić,
Professor dr. Duško Kostić, Professor dr. Srbislav Radivojević,
Professor dr. Imre Kriss
Assessment of energy use pattern in residential buildings of Kano and
32. Kaduna Northern Nigeria 271-275
Yohanna Irimiya, Iortyer A. Humphery, Ierve I. Aondover,
An inverse steady state thermal stresses in a thin clamped circular plate
33. with internal heat generation 276-281
C. M. Bhongade, and M. H. Durge
Assessment of the Chemical Characteristics of a Spring Water Source at
34. Ife-Owutu, Ezinihite-Mbaise, Southeastern Nigeria. 282-290
Ibeneme, S.I., Ukiwe, L.N., Essien, A.G., Nwagbara, J.O., Nweze, C.A.,
Chinemelu, E.S., And Ivonye, C.A.
Physico-Chemical Properties of Bio-diesel from Wild Grape Seeds Oil and
35. Petro-Diesel Blends 291-297
M. U. Kaisan, G. Y. Pam and D. M. Kulla
 Design, Analysis and Implementation of a Robotic Arm- The Animator
36. Md. Anisur Rahman, Alimul Haque Khan, Dr. Tofayel Ahmed, 298-
Md. Mohsin Sajjad 307
Automotive Parking Lot and Theft Detection through Image Processing
37. Md.Towhid Chowdhury, Ebad Zahir 308-313
Optimal design of two feeder system: simulation studies for techno-
38. economic feasibility 314-321
Haider Hussain, Dr. A. I. Khandwawala
Performance and Emission Analysis of Diesel Engine Using Fish Oil And
39. Biodiesel Blends With Isobutanol As An Additive 322-329
S. Kiran Kumar
UNIVERSE IS LIKE SPACE SHIP
40. M.Arulmani, V.R.Hema Latha 330-337
Entropy and Enthalpy variations with Acoustic parameters of Cholesteryl
41. oleyl carbonate 338-343
Jatinder Pal Singh, Rajesh Sharma
5G Wireless Communication Systems
42. Saddam Hossain 344-353
Dependence of evaporation on meteorological variables at daily time-scale
43. and estimation of pan evaporation in Junagadh region 354-362
Gundalia Manoj J., And Dholakia Mrugen B.
Haulage Vehicle Traffic and Runoff Effect on Gully Growth on Roadside
44. Slopes of Unpaved Sand-Quarry Road, Uyo. 363-368
Obot Ekpo Essien, Okon W. Emmanuel
Estimating Time Loss Effects On Municipal Solid Waste Collection Using
45. Haul Container System In Uyo Nigeria 369-377
Obot E. Essien, and J. C. Udo
Modified Multilevel Inverter Topology for Grid Connected Pv Systems
46. Dhivya Balakrishnan, Dhamodharan Shanmugam, K.Indiradevi 378-
384
Exergy Analysis of Boiler In cogeneration Thermal Power Plant
47. Sarang j gulhane, Prof.Amit kumar thakur 385-392

Modified Multiport Dc-Dc Converter Topology For Smart Grid

48. Dhamodharan Shanmugam, Dhivya Balakrishan, K.Indiradevi 393-400
 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-01-10
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Polyethylene Terephthalate (Pete) And High Density Polyethylene

(Hdpe) Mixture To Fuel Production
Moinuddin Sarker1, Mohammad Mamunor Rashid2
1,2
Natural State Research, Inc., Department of Research and Development, 37 Brown House Road (2nd Floor),
Stamford, CT-06902, USA

Abstract: - High density polyethylene (HDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) mixture to fuel
production process was performed with Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) and activated carbon. HDPE waste plastic was use
75 gm, PETE was use 25 gm, activated carbon was use 5 gm as a 5% and Ferric Oxide was use 2 gm as a 1%.
PETE and HDPE waste plastics mixture to fuel production process temperature was use 420 ºC and reactor was
use Pyrex glass reactor. Total waste plastics sample was 100 gm and 100 gm of waste plastic mixture to fuel
was collected 50.1 gm. PETE and HDPE waste plastic mixture to fuel density is 0.76 gm/ml. Liquid fuel was
analysis by FT-IR, GC/MS and DSC for fuel functional group, compounds structure and enthalpy value
determination. Product fuel is ignited and fuel can use an internal combustion engine.

Keywords: - HDPE, PETE, fuel, thermal, catalyst, hydrocarbon, waste plastics, FT-IR

I. INTRODUCTION
In modern life, the application of polymers is common. This kind of material is present in packaging,
the electrical industry, in toys, etc. High-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE),
polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephtalate (PET) are the
most extensively used plastics. The polyethylene plastics (HDPE and LDPE) are the major components of the
total plastic content of municipal solid waste. [1-4] Volume of plastics currently represent 24% of the MSW,
due to their low density. Moreover, medical red-bag (infectious) waste contains a much higher fraction of
plastics, as high as 40 wt %. The current methods for dealing with the environmental problems resulting from
this solid waste include source reduction, reuse, recycling, landfill, and waste-to-energy conversion. Most solid
wastes are disposed through landfilling. However, with the lack of landfill space and with current challenges
both in implementing the recycling of plastics and in finding markets for the recyclables, combustion of these
materials in waste-to-energy (WTE) plants offers an alternative of technological and economic interest.
Combustion of waste plastics provides a number of advantages, such as destruction of hazardous contaminants,
reduction of mass and volume (by more than 90%), and energy recovery, as well as rendering the waste
unrecognizable from its original form (which is often a requirement for medical waste). [5]
Recycling of plastics has a positive environmental impact; in most cases it is not yet economically
attractive. So far, industry has focused efforts in plastics recycling on the recovery and reuse of polymers by
mechanical processing. However, mechanical technologies require relatively clean feedstocks that are expensive
to collect and separate. For this reason, commercial recycling has not had a significant impact with the
collection rate of less than 5% of total annual resin sales.[6] Producing hydrogen from waste plastics could
complement conventional recycling techniques because it could use more complex materials that are not
handled by existing processes, e.g. mixed plastics, polyester-cotton blends, rigid polyurethane foams. The
challenge is to efficiently convert these polymers to hydrogen at a cost similar to that for the existing natural-
gas-based technologies. Plastics have a high calorific value (i.e., polyethylene 43 MJ/ kg, polypropylene 44
MJ/kg, polyvinyl chloride 20 MJ/kg), and their combustion can be an alternative to removing them. [7]This
alternative must, however, be subjected to severe environmental controls in order to fulfill the legal restrictions
concerning the emission of solid particles and gaseous effluents.[7,8,9] Landfills have also been used for plastic
disposal, but these can pose a danger through the environment product degradation and the subsequent pollutant
generation.[8,9] A promising alternative for the reprocessing of waste plastics is feedstock recycling, which

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
involves the conversion of plastics residue into raw chemicals, monomers for plastics or hydrocarbon
feedstocks. In this way, thermal degradation has been used to convert different polyolefins into hydrocarbon
mixtures. [10-12]
The thermal decomposition of polyolefins at temperatures of 400 °C or higher produce a mixture of
hydrocarbons that is formed by a gas fraction (C1-C4), a liquid fraction (C5-C18), and a solid residue (C19-C70).
For each number of C atoms, three main components are produced: the corresponding n-paraffin, α-olefin, and
α, ω-diene. The relative proportion of these products is dependent on the thermal degradation operating
conditions, which are determined mainly by the temperature.[13] The thermal degradation of polyolefins
involves complex reactions through a radical mechanism, and their extension is very dependent on temperature,
pressure, reactor geometry, and heat- and mass-transfer rates, as well as mixing intensity. Polymerssand
particularly polyolefins shave high viscosity, which hinders mass- and heat-transfer phenomena.[14,15] The
terminal double bond of α-olefins presents a high reactivity, in regard to a wide variety of chemicals, and,
therefore, they are used to produce any derivative requiring an even-numbered, straight carbon chain. In this
sense, α-olefins are utilized as intermediates in the manufacture of many commercial products, including
plastics (e.g., HDPE and LDPE), synthetic lubricants (e.g., poly-α-olefins, polyol esters), surfactants (e.g., α-
olefin sulfonates, alkyl benzene sulfonates, alkyl dimethyl amines), additives (e.g., alkenyl succinic anhydrides,
and polyvinylchloride lubricants and stabilizers) and specialty chemicals (e.g., epoxides, halogenated α-
olefins).[16]

II. MATERIALS
PETE waste was collected water bottle and HDPE was collected milk container for experimental
purpose. Both waste plastics cut into small pieces and places into glass reactor chamber including activated
carbon and Ferric Oxide. Activated carbon and Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) was collected from VWR. Com Company.
Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) was powder type and activated carbon was pellet type.

III. PROCESS DESCRIPTION

PETE and HDPE mixture to fuel production process was performed under the laboratory fume hood
and production process was batch process. Total sample was use for experiment 100 gm of waste plastics
mixture. PETE was 25 gm and HDPE was 75 gm, ferric oxide was 2 gm and activated carbon was 5 gm. 25 gm
of PETE and 75 gm of HDPE waste plastic to fuel production was determine from less percentage of PETE and
high percentage of HDPE waste plastics mixture. Catalyst was use for reaction acceleration and helping to
breakdown polymer bond by using thermal degradation process. For experimental temperature was use starting
180 ºC to up to 420 ºC and temperature was increase slowly. Experimental setup purpose was use boiling flask
for raw sample melting and fuel collection, heat mental with temperature controller, condensation unit, clamp,
grease, foil paper for cover up the heat loss. Small pieces waste plastics placed into boiling flask inside with
Ferric Oxide and activated carbon. Then boiling flask was placed into heating chamber for waste plastic
melting. Then condensation unit was setup with sample provided boiling neck and fuel collection boiling flask
neck with thermal protect grease. Because during production period gas loss prevention. This experiment main
goal was PETE and HDPE waste plastics to fuel production recover measurement. PETE waste plastic has
carbon chain with hydrogen combination and PETE waste plastic has carbon, hydrogen, benzene with oxygen
combination and PETE waste plastic oxygen percentage more than 30%. Both plastic was heated up at 180 ºC to
up to 420 ºC. Experimental process was monitor closely inside laboratory fume hood because during fuel
production period was notice that boiling flask inside gas was generated huge amount. Sometimes temperature
profile was increase and sometimes temperature profile was decreased for quality fuel product. Production
process flow chart is showing in figure 1. Production process flow chart is showing waste plastic and Ferric
Oxide was placed into reactor chamber then condensation unit, and alkali solution was use for light gas cleaning
NaOH, NaHCO3 and water. Light gas was produce during fuel production period and gas was captured into
Teflon bag by using small pump. Residue was collected after fuel production finished when is reactor was cool
down. In mass balance calculation production result showed liquid fuel was 50.1 gm, light gas was produced
16.5 gm and residue and solid pest was 24.4 gm + 9 gm. During production period PETE waste plastic was
unable to fuel conversion into fuel because PETE waste plastic has Oxygen content more than 30% which was
not convertible. It’s was coming as solid pest wise and it collected from condensation and weight was 9 gm. The
PETE waste plastic to fuel production period its try to block the condensation unit and it coming out with liquid
fuel which is shown in figure 2 and figure 3 and total experiment run time was 4 hour 35 minute. From liquid
fuel to wax part was removing after filtering process and solid wax part keep into separate container. This type
of solid wax portion was coming from PETE waste plastic because PETE has high percentage of Oxygen. Light
gas analysis is under investigation. Liquid and light gas percentage was 66.6%, residue was 9% and solid pest
was 24.4% which was not convertible see figure 2. Some portion of sediment part was come out with liquid fuel

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
and shown into figure 3. Fuel sediment was separated by filtering system. Fuel color is light yellow and fuel is
ignite.

Figure 1: HDPE and PETE mixture to fuel production

Figure 2: Wax type materials in the condensation pipe inside during PETE and HDPE waste plastic mixture to
fuel production period.

Figure 3: PETE and HDPE waste plastics mixture to fuel with wax

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
52.2

50

48

46
44
42

40 3617.77

38
36

34

32

30
2026.88
28 2077.05

26
24
%T
22 1955.10
1925.47
20
18
16

14

12
2336.45
10
8

4 1819.38
2

0 1096.52 637.79
1202.06 808.22
-2 1605.65 1177.68 1070.54 547.92
2941.51 1687.30 1585.47 1285.90 1126.87 908.87 714.99

-5.0
4000.0 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 450.0
cm-1

Figure 4: FT-IR spectrum of PETE and HDPE mixture to fuel

Table 1: FT-IR spectrum functional group list of PETE and HDPE mixture to fuel
Number of Wave Wave Number Compound/Functional Group
1 3617.77 Free OH
2 2941.51 C-CH3
3 2336.45
4 2077.05 C-C= -C-C= -CH
5 2026.88
6 1955.10
7 1925.47
8 1819.38 Non-Conjugated
9 1687.30 Non-Conjugated
10 1605.65 Non-Conjugated
11 1585.47 Conjugated
12 1285.90
13 1202.06
14 1177.68 ~Formates
15 1126.87
16 1096.52
17 1070.54
18 908.87 -CH=CH2-
19 808.22
20 714.99 -CH=CH-(cis)
21 637.79 -CH=CH-(cis)
22 547.92

FTIR analysis of 25% PETE and 75% HDPE with 5% Activated Carbon and 2% Fe2O3 to fuel (figure 4 and
table 1) according to their wave number and spectrum band following types of functional groups are appeared in
the analysis. In the spectrum field we noticed that higher wave number are emerged in the initial phase and
middle index of the spectrum in higher wave number small and bulky both functional groups are available and

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
in low wave number double bond and single bond functional groups are available such as methane group,trans
and alkene group etc. Hereafter wave number 3617.77 cm-1 functional group is Free OH, wave number 2941.51
cm-1, functional group is C-CH3, wave number 2077.05 cm-1, functional group is C-C= -C-C= -CH, wave
number 2186.56 cm-1 functional group is C-C=-C-C=-CH, wave number 1819.38 cm-1 , 1687.30 cm-1 and
1605.65 cm-1 functional group is Non-Conjugated, wave number 1585.47cm-1, functional group is Conjugated ,
wave number 1177.68cm-1 functional group is ~Formates, wave number 908.87 cm-1 functional group is -
CH=CH2-, and ultimately wave number 714.99 cm-1 and 637.79 cm-1 functional group is -CH=CH-(cis) as
well. Energy values are calculated, using formula is E=hυ, Where h=Planks Constant, h =6.626x10 -34 J,
υ=Frequency in Hertz (sec-1), Where υ=c/λ, c=Speed of light, where, c=299,792,458 m/s, W=1/λ, where λ is
wave length and W is wave number in cm-1. Therefore the equation E=hυ, can substitute by the following
equation, E=hcW. According to their wave number several energy values are calculated such as for wave
number 3671.77 (cm-1) calculated energy, E=7.18x10-20 J, wave number 2941.51 (cm-1) calculated energy,
E=5.84x10-20 J, wave number 2077.05 (cm-1), calculated energy, E=4.12x10-20 J, wave number 1819.38 (cm-1),
calculated energy, E=3.61x10-20 J, wave number 1585.47 (cm-1), calculated energy, E=3.14x10-20 J, wave
number 908.87 (cm-1), calculated energy, E=1.80x10-20 J and ultimately wave number 714.99 (cm-1), calculated
energy, E=1.42x10-20 J respectively .

Figure 5: DSC graph of PETE and HDPE waste plastics mixture to fuel

PETE and HDPE waste plastics mixture to fuel product was analysis (Figure 5) by DSC for fuel
enthalpy value. DSC run temperature was 5 ºC to 400 ºC and temperature ramping rate was 10 ºC. DSC carrier
gas was use Nitrogen and pan was use aluminum. DSC fuel graph showed onset temperature is 7.90 ºC, Peak is
153.56 ºC and peak height is 41.5794 mW. Graph area is 22367.711 mJ, delta H value or enthalpy value is
22367.7115 J/g and a delta Hf value is 22.3677 kJ/mol.

Figure 6: GC/MS Chromatogram of PETE and HDPE waste plastics mixture to fuel

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Table 2: GC/MS Chromatogram compounds list of PETE and HDPE waste plastics mixture to fuel
Peak Retentio Trace Compound Name Compou Molecul Probabilit NIST
Numbe n Time Mass nd ar y Library
r (M.) (m/z) Formula weight Percentage Number

1 1.48 41 Propane C3H8 44 58.1 18863

2 1.54 41 Butane, 1-isocyano- C5H9N 83 28.1 39412
3 1.69 42 Cyclopropane, C5H10 70 21.9 19072
ethyl-
4 1.71 43 Pentane C5H12 72 83.4 114462
5 1.79 67 1,3-Pentadiene C5H8 68 25.7 291890
6 1.95 42 Butane, 2,3- C6H14 86 13.8 291518
dimethyl-
7 2.08 56 Cyclopropane, 1- C6H12 84 20.9 113658
ethyl-2-methyl-, cis-
8 2.12 57 Hexane C6H14 86 85.5 61280
9 2.16 55 3-Hexene, (Z)- C6H12 84 22.9 114381
10 2.22 67 Cyclobutene, 3,3- C6H10 82 7.91 62288
dimethyl-
11 2.33 56 Cyclopentane, C6H12 84 63.5 114428
methyl-
12 2.41 79 1,3- C6H8 80 16.1 419
Cyclopentadiene, 5-
methyl-
13 2.50 67 Cyclopentene, 1- C6H10 82 13.8 107747
methyl-
14 2.59 78 Benzene C6H6 78 68.5 291514
15 2.76 67 Cyclohexene C6H10 82 16.9 114431
16 2.85 56 1-Heptene C7H14 98 36.4 107734
17 2.94 43 Heptane C7H16 100 75.9 61276
18 3.02 41 2-Heptene C7H14 98 28.0 113119
19 3.10 81 Cyclopropane, C7H12 96 9.97 63085
trimethylmethylene-
20 3.18 81 Cyclopentane, 1- C7H12 96 12.4 62523
methyl-2-
methylene-
21 3.25 83 Cyclohexane, C7H14 98 62.0 118503
methyl-
22 3.36 69 Cyclopentane, ethyl- C7H14 98 74.2 231044
23 3.47 81 Norbornane C7H12 96 9.92 114371
24 3.57 81 Cyclobutane, (1- C7H12 96 18.9 150272
methylethylidene)-
25 3.62 67 1-Ethylcyclopentene C7H12 96 42.5 114407
26 3.76 91 Toluene C7H8 92 42.5 291301
27 3.82 81 Cyclohexene, 1- C7H12 96 19.2 139432
methyl-
28 3.96 79 3- C8H10O 138 15.0 153194
Oxabicyclo[4.3.0]no 2
n-8-en-2-one, cis-
29 4.09 55 1-Octene C8H16 112 19.5 227923
30 4.13 55 Cyclopentane, 1- C8H16 112 17.7 150594
ethyl-2-methyl-
31 4.23 43 Octane C8H18 114 42.3 229407
32 4.30 55 2-Octene, (Z)- C8H16 112 24.2 113889
33 4.34 95 Bicyclo[3.1.0]hexan C8H14 110 11.7 142175

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
e, 1,5-dimethyl-
34 4.62 67 1-Methyl-2- C8H14 110 32.2 113437
methylenecyclohexa
ne
35 4.72 41 Cyclopentane, C8H16 112 13.6 142655
propyl-
36 4.77 83 Cyclohexane, ethyl- C8H16 112 65.0 113476
37 4.82 43 2,4-Dimethyl-1- C9H18 126 60.1 113516
heptene
38 5.15 91 Ethylbenzene C8H10 106 62.6 114918
39 5.29 81 Cyclohexane, C8H14 110 10.7 118885
ethylidene-
40 5.43 55 Cyclohexane, C9H16 124 21.6 26670
cyclopropyl-
10 5.47 41 1,8-Nonadiene C9H16 124 27.3 227629
42 5.63 56 1-Nonene C9H18 126 19.5 107756
43 5.77 43 Nonane C9H20 128 34.9 228006
44 5.85 55 cis-2-Nonene C9H18 126 15.2 113508
45 5.97 55 trans--4-Nonene C9H18 126 12.9 113512
46 6.06 41 2,4-Undecadien-1-ol C11H20 168 10.4 136410
O
47 6.30 55 Cyclohexane, C9H18 126 30.4 249350
propyl-
48 6.53 67 Cyclopentene, 1- C9H16 124 32.4 113491
butyl-
49 6.79 77 Benzaldehyde C7H6O 106 75.1 291541
50 7.10 55 1,9-Decadiene C10H18 138 13.7 155383
51 7.26 41 1-Decene C10H20 140 18.3 107686
52 7.31 55 Cyclopentanol, 1-(1- C9H14O 138 14.0 152742
methylene-2-
propenyl)-
53 7.40 43 Decanes C10H22 142 37.4 114147
54 7.46 55 cis-3-Decene C10H20 140 14.0 113558
55 7.60 41 9- C9H16O 140 10.3 46594
Oxabicyclo[6.1.0]no
nane, 1-methyl-, cis-
56 7.67 55 Cyclopentane, 1- C10H20 140 11.0 63333
methyl-3-(2-
methylpropyl)-
57 8.46 105 Acetophenone C8H8O 120 13.2 34989
58 8.70 41 1,10-Undecadiene C11H20 152 11.0 113574
59 8.85 55 1-Undecene C11H22 154 7.08 5022
60 8.91 41 Pentafluoropropioni C14H21 316 5.12 280071
c acid, 10-undecenyl F5O2
ester
61 8.99 57 Undecane C11H24 156 39.3 114185
62 9.04 55 3-Undecene, (Z)- C11H22 154 13.9 142598
63 9.53 105 Benzoyl bromide C7H5Br 184 6.12 226735
O
64 10.23 105 Cyclohexanamine, C13H17 219 23.6 185471
N-(benzoyloxy)- NO2
65 10.38 55 1-Dodecene C12H24 168 7.03 107688
66 10.50 57 Dodecane C12H26 170 31.8 291499
67 10.55 55 3-Dodecene, (E)- C12H24 168 11.2 113960

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
68 10.68 41 6-Dodecene, (Z)- C12H24 168 11.9 142611
69 11.68 55 1,12-Tridecadiene C13H24 180 14.3 7380
70 11.81 55 1-Tridecene C13H26 182 14.9 107768
71 11.84 41 Z-10-Pentadecen-1- C15H30 226 6.23 245485
ol O
72 11.93 57 Tridecane C13H28 184 51.0 114282
73 11.97 55 2-Tridecene, (Z)- C13H26 182 9.81 142613
74 12.11 55 5-Tridecene, (E)- C13H26 182 7.90 142619
75 13.05 55 E-10-Pentadecenol C15H30 226 5.13 245484
O
76 13.11 154 Biphenyl C12H10 154 74.5 114218
77 13.17 55 1-Hexadecene C16H32 224 6.44 118882
78 13.29 57 Tetradecane C14H30 198 38.5 113925
79 13.32 55 3-Tetradecene, (E)- C14H28 196 9.80 139981
80 14.46 55 1-Pentadecene C15H30 210 8.21 69726
81 14.56 57 Pentadecane C15H32 212 40.1 107761
82 14.59 55 Dichloroacetic acid, C17H32 338 3.63 280648
3-pentadecyl ester Cl2O2
83 14.72 55 E-2-Hexadecacen-1- C16H32 240 12.8 131101
ol O
84 15.67 55 1-Hexadecene C16H32 224 10.8 118882s
85 15.77 57 Hexadecane C16H34 226 39.5 114191
86 15.80 55 1-Hexadecene C16H32 224 6.50 118882
87 15.93 55 Cyclopentane, C16H32 224 4.54 10583
undecyl-
88 16.73 55 E-2-Octadecadecen- C18H36 268 14.0 131102
1-ol O
89 16.82 55 E-14-Hexadecenal C16H30 238 9.46 130980
O
90 16.91 57 Heptadecane C17H36 240 36.1 107308
91 16.94 55 8-Heptadecene C17H34 238 11.3 113620
92 17.91 55 E-15-Heptadecenal C17H32 252 19.6 130979
O
93 18.00 57 Octadecane C18H38 254 29.9 57273
94 18.03 55 E-7-Octadecene C18H36 252 8.53 130920
95 18.96 55 1-Nonadecene C19H38 266 11.4 113626
96 19.04 57 Nonadecane C19H40 268 15.1 114098
97 19.20 55 9-Nonadecene C19H38 266 15.7 113627
98 19.95 55 1-Nonadecene C19H38 266 7.73 113626
99 20.02 57 Eicosane C20H42 282 33.2 290513
100 20.19 55 1-Eicosanol C20H42 298 7.62 113075
O
101 20.91 43 1-Docosene C22H44 308 9.91 113878
102 20.97 57 Heneicosane C21H44 296 30.0 107569
103 21.88 57 Heneicosane C21H44 296 15.8 107569
104 22.06 55 10-Heneicosene (c,t) C21H42 294 10.0 113073
105 22.72 43 1-Docosene C22H44 308 15.0 113878
106 22.76 57 Heneicosane C21H44 296 12.6 107569
107 23.62 57 Heneicosane C21H44 296 12.6 107569
108 24.44 57 Heneicosane C21H44 296 7.93 107569
109 25.25 57 Nonadecane C19H40 268 8.83 114098

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
110 26.03 57 Eicosane C20H42 282 7.88 149863
111 26.81 43 Heptacosane C27H56 380 7.25 150574

PETE and HDPE waste plastic to fuel production process was thermal with Ferric Oxide catalyst to
accelerated the reaction. Product fuel percentage was 66.6% and rest of percentage was residue and white color
solid pest. Because PETE waste plastic has Oxygen content and it was not convertible. Product fuel was analysis
by GC/MS (Figure 6) and chromatogram was analysis by using NIST library wise. In GC/MS analysis indicate
that product fuel has hydrocarbon compounds including oxygen content, alcoholic group, aromatic group,
nitrogen content and halogenated compounds. Analysis was perform base on retention time (m) and traces mass
(m/z). During GC/MS analysis period fuel compounds, molecular weight, trace mass, probability percentage and
NIST library number was determine showed into table 2. Initial compounds was detected from GC/MS
chromatogram Propane (C3H8) (t=1.48, m/z=41) molecular weight 44 and probability percentage is 58.1%, and
largest carbon number compounds is Heptacosane (C27H56) (t=26.81, m/z= 43) molecular weight is 380 and
probability percentage is 7.25%. Aromatics group compounds is appeared into GC/MS analysis Toluene (C7H8)
(t=3.36, m/z=91) molecular weight is 92 and probability percentage is 42.5%, Ethylbenzene (C8H10) (T=5.15,
m/z=91) molecular weight is 106 and probability percentage is 62.6% and so on. Alcoholic compounds was
detected 2,4-Undecadien-1-ol (C11H20O) (t=6.06, m/z=41) compound molecular weight is 168 and probability
percentage is 10.4%, 1-(1-methylene-2-propenyl)-Cyclopentanol (C9H14O) (t=7.31, m/z=55) molecular
weight is 138 and probability percentage is 14.0% and so on. Oxygen compounds appeared into GC/MS
analysis and showed Benzaldehyde (C7H6O) (t=6.79, m/z=77) molecular weight is 106 and probability
percentage is 75.1% E-14-Hexadecenal (C16H30O) (t=16.82, m/z=55) molecular weight is 238 and probability
percentage is 9.46%. Nitrogen and halogen group compounds was appeared form GC/MS analysis such as 1-
isocyano-Butane (C5H9N) (t=1.54, m/z=41) molecular weight is 83 and probability percentage is 28.1%,
Dichloroacetic acid, 3-pentadecyl ester (C17H32Cl2O2) (t=14.59, m/z=55) molecular weight is 338 and
probability percentage is 3.63%. Product fuel has short chain hydrocarbon C3H8 to long chain hydrocarbon
C27H56 for that reason fuel can use as a diesel or heating fuel.

V. CONCLUSION
PETE and HDPE waste plastic to fuel production process was successfully with Fe2O3 and activated
carbon. Laboratory scale batch process was under laboratory fume hood at temperature 420 ºC. Product fuel
density is 0.76 g/ml and conversion rate was liquid and light gas 66.6 % and rest of percentage was wax and
solid black residue. Fuel was analysis by FTIR to identify functional group inside fuel and found that C-CH3, C-
C= -C-C= -CH, -CH=CH2-, -CH=CH-(cis), Non-Conjugated and Conjugated. Product fuel has enthalpy value.
GC/MS analysis result indicates that fuel has hydrocarbon chain C3 to C27, aromatic group, alcoholic group,
oxygen content, nitrogen content and halogen content. PETE and HDPE waste plastics mixture to fuel
production period produce fuel and wax mixture can separated by using filtering system. Solid waxy portion can
separate by micron filter process. Then fuel can use as a clean fuel in to internal combustion engine. Residue
and catalyst recovery is under investigation. By using this technology PETE and HDPE to fuel recovery process
can work easy ways at temperature 420 ºC. Although PETE has high percentage of Oxygen content (33.3%) and
rest of percentage can convert as liquid fuel. The technology can solve the PETE and HDPE waste plastics
dumping and landfill problem as well as environmental problem.

VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support of Dr. Karin Kaufman, the founder and sole owner of Natural
State Research, Inc. The author also acknowledges the valuable contributions NSR laboratory team members
during the preparation of this manuscript.

REFERENCES
[1] Mastral, J. F.; Esperanza, E.; Garcia, P.; Juste, M. Pyrolysis of HDPE in a fluidised bed reactor. Influence
of the temperature and residence time. J. Anal. Appl Pyrolysis 2002, 63, 1.
[2] Williams, P. T.; Williams, E. A. Fluidised bed pyrolysis of low density PE to produce petrochemical
feedstock. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 1999, 51, 107.
[3] Kaminsky, W.; Schmidt, H.; Simon, C. M. Recycling of mixed plastics by pyrolysis in a fluidised bed.
Macromol. Symp. 2000, 152, 191.
[4] Onu, P.; Vasile, C.; Ciocilteu, S.; Iojoiu, E.; Darie, H. Thermal and catalytic decomposition of PE and PP.
J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 1999, 49,145.

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[5] Seeker, R. Combustion By-Product Formation: An Overview. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Third
Symposium (International) on Combustion; The Combustion Institute: Pittsburgh, PA, 1990; pp 867-885.
[6] Stefan Czernik and Richard J. French, Production of Hydrogen from Plastics by Pyrolysis and Catalytic
Steam Reform, Energy & Fuels 2006, 20, 754-758
[7] Arandes, J. M.; Abajo, I.; Lopez-Valerio, D.; Fernandez, I.; Azkoiti, M. J.; Olazar, M.; Bilbao, J.
Transformation of several plastic wastes into fuels by catalytic cracking. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1997, 36,
4523.
[8] Aguado, J.; Serrano, D. P.; Escola, J. M.; Garagorri, E.; Fernandez, J. A. Catalytic conversion of
polyolefins into fuels over zeolite beta. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2000, 69, 11.
[9] San You, Y.; Kim, J-H.; Seo, G. Liquid-phase catalytic degradation of polyethylene wax over MFI
zeolites with different particle size. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2000, 70, 365.
[10] Ranzi, E.; Dente, M.; Faravelli, T.; Bozzano, G.; Fabini, S.; Nava, R.; Cozzani, V.; Tognotti, L. Kinetic
modeling of polyethylene and polypropylene thermal degradation. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 1997, 40-41,
305.
[11] Westerhout, R. W. J.; Waanders, J.; Kuipers, J. A. M.; van Swaaij, W. P. M. Recycling of polyethene and
polypropene in a novel bench-scale rotating cone reactor by high-temperature pyrolysis. Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res. 1998, 37, 2293.
[12] Bockhorn, H.; Hornung, A.; Hornung, U.; Schawaller, D. Kinetic study on the thermal degradation of
polypropylene and polyethylene. J.Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 1999, 48, 93.
[13] J. Aguado, D. P. Serrano, G. Vicente, and N. Sanchez, Enhanced Production of α-Olefins by Thermal
Degradation of High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) in Decalin Solvent: Effect of the Reaction Time and
Temperature, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2007, 46, 3497-3504
[14] Sato, S.; Murakata, T.; Baba, S.; Saito, Y.; Watanabe, S. Solvent effect on thermal degradation of
polystyrene. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1990, 40, 2065.
[15] Karaduman, A.; Sü imsüek, E. H.; Cü icüek, B.; Bilgesu, A. Y. Thermal degradation of polystyrene
wastes in various solvents. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2002, 62, 273.
[16] J. Aguado, D. P. Serrano, G. Vicente, and N. Sanchez, Enhanced Production of α-Olefins by Thermal
Degradation of High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) in Decalin Solvent: Effect of the Reaction Time and
Temperature, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2007, 46, 3497-3504

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-11-21
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Lightning Protection of Floating Roof Tanks

Adekitan, Aderibigbe Israel,
B.Sc., MNSE
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract: - Prior to export, processed crude oil is stored in Floating Roof Tanks (FRT) to further allow any
trapped gas within the crude oil to escape, as this stabilises the crude oil. In the oil and gas industry, FRT’s are
vital in the processing of crude oil to the acceptable export specification.
In the tropics and other lightning prone regions, lightning induced floating roof tank fire constitutes a major
threat to crude oil production. Among others, a single lightning incident could result in the loss of life, product
and production time, avoidable incident review time, damaged equipment, wasted repair cost, bad publicity and
loss of income.
This paper therefore, is aimed at providing an effective solution to the menace of lightning induced tank fire by
focussing on the starting process of the lightning induced fire and proposing alternative concepts for breaking
the fire triangle before fire ensues.

Keywords: - crude oil, fire, floating roof tank, lightning protection, sparks

I. INTRODUCTION
Lightning is more prevalent in the tropics than elsewhere in the world [10] and it is a natural
phenomenon with an associated potential hazard. Lightning is a scientific phenomenon and contrary to common
opinion lightning can be studied scientifically and using its empirical properties its occurrence can be predicted,
detected and its impact mitigated.
Preventing static electricity and lightning related hazards such as step / touch voltage, lightning fire,
equipment damage etc. is achieved by installing an effective Lightning Protection System (LPS) on the structure
of concern. The effectiveness of such a Lightning Protection System is dependent on the nature and the
thoroughness of the design of the grounding and bonding system implemented on and around the structure and
how well it is maintained after installation.
In providing an effective solution to lightning issues several studies have been carried out and different
approaches adopted overtime. Some of these approaches have been criticized and said to be based on junk
science [4, 6, 7, 9]. There is therefore a need for a detailed analysis and definition of what qualifies as an effective
lightning protection system especially as regards oil and gas facilities, which are particularly prone to lightning
induced fire incidents because of the flammable nature of oil and gas products.
Unavoidably, analysis here focuses on accepted principles and guidelines as proposed by competent
authorities on lightning protection.

II. INTERACTION OF LIGHTNING WITH A FLOATING ROOF TANK

“Tank fire statistics shows that 35% of all floating roof tank fires are caused by lightning related issues.
It is presently estimated that 95% of rim seal fires are as a result of lightning strikes and 0.16% of all tanks with
rim seals will experience a ream seal fire in any year [3]”
If 95% of all rim seal fires are as a result of lightning, then this raises the question “what is peculiar
about the rim-seal region of a FRT that makes it susceptible to lightning?” By design to ensure ease of
movement of the floating roof within the tank shell, there exist a gap between the tank shell and the edge of the
floating roof. This eliminates friction, guarantees ease of movement but creates issues in the following areas
when lightning strikes.

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Sparking
When lightning strikes the floating roof the lightning current will flow over the roof towards the edge
of the roof, and at the edge there exist a discontinuity because of the tank shell-roof gap this prevents the current
from flowing through the tank shell to the ground. Lightning induced electrostatic field at ground level is in the
order of 5KV/m and because of this high electric field a potential difference will exist between the roof and the
tank shell.

Figure 1: Tank shell-roof air gap

Because of the content of a floating roof tank which is crude oil, the tank contains flammable vapour,
also oxygen is readily available in the environment and at a potential of about 3KV/mm the flammable air
vapour (acting as a di-electric) within the gap will break down and conduct electricity in the form of a spark
(arc). This completes the fire triangle resulting in a lightning induced floating roof tank fire.
According to API [1] there are two types of spark; thermal and voltage sparks.

Roof Surface Charging

Prior to an eventual lightning strike electric charges will accumulate in the sky, e.g. for a negative
cloud to ground lightning, by induction positive charge will be induced on the surface of the shell and the roof
of the tank. This will ultimately create a difference in potential between the roof and the shell which can result
in transient currents.

Heating due to lightning strike

The flow of high energy lightning current can cause erosion and melting of thin metal sheets and this
can generate incendiary particles even around the shell-roof gap. However tanks with a thickness greater than
5mm cannot be melted by lightning. The continuing current with over 200C of charges will only met a little
over 1mm. Usually FRT tank shells are thicker than 5mm.

2.1 ROOF - SHELL CONNECTION

The discussion above shows that the gap between the roof and the tank shell is a major cause
of lightning voltage spark. In order to mitigate this, standards on lightning protection recommends that a form of
short circuit (direct connection) should be established between the roof and the shell so as to provide a flow path
for the lightning current from the roof to the tank shell rather than through the air gap so as to drastically reduce
the electric field build up within the air gap, and this takes the following forms:

2.1.1 Connection via the roof steers

The stairs that connects the tank shell to the top of the roof, for providing access to the roof so that
technicians can service the instrumentation systems installed on the tank roof is metallic. Hence this can serve as
a flow path for lightning current but this has a limitation in the sense that the stair is not solidly connected to the
roof.

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Figure 2: FRT Roof Access Ladder

The contact between the roof and the stairs is via movable rollers on rails that does not guarantee a
good electrical connection and also there is a tendency for spark generation between the roller and the roof if
gaps exist. Also because of the content of the tank that is crude oil, the roof is sometimes coated with oil and
this further reduces the electrical conductivity between the roof and the roller. Hence this cannot be depended on
for a good roof to shell connection.

2.1.2 Connection via bypass cable

It is also a common practise to connect the roof to the shell with a long length of cable at different
points along the circumference at a maximum separation distance of 30m. The bypass conductor is installed to
conduct the intermediate and the continuing current component of the lightning current. FRT are usually large in
diameter e.g. for a tank with a diameter of 60m and 50m in height the cable must be long enough to connect the
shell to the roof even when the tank is empty and the roof is at the bottom of the tank. For such a tank, if the
cable is connected to the centre of the roof the cable length must be at least 58.3 m and definitely it will be
longer as the cable cannot be taut.
When lightning impulse current with a frequency varying from hundreds of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz flows through such a cable the resistance of the cable is no longer significant, what matters is the
impedance which is highly determined by the frequency dependent inductance (2FL). If the impedance
becomes so high to the extent that a very high voltage develops across the cable as several kilo amperes flows
through it, a flash over can occur. Flash over is when lightening current jumps through air to a nearby
conducting medium or object when the voltage build up across its initial path is so high as to cause a dielectric
breakdown of the insulating surrounding air.
Another issue with the use of cables is due to the rate of change of the lightning current (di/dt) as high
as 200KA/μs. With a high inductance a very high voltage can easily be induced in nearby conductors or in the
cable by faradays law of electromagnetic induction even when the current is not flowing directly through the
cable. Hence the use of connecting cable is also not an optimal option.

2.1.3 Use of shunts

Towards resolving the roof-shell connection issue National Fire Protection Agency in their standard
NFPA 780 and also according to API 545-A [1] which recommended that a thin sheet of metal called a shunt
should be used to connect the roof to the shell at a separation distance of 3m round the circumference of the tank
for conducting the component A and B of the lightning current. The shunt is sometimes used together with the
bypass conductor. The shunt shall be made of austenitic stainless steel with a minimum of 20mm 2 in cross
sectional area and a minimum width of 51mm or could be of any other material with an equal current rating and
corrosion resistant rating.
The installed shunt, by design is held in contact with the tank shell by tension with a spring like effect such that
as the roof moves up and down the shunt moves with it and maintains contact with the shell.
Unfortunately the shunt also does not provide a perfect solution, the contact between the shunt and the
shell is not a solid contact and as such there is a tendency for arcing. Also the conductivity of the shunt-shell
interface is affected by the internal paint on the shell surface, the level of rusting and also by the insulating
coating deposited by the heavy component of crude oil on the tank surface. API research shows that irrespective
of the location of the shunt, always there is a spark generation at the shell shunt interface when lightning current
flows, the only difference is that the magnitude of the spark is reduced compared to that without the shunt.
Because the contact between the shell and shunt is dependent on the springy tension, on several tanks shunts can

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be seen completely separated from the tank shell due to the lost tension thereby creating the spark gap it was
installed to eliminate.

Figure 3: Shunt Not Making Contact with the Tank

Copyright: Lightning Eliminators and Consultants, Inc. 2012

Since there will always be sparking at the shunt-shell interface API recommended that the shunts
should be installed submerged below the crude oil at a minimum depth of 0.3m in a region where flammable
vapour does not exist such that even when sparks are generated the fire triangle will not be completed. Presently
the submersible type of shunt is not available because the feasibility and effectiveness of such a design is not
generally agreed on. This therefore challenges the effectiveness of shunts for current conduction.

2.1.4 Retractable Grounding Array (RGA)

Figure 4: Retractable Grounding Assembly Copyright: Lightning Eliminators and Consultants, Inc. 2012

Recent design came up with a device called a Retractable Grounding Array (RGA) which is basically a
self-retracting conductor. The RGA retracts and extends based on the roof level thereby maintaining the shortest
electrical connection possible and by so prevents the issue associated with the use of long cables. It is made of
multiple weaved strands of low resistance tinned copper wire and is typically installed on the tank shell and
connected to the edge of the roof.

RGA should be more effective due to the shortest electrical connection it provides, although more expensive
compared to ordinary cables but RGA alone is not considered a complete lightning protection against direct
strike.

III. LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM CONCEPT SELECTION

The approach to solving the lightning induced fire issue is centred on eliminating voltage differential
and majorly breaking the fire triangle and this would take two forms.
a. Eliminating the chances of spark generation at the shunt-shell interface by ensuring that the lightning stroke
does not terminate on the roof but on a preferred conductive part
b. Ensuring the absence of flammable fuel-air vapour in the shunt region by eliminating oxygen or limiting the
volume of hydrocarbon fumes

This paper focuses on the first, and this would be achieved by implementing a conventional LPS on the FRT in a
way that the lightning current would be almost if not completely routed from the tank’s shell-shunt interface.

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Concept 1: Air terminal installation on the tank rim
Description
Research findings clearly show that the shape and dimension of an air terminal determines its
performance. In line with this, since the tank shell itself is not an air terminal though effectively conductive its
ability to emit upward streamers and thereby attract the lightning to itself rather than to the roof could be
impaired by its shape and properties, hence this option.

Based on oil and gas industry practices around the world and as proposed by the OISD [5].

Figure 5: Air terminal rods on a FRT

1. Install blunt tip Franklin rods (preferably dia-19 mm) at every 20 m spacing around the tank rim BS-6651 [2]
2. The down conductor in this case shall be the tank shell [Since the tank shell thickness ≥ 4.8mm NFPA [8]]

The major limitation of this approach is that with a 5 m high air terminal only a maximum of 16.58 m distance
on the roof from the edge of the shell is protected.
The key advantage is that this concept prevents direct strike to the shunt region, and if the stroke
terminates somewhere around the centre, the lightning stroke current will be divided among the different shunts
thereby reducing the magnitude of current through individual shunt. The protected zone can be improved by
increasing the height of the air terminal, although a 5m high air terminal seems excessively long already.

With this concept a direct strike to the tank shell will still result in transients current flowing from the shell
across the shunts to the roof, through other shunts, then over the shell again.

Concept 2: Use of suspended horizontal air terminal attached to the tank rim

Description

Figure 6: Shield wire attached to the tank shell

The focus of this option is to eliminate the weakness of concept 1 in terms of the limit of the protection
radius of the air terminals. It utilizes an array of horizontal air terminals supported by steel rods welded to the
tank rim to ensure a full protection zone cover of the tank roof.
The main flaw of this approach is that even without a lightning bypass to the roof, the flow of current through
the support steel pole to the tank shell will still result in the flow of a portion of the current via the shunts to the
roof, then through other shunts back to the shell and then down to the ground.

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Concept 3: Use of suspended horizontal air terminal using support poles
Description

The protection is achieved using multiple suspended air terminations (overhead shield wires) at an adequate
height above the area to be protected as recommended by BS 6651 [2] and NFPA 780 (#7.3.3) for explosive
materials.

Figure 7: Pole supported shield wire

“Since lightning currents are difficult to prevent except by roofing over the tank with metal or having a
mesh type catenary system over the entire tank, which is not very practicable”. API 545-A [1] also recognizes
the benefits of a conducting mesh over the tank
The setup is made up of low resistance, separately grounded steel poles used as support for low
resistance catenary ground wire. The minimum separation distance between an overhead ground (horizontal
shield) wire or a lightning mast and the structure being protected must be greater than or equal to the side flash
distance (s) or the bonding distance, so as to prevent side flashes.
The main advantage of this option is that it completely keeps the lightning current from the tank provided there
is no eventual bypass.

3.1 CRITERIA DEFINTION

The best option among the three concepts will be selected based on the following criterion.

Table 1: Project Selection Criteria Paired Comparison

B C D E F G Criteria Score Weight Ranking
A B2 C3 D3 E2 A1F1 G2 A: Material Requirement 1 2% 6
B B2 D2 B2 B2 B1G1 B: Constructability 9 20% 3
C D2 C2 C2 G2 C: Extent of roof protection 7 15% 4
D: Tendency of spark
D D3 D3 D1G1 generation 14 30% 1
E E2 G2 E: Ease of maintenance 4 9% 5
F G2 F: Design flexibility 1 2% 6
G: Tank isolation from
lightning 10 22% 2
46

1 = About the Same

Preference Scoring 2 = Preferred
3 = Strongly Preferred

Material Requirement: This translates to the installation cost

Constructability: The ease / feasibility of the design installation in terms of material availability, space
limitation, structural arrangement and the effect on production.
Extent of roof protection: The proportion of the FRT roof that is within the protection zone of the LPS.
Tendency of spark generation: The magnitude of lightning current that is likely to flow through the shell-shunt
interface.

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Ease of maintenance: Ease of access for maintenance activities, in terms of location / height challenges and
impact on production activities.
Design flexibility: Design limitation on arrangement / physical setup as a measure of LPS interference with
other equipment / tank component.
Tank isolation from lightning: The probability of a direct strike to the tank as a result of LPS lightning bypass
/ limitation of the zone of protection.

Table 2: Application of the weight of the criteria to each concept

A: Material

B:Constructa-bility

C: Extent of roof

D: Tendency of

E: Ease of

F: Design flexibility

G: Isolation from

Concept Score

Concept Ranking
maintenance
requirement

spark generation
protection

lightning
Design Concept 0.0217 0.1956 0.1521 0.3043 0.0869 0.0217 0.0217

Air terminal installation 7 4 6 6 7 6 4 4.50 3

on the tank rim
Use of suspended
horizontal air terminal 9 8 9 7 6 6 5 6.02 2
attached to the tank rim
Use of suspended
horizontal air terminal 6 8 9 9 5 6 9 6.57 1
using support poles

In line with preventing tank fire, concept 3 which utilizes horizontal air termination with support poles
which has the highest concept score after comparison as shown in Table 1and Table 2 is the recommended
concept. The main reasons are that this concept has the best protection zone and the least tendency of spark
generation

3.2 Application of the rolling sphere to a floating roof tank protected using concept 3
Using the rolling sphere approach to air terminal design mathematical analysis were carried out to
determine the relationship between the striking distance, the attractive radius and the penetration depth between
two adjacent lightning shield wires. Using developed mathematical relationships and the recommendations of
competent authorities on lightning protection, an application was developed which simplifies the intricacies of
designing a LPS for a FRT using the recommended concept.

Figure 8: Striking distance to a point Y on the air terminal

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Figure 9: Space protected by two parallel horizontal air terminals

IV. THE APPLICATION

Based on the analysis and models developed around the selected concept a software application was developed
which automates the LPS design.

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Figure 11: Parameter selection form

4.1 Setting up the Lightning Protection System

Setting up the LPS requires making technical decisions to determine the number of parallel lightning
shield wires required, their spacing, the minimum height of the wire above the tank to prevent side flash and so
on. The design process can be carried out in stages, with analysis done separately for the grounding system, the
down conductor and the air terminal, doing this will require the user to make some enlightened decisions. This
could be a little cumbersome for someone with a basic understanding of lightning protection and its
requirements. To address this, a platform was created which only requires the dimension of the tank and the
desired protection level, and the application will automatically compute the installation requirement in terms of
spacing and air terminal height.

Figure 12: Form for computing installation requirements

Although the automatic computation considers necessary factors such as the tendency of a lightning
flash and is thus accurate and sufficient for protection but it may not be the optimum design in terms of material
usage where manually the application user can make decisions based on the physical structure and arrangement
of equipment around and above the tank
The application generates an estimate of the materials (number of electrodes, length of copper tapes) needed.
The position of the distance as given in the report can be determined by comparing it with reference diagram
(tank plan) in the application form.

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Figure 13: A log of installation details

The guidelines and data provided by the application, if duly adhered to will help in setting up an effective
lightning protection system for floating roof tanks.

V. RISK MATRICES

Identify Assess the Plan Implement Monitor and

the risks risks responses responses reassess

Improve

Figure 14: Risk analysis and management process

Risk based analysis using EASY RISK MANAGER shows that the associated risk with lightning induced
floating roof tank fire can be effectively reduced from high-high to low-low in terms of the consequence and the
probability of occurrence, by deploying an effective LPS as presented by this paper.

VI. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented the process of how lightning interacts with floating roof tanks. LPS models
were proposed and the very best after a thorough comparison was selected. Using the selected concept this
project mathematically analysed the lightning strike process to a tank and in the course of this formulas and
algorithms were developed, also other relevant formulas were compiled from competent authorities on lightning
protection.
Ultimately, a lightning protection system design software called RIBIG FRT LPS+ was developed which serves
as a platform for fast and accurate design of LPS for floating roof tanks.

VII. ACKNOWLEGMENTS
Engr. Muyiwa Falade – Electrical Team Lead Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (SPDC)
Engr. Chidumga Okoye – Senior Electrical Engineer SPDC.

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Mr Kalu Justice – Supervisor Electrical Team, Bonny oil and Gas Terminal, SPDC
Dr O. A. Fakolujo – Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department, Univeristy of Ibadan, Nigeria.

REFERENCES
[1] API, RR 545-A. (2009), Verification of lightning protection requirements for above ground hydrocarbon
storage tanks. American Petroleum Institute.
[2] BS-6651 (1999), Code of practice for protection of structures against lightning. BSI Standards
Publication, pg.41.
[3] Changa, James I.; Linb, Cheng-Chung ( 2005). A study of storage tank accidents. Department of safety,
Health and Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology,
Kaohsiung, Taiwan, ROC.
[4] Committee on Atmospheric and Space Electricity of the American (2001). Scientific basis for Traditional
Lightning Protection Systems.
EN 62305, B.S. (2006), Protection against lightning.
[5] GDN-180, OISD (1999), LIGHTNING PROTECTION. Oil Industry Safety Directorate, New Delhi,
India
[6] Group, Federal Interagency Lightning Protection User (2001), The Basis of Conventional Lightning
Protection Technology, A review of the scientific development of conventional lightning protection
technologies and standards.
[7] Hartono, Z. A. & Robiah, I. (2006), Review of Studies of ESE & CTS in Malaysia. In 17th International
Symposium EMC. Zurich, 2006.
[8] NFPA-780 (2004), Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems. National Fire
Protection Association.
[9] Rison, William (2002) There Is No Magic To Lightning Protection:Charge Transfer Systems Do Not
Prevent Lightning Strikes. New mexico: New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology.
[10] Wikipedia (2011), Lightning. [Online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning [Accessed 20
April 2012].

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-22-47
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Performance of C.I Engine by Using Biodiesel-Mahua Oil.

sudheer nandi
Andhra Pradesh,INDIA-517502

Abstract: - India is looking at renewable alternative fuel sources to reduce its dependence on foreign imports of
oils. As India imports 70% of the oil, the country has been hit hard by increasing cost and uncertainty. Recently
the biomass resources are being used as alternative fuels and effective use of those fuels is gaining prominence
as a substitute way to solve the problem of global warming and the energy crisis. Among all the alternative fuels
existing mahua oil is also one. In this work, conventional laboratory equipment has been used for the
transesterification of mahua oil. Various properties of esterified mahua oil have been tested for comparison with
diesel fuel; further the investigations are carried out on a laboratory based diesel engine to study its
performance.
An attempt has been made in the present work to find out the suitability of transesterified mahua oil as
a fuel in C.I. engine. Experimental work was carried out on 7B.H.P single cylinder four stroke and vertical,
water cooled Kirloskar diesel engine at rated speed of 1500rpm different blends of transesterified mahua oil
with diesel were tested at 200bar injection pressure.
From the performance characteristics of transesterified mahua oil diesel blends the efficiencies
obtained were found to be better with 75% transesterified mahua oil. The thermal efficiencies of transesterified
mahua oil are higher at 25% diesel blends. The cost of transesterified mahua oil is low compared to the cost of
diesel. Hence mahua oil blended with diesel is more economical and this can provide an immediate, though
partial solution to the growing diesel scarcity in developing countries like ours.

i. INTRODUCTION
When Rudolf diesel first enunciated the concept of diesel engine, about a century back, the
experimental evaluation was demonstrated on peanut oil indicating that the vegetable oils will be the prospective
future fuels in diesel engines. In the context of fast depletion of fossil fuels and ever increasing diesel vehicle
population, use of renewable fuels like vegetable oils has become more pertinent.
The various biomass based resources, which cab be used as an extender, or a complete substitute of
diesel fuel may have very significant role in the development of agriculture, industrial and transport sectors in
the energy crisis situation. The role of diesel fuel in these sectors cannot be denied because of its ever-increasing
use. In fact agricultural and industrial sectors are almost diesel dependent.

Need for shifting towards alternative fuels

Probably in this century, it is believed that crude oil and petroleum products will become very scarce
and costly to find and produce. Although fuel economy of engines is greatly improved, increase in the number
of automobiles alone dictates that there will be a great demand for fuel in the near future. Alternative fuel
technology, availability, and use must and will become more common in the coming decades.
Another reason motivating the development of alternative fuels for the IC-engine is concerned over the
emission problems of gasoline engines. Combined with other air polluting systems, the large number of
automobiles is a major contributor to the air quality problem of the world. A third reason for alternative fuel
development is the fact that a large percentage of crude oil must be imported from other countries which control
the larger oil fields.

Energy consumption as a measure of prosperity

Energy is an important input in all sectors of any countries economy. The standard of living of a given country
can be directly related to the per capita energy consumption.

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Energy crisis is due to the two reasons:
1. The population of the world has increased rapidly.
2. The standard of living of human beings has increased.

Supply and demand of energy

The energy plays an important role in everyday life. Growth of an economy is largely dependent on
adequate supply of energy. Energy available in its original form in nature such as crude oil, natural gas, coal,
solar heat, etc. is called primary energy sources. Many of these sources are not directly usable and can be used
only after processing of or conversion. Crude oil is refined in a petroleum refinery and resulting petroleum
products include petrol are termed as secondary energy sources.

Present demand and supply

World energy future in present trend countries, the world in the next 50 years will be more crowded
than that of today. The world population may reach 10 billions. The conventional sources of energy are
depleting and may be exhausted by the end of the century or at the beginning of the next century.
The various alternative fuel options researched for diesel are mainly bio-gas, producer gas, methanol, ethanol,
and vegetable oils. Out of all these vegetable oils offer an advantage because of its comparable fuel properties
with diesel. The various edible vegetable oils like sunflower, soyabean, peanut, cotton seed etc. have been tested
successfully in diesel engine. Research in this direction with edible oils yielded encouraging results. But as India
still imports huge quantity of edible oils, therefore, the use of non-edible oils of minor oilseeds like mahua
(madhuca indica) oil has been tested as a diesel fuel extender.

The advantages of vegetable oils as diesel fuel are:

 Liquid nature-portability
 Ready availability
 Renewability
 High Cetane number
 Lower sulfur content
 Lower aromatic content
 Biodegradability
The disadvantages of vegetable oils as diesel fuel are:
 Higher viscosity
 Lower volatility
 The reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon chains

II. IMPORTANCE OF BIO-DIESEL

What is Bio-diesel?
Bio-diesel is a renewable fuel, biodegradable and non-toxic. It is an ester based oxygenated fuel made
form any vegetable oil (edible or non-edible) or animal fat. Bio-diesel is produced by a simple chemical reaction
between vegetable oil and alcohol in the presence of an acid or base as catalyst. It contains around 10% built-in
oxygen by weight and has no sulphur and has excellent lubricity properties. Built-in-oxygen makes it more
efficient fuel than petro-diesel hence its cetane number is higher than that of petro-diesel. It can be blended with
petro-diesel in any proportion.
Bio-diesel is the name of the clean burning alternative fuel, produced from domestic, renewable
resources. Bio-diesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create a
bio-diesel blend. It can be used in compression-ignition (diesel) engines with little or no modifications. Bio-
diesel is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and essentially free of sulphur and aromatics. It is defined as
mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats which confirm to ASTM
D6751 specifications for use in diesel engines. Bio-diesel refers to the pure fuel before blending with diesel fuel.

Statistical report:
The National Bio-diesel Board (NBA) in the US reported that an estimated 5 million gallons of Bio-
diesel were sold in 1999, followed by 2 million gallons in 2000, 5 millions gallons in 2001, 15 million gallons in
2002 and an estimated 25 million gallons in 2003 respectively. It is estimated that during 2004-2005, an
estimated 35 million gallons of bio-diesel is made in the US and it is likely to reach 70 million gallons in the US
in 2006. Bio-diesel operates in conventional engines. Just like petroleum diesel, bio-diesel operates in
compression-ignition engines. Essentially no engine modifications are required, and bio-diesel maintains the
payload capacity and range of diesel.

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Pure bio-diesel is not compatible with natural rubber, sometimes found in pre 1994 vehicles. Because it
is a solvent. It can degrade natural rubber hoses and gaskets. This is not a problem with B20 blends (20 percent
biodiesel/80 percent diesel) and below. Bio-diesel does not require special storage. In fact, in its pure form or in
blends, Bio-diesel can be stored wherever petroleum diesel is stored, except in concrete-lined tanks. It is handled
like diesel and uses the same infrastructure for transport, storage and use. At higher blend levels, bio-diesel may
deteriorate natural rubber or polyurethane foam materials. Bio-diesel exhaust is less offensive. The use of bio-
diesel and bio-diesel blends results in a noticeable, less offensive change in exhaust odour, which can be a real
benefit in confined spaces. In fact, equipment operators have compared it to the smell of French fries. Users also
report having no eye irritation. Since bio-diesel is oxygenated, diesel engines have more complete combustion
with bio-diesel than with petroleum. Bio-diesel is safer to use than petroleum diesel. The flash point (the point at
which fuel ignites) for bio-diesel in its pure form is a minimum of 260 degrees versus about 125 degrees
Fahrenheit for regular No.2 diesel. This makes bio-diesel one of the safest fuels to use, handle and store. Bio-
diesel reduces emissions significantly.
Bio-diesel is the first alternative fuel to have fully completed the health effects testing requirements of
the US Clear Air Act. The use of bio-diesel in a conventional diesel engine results substantial reduction of
unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter. Emissions of nitrogen oxides are either slightly
reduced or slightly increased depending on the duty cycle and testing methods. The use of bio-diesel decreases
the solid carbon fraction of particulate matter (since the oxygen in bio-diesel enables more complete combustion
to CO2), eliminates the sulfate fraction (as there is no sulfur in the fuel), while the soluble, or hydrocarbon,
fraction stays the same or is increased. Bio-diesel works well with new technologies such as catalysts,
particulate traps, and exhaust gas recirculation. So bio-diesel reduces carbon dioxide by 78 percent on a life
cycle basis. No engine modifications are required up to 20 percent blend.
Bio-diesel is made from Rapeseed (UK), Soybean (USA, Brazil), Sunflower (Italy and Southern
France), Oil palm (Malaysia), Linseed, Olive (Spain), Cotton seed (Greece) and tree borne, non-edible oilseeds
like Mahua,Jatropha (Ratanjot) and Pongamia (Karanja) in India. Bio-diesel is produced from more than 20
countries in the world. Like USA, Australia, France, Italy, Hungary, Germany and Czechoslovakia. No tax is
being levied on the production of bio-diesel by Germany and Italy. More than 100 bio-diesel plants were
established in the world. Bio-diesel could be made from crude/natural vegetable oils, crude/refined fats, high
acidity oil/fats, recovered fried oils, animal fats and waste oils.

Bio – Diesel Scenario in the World:

Bio-fuel used for school buses in the US
Pollution from school diesel buses has health implications to children. The use of Bio diesel can reduce
such health risks. In view of this, several thousand school buses in the US are using blends of bio-diesel. In
1997, Medford, New Jersey school district used bio-diesel buses for transport of children to school. In August
2002, Olympia, Illinois school district used bio-diesel for 33 schools buses and travels around 4000 miles per
day with 6 lakhs miles per annum. Clark country, Nevada school district used bio-diesel buses in May 2003 for
1200 schools. Similarly, Arlington County, Cirginia school district used bio-diesel buses for 200 schools, and in
July 2004, Arkansas school district used bio-diesel buses for 149 schools respectively.

Bio-diesel passenger Cars & trucks in the US

America‟s big 3 Auto makers – general Motors, Ford and Daimler Chrysler each introduced new
generation of vehicles with diesel electric hybrids. Diesel engines are about 30 percent more efficient than
gasoline engines. This means that the diesel engine of the same displacement will produce about 30 percent
more horse power or give 30 percent better fuel economy for 30 percent less carbon dioxide emissions. Today‟s
diesel engines are quieter, cleaner burning and more responsive than earlier diesels. In Europe, where the cost of
owning and operative of a passenger vehicle is significantly higher than in the US, stringent laws adopted by
California and four north West States have slowed the introduction of diesel vehicles to the market. However,
increasing fuel prices, the introduction of ultra low sulphur diesel, and new emissions, technology are making
passenger diesel vehicles more attractive to customers leading to diesel option offerings by auto manufacturers.
Bio-diesel further enhances the advantages of diesel by reducing vehicle emissions. B20 reduces
emissions of 12 percent. It reduces sulphur on average by 20 percent. Hundreds of US flights, representing over
25,000 vehicles for commercial, government, utility and transit use, currently run on bio-diesel blends
nationwide. Bio-diesel blends are also used increasingly in the farming, mining and marine industries, as well as
for heating oil and electrical generation applications. Most auto manufacturers approve Upto the use of B 55%
percent bio-diesel for the diesel engines.

Bio-diesel in Indonesia from Castor Oil

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Indonesia‟s scientists claimed to have developed bio-diesel from castor oil plant at Bogor Institute of
Agriculture (IPB) and at the Ban dung Institute of Technology. They are currently developing bio-diesel oil
from the castor oil plant in 400 ha of land in Bireun, Aceh. Each 400 ha of Castor oil plants can produce 4000
liters of bio-diesel.

Bio-diesel from Oliplam in Malaysia

Palm oil prices have been showing wide variation over the last 4 years despite rising production of the
oil with in Malaysia, Palm oil (30 million tones) accounts for about 35 percent of global vegetable oil
production (110mt) and close to 60 percent of world trade of (40 mt in vegetable oils. The industry estimates
that up to five lakhs tones of crude palm oil will be used up annually for bio-fuel purposes, a development that
would act as a stabilizing factor for the palm oil market; any quantity in excess of one million tones in stocks
will be diverted for bio-diesel.

Energy Scenario in India

India‟s incremental energy demand for the next decade is projected to be among the highest in the
world. With increasing growth rate of GDP, total primary commercial energy consumption has increased from
350 million metric tones of oil equivalent (MMToE) during 2003-04 to 380 MMToE at present.
Consumption of petroleum has increased form 3.5 million metric tones (MMT) in 1950-51 to 17.9 MMT in
1970 and 843 MMT in 1997-98 and to more than 120 MMT at present. It is estimated that the demand for
petroleum is 234 MMT in 2019-20. Domestic production of oil in 2004-05 is 33 MMT. Diesel consumption in
2004-05 for import of petroleum products and it is estimated to cost approximately Rs. 1, 75, 000 .00 crores in
2005 respectively.
There is increase in the growth rate of expenditure on import of petroleum to the tine of 46 percent
from 2004-05 and 2005-06. More than 70 percent of India‟s total petroleum consumption is imported from
international market, which itself has become more volatile than ever. International crude prices are soaring to
new highs. Petroleum is predominately (46 percent) consumed in transport sector. The fuel-mix in transport
sector shows that about 80 percent consumption in this sector is a High Speed Diesel (HSD). The projected
demand for HSD in the country by 2005-07 is 52 MMT and on present indications, by 2011-12, it could increase
to 67 MMT. Petroleum resources are finite and therefore search for alternative fuels is continuing all over the
world. Bio-diesel is a renewable fuel and it can be made from any edible, non-edible vegetable oil including
waste oil development of Bio-diesel as an alternative and renewable source of energy for transport sector has
become important in the national effort towards self-reliance, an important component of the strategy for energy
security.

Bio-diesel Society of India (BDSI) formed

Keeping in view of the depleting oil reserves, increasing crude prices and rising global temperature, a
group of like minded entrepreneurs, scientists, bureaucrats and social workers have formed a society to promote
the use of bio-diesel. The objective of the society is to promote the consumption of bio-diesel. Due to
availability of high yielding varieties, this may also results in reduction in import of petroleum products.

III. ALTERNATIVE FUELS

The selection of alternative fuels for IC-engines include the following factors
 Should be available in plenty and derived continuously from renewable sources.
 They should have high specific energy content.
 Should permit easy transportation and storage.
 Should cause less environmental pollution.
 Should be safe in handling.

The various alternative fuels for compression ignition engines are as follows.
ALCOHOLS:
Alcohol is an important renewable energy sources that can substitute petroleum products to certain extent. The
two alcohols that are of main interest are
ETHANOL:
Ethanol is a convenient liquid fuel and can act as a substitute for petrol and diesel. Usually 95%
(hydrous) ethanol can be directly used in modified engines. 100% (anhydrous) ethanol can be mixed with dry
petrol to produce gasohol comprising 10% anhydrous ethanol with 90% petrol. The excellent combustion
properties of ethanol enable an engine to produce up to 20% more power. Mass, density and calorific value of
ethanol are less than that of petrol but on account of its improved combustion properties of ethanol fuel

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consumption from for ethanol, gasohol or petrol is more or less than the same. Ethanol as petrol additive raises
the octane rating of the mixture, as anhydrous ethanol is an octane fuel. Distinctive advantage of ethanol is that
it can be produced by renewable sources unlike nonrenewable fossil fuels.

METHANOL:
Methanol like ethanol possesses octane enhancing capability when blended with unleaded petrol.
Methanol has high toxicity, which makes it a less desirable fuel than ethanol. Methanol, in blends with petrol,
up to a 10% can be used in existing S.I.engines without any modification. In view of its particular solubility,
characteristics, methanol can not be blended with diesel for use in C.I engines. Methanol has a value of
15.5*10^6 to 17.7*10^6 joules per liter, which about half the heat value of petrol and 75% of ethanol. Apart
from having higher flame speed, methanol possesses superior anti knocking properties that enable us to achieve
a higher output. The concentration of carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the
engine exhaust is less with methanol and methanol-petrol blends as compared to that of petrol. It is to be noted
that methanol burns cleaner than petrol.

Table 1: important properties of methanol and ethanol

S.no Property Methanol Ethanol
1 Chemical formula CH3OH C2H5OH
2 Composition by weight %
Carbon 37.5 52
Hydrogen 12.5 13
Oxygen 50 35
3 Specific gravity at 15.5oc 0.796 0.794
4 Boiling point 65 78
5 Lower calorific value (K cal/Kg) 4700 6400
6 Self ignition temperature (oC) 478 420
7 Octane numbers
(a) research 114 111
(b) motor 94 94
8 Cetane number 03 08

BIO-MASS:
Biomass is produced in nature through photo synthesis achieved by solar energy conversion. Bio-mass can be
obtained from different sources comprising
1. Organic wastes that accumulate at specific locations such as municipal solid wastes (MSW), timber wastes
and sewage sludge.
2. Bio-mass in non traditional form (converted in to liquid fuels).
3. Fermenting the biomass aerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called biogas.
Bio-mass is a renewable energy so long as it is grown at a rate at least equal to the rate of its consumption.

BIO-GAS:
Bio-gas can be produced by fermenting organic materials in the absence
of air or oxygen with the help of bacteria (micro organisms) to break down the materials into intermediates like
alcohols and fatty acids and finally to methane, carbon dioxide and water. This process is called anaerobic
fermentation. The appropriate fermentation. The appropriate composition of biogas produced is as follows:
methane 50-60%, CO2 30-40%, hydrogen 5-10%, nitrogen 4-6%, oxygen 1-2% and hydrogen sulfide in traces.
Methane and hydrogen when burnt with oxygen give energy in the form of heat.
1. CH4 + 2O2 → 2H2 O + CO2 + 978.6 KJ
2. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O + 572.6448 KJ
The CO2 in bio-mass does not contribute to the heat energy; indeed it is unfavorable to any
burning process. The amount of heat energy generated is 36476.804 KJ/m 3 for methane and 11712.428 KJ/m3
for hydrogen. It is impracticable to store large volumes of biogas at low pressure. It is therefore more
economically used as it is produced, for example, to meet space and water heating or cooking needs in forms.

NATURAL GAS:
Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum and coal deposits. It consists of mainly methane
with small percentages of ethane, propane, butane and CO2 and nitrogen. Natural gas is nearly odorless and
colorless. The usual range of consumption is 68% to 96% of methane and 3% to 30% of ethane in natural gas.
The range of calorific value of the natural gas is 37674-46046 KG/m3. Gaseous fuel has number of advantages

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over solid or liquid fuels as they burn without any smoke and ash. The control of gases relatively easy and main
disadvantage is its storage.

HYDROGEN:
Hydrogen can play an important role as an alternative to conventional fuels provided, its technical
problems of production, storage and transportation can be resolved satisfactorily and cost could be brought to
the acceptable limits. One of the most attractive features of hydrogen as an energy carrier is that it can be
produced from water, which is abundantly available in nature. Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit
if mass than any chemical fuel and can be substituted for hydrocarbons in a broad range of applications, often
with increased combustion efficiency. Its burning process is non- polluting and it can be used in fuel cells to
produce both electricity and useful heat.

METHANE:
Methane is clear gas with high calorific value. It can be used on site, and into the gas mines. Natural
gas is 955-methane or converted into methanol by treatment with a catalyst at high temperature and pressure. It
can also be compressed and used in limited range vehicles like tractors and forklift trucks. However, to store or
transport the energy equivalent of a single gallon of petrol as compressed requires a large tank. At 115bar
pressure the tank dimensions would need to be 0.45m in diameter and 1.45m in height.

LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS:

During the refining of petroleum, large quantities of butane are liberated from the top of the column
and from the other refining processes. These gases can be compressed and liquefied at atmospheric temperature.
Butane and propane are also present in natural gas and can be separated and removed. Thus large volumes of the
gas can be stored under pressure in steel cylinders. It is an ideal fuel for domestic and mobile use. LPG contains
some fraction of methane and unsaturated hydro carbons in addition to butane and propane.

VEGETABLE OILS:
Vegetable oils can be classified as edible and non-edible oils. In India the consumption of edible oils is
more than the production. Hence, we can depend on non-edible oils for use in CI engines. Edible oils such as
sunflower, coconut, rice bran etc. can be used. Non-edible oils such as mahua, karanji, rapeseed, cottonseed etc.
can be substituted in CI engines.

PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE OILS:

If fuel shall be used in the existing engines, some required properties of the fuel such as
kinematic-viscosity, the self ignition response, the net heating value, the grass heating value and density must be
considered.

VISCOSITY:
The direction injection in open combustion chamber trough nozzle and pattern of fuel spray decides the
case of combustion and thermal efficiency of the engine. Viscosity plays a vital role in the combustion. Low
viscosity can lead to excessive internal pumping leakage where as high viscosity can increase system pressure to
unacceptable levels and will effect injection during spray atomization. This effect is critical particularly at low
speed or light load condition as pure vegetable oils have high viscosity. The derivatives of vegetable oils are
called monsters and have low kinematics viscosity than that of oils. The monoesters are able to give stable
solutions in wide range of proportions with diesel fuel, vegetable oils and with alcohol too. They can be
solubilizers and can also make it possible to influence the viscosity of blended oils.

SELF-IGNITION RESPONSE:
It is expressed by the cetane number and for a good diesel fuel the value has to be not lower than 45. The cetane
number of vegetable oils is less than the diesel. The cetane number of monoesters, on an average, is above that
of vegetable oils. For example neem and karanji oils with diesel blends of 10% level have cetane number about
40-45 and at 20% level have cetane number about 35-40.

THE ENERGY CONTENT or HEATING VALUE:

The specific heating values of the different vegetable oils are nearly the same.
They range from 30.5-40.5MJ/Kg and for fuels it are approximately 42.4MJ/Kg. if calorific or heating value of
vegetable oils is more, it helps to reduce the quantity handled and to maximize equipment operating range. It is
always desirable for vegetable fuels to have heating value nearer to diesel oil.

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DENSITY:
Density of the vegetable oils is 0.91-0.94gm/cc at 15oC. In comparison to the density of diesel fuel (0.81-
0.86gm/cc)the density of vegetable oils 10% higher, and for ester about 5% higher. For example mahua oil-0.92,
neem oil-0.921 & karanji oil-0.95 while the density of ethyl and methyl ester of rape oil is 0.87 and 0.88gm/cc
respectively.
POUR POINT, CLOUD POINT AND FLASH POINT:
First two properties are important for cold weather operation. For satisfactory working, the values of both are
well below freezing point of oil used. Flash point is important from safety point of view. The temperature
should be practically as high as possible. Typical values of vegetable fuels range between 50 & 110 c addition
of vegetable oil with diesel to form a blend should not decrease the flash point temperature.

SEPERATION OF VEGETABLE OIL FUELS:

Solution to the viscosity problem has approached in at least four ways:

1. by dilution
2. by preparation of methyl esters transesterification
3. by micro emulsification
4. by Pyrolosis(or)thermal cracking

(a)DILUTION:
Dilution or blending of vegetable oil with neat diesel fuel, to improve fuel property of vegetable oil, is
one of the well known methods. Dilution of sunflower oil with diesel fuel (1.3v/v) provides a fuel with a
viscosity of 4.88 at 40 c, which is higher than the specified ASTM value of 4.0 at 40c. The viscosity is
moderately less than that of neat sunflower oil. However Ziejewsks concluded that the blend could not be
recommended for long term use in the direction diesel, engine because of closing of injector nozzle.

(b) METHYL ESTER TRANS ESTERFICATION:

The second method for reducing the viscosity is the conversion of the triglyceride oil to simple esters,
which reduces the molecular weight of the original oil to 1/3 of its former value and so reduces the viscosity.
Transesterification is a chemical reaction that aims at substituting the glycerol of the glycosides with their
molecules of mono alcohols such as methanol and ethanol there by obtaining three molecules of methyl ester of
the vegetable oil. A mixture of anhydrous alcohol and reagent (NaOH) in proper proportions is combined with
moisture free vegetable oil. The materials are maintained at 65 to 75 c and allowed to settle by gravity for 24
hours.
Alkali catalyzed transesterification is known to proceed much fatter than acid catalyzed
transesterification. Fatty acid methyl esters are considered as a possible substitute for a conventional automotive
diesel engine.
Vegetable oil + alcohol --------------> glycerin + esters

(c)MICRO EMULSIFICATION:
Another method of reducing vegetable oil viscosity has been discovered through the formation micro
emulsion with short chain as methanol (or) ethanol. A micro emulsion is defined as colloidal equilibrium
dispersion of optically isotopic fluid micro
structures, with dimension generally in 1 to 150 square meter range, formed spontaneously from two normally
immiscible liquids and one or more amhophilous.
The preliminary engine tests gave the following results for micro emulsions.
1. Lower exhaust temperature, and reduced emissions. Lower carbon monoxide/nitrogen oxide emissions than
that is observed for diesel fuel.
2. Heat release4 patters indicated that the micro emulsion fuels burned faster than diesel fuel and had higher
levels of pre mixed burning and lower levels of diffusion flame burning.

(d) PYROLYSIS OR THERMAL CRACKING:

Thermal and catalytic decomposition of vegetable oils to produce substitutes for diesel fuel has been
studied by a number of researchers using a variety of methods. The method involves cleavage of chemical bonds
to yield smaller molecules. Essentially two different methods of processing vegetable oils to obtain fuel have
been used.

1. Passing of the oil over a heated catalyst in a tube.

2. Distillation of the oil while in the presence of metallic salts.,

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PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE OIL ESTER:
The physical characteristics of vegetable oil esters are close to those of diesel oil. A very positive gain by
this process is the cetane number of esters. The fact that the cetane number of esters is in the range of 50 and
above indicates their superiority in this respect. Viscosity is considerably reduced and is brought down to the
level of what is usual for diesel oil. They heating value is slightly lower than that of the parent oil. The cloud
point, though considerably reduced, is still high enough to cause flow problem in certain climates. The carbon
residue of the esters is also low. There is only a marginal improvement in the volatility as a result of
esterification. However this is not sufficient to eliminate starting problems in cold conditions. They mix easily
with diesel oil. The characteristics being so close to those of the diesel oil that the esters become strong
candidates to replace the diesel oil when need arises.

Table 2: vegetable oil properties

Oil Flash Density Kinematic Cetane number Cloud Lower
point gm/cc Viscosity point heating
(oc) At 37.8o c (oc) Value
Sq.mm/sec MJ/liter
Diesel oil 46 0.832 1.62 45.0 -17.8 35.3
Peanut oil 235 0.921 41.2 41.5 +3 34.1
Methyl ester peanut oil 176 0.883 4.9 54.0 +5 33.6
Soya bean oil 219 0.923 36.8 38.5 -4 34.0
Babassu oil 150 0.946 30.3 38.0 +20 33.4
Methyl babassu oil 127 0.879 3.6 63.0 +4 31.8
Palm oil 267 0.918 39.6 42.0 +31 35.0
Methyl ester of palm oil 164 0.880 5.7 62.0 +13 33.3
Sunflower oil 232 0.924 37.1 35.5 -5 34.0
Methyl ester of sunflower oil 183 0.880 4.6 49.0 +1 33.5

VEGETABLE OIL FUEL PERFORMANCE:

The vegetable oil based fuels are renewable biomass derived fuels. Further these fuels can be readily
mixed with standard diesel and can be used in blends at any proportion. As far as the impact engine is
concerned, there has been no evidence of material compatibility, problems using vegetable oil fuel when it is
used in the proportion of 20 to 30% blend with diesel. A test in this regard was carried out by national Soya
diesel.
According to NSDB(Development board USA) reports 100%esters of Soya bean oil indicated
immersion incompatibility with certain rubbers and plastics, but not with metals. As far is durability is
concerned most studies have shown no appreciable difference between vegetable oil based diesel and petrol.
Vegetable oils based fuel can be substituted for diesel fuel with essential no engine modifications particularly at
lower blending levels. Further, vegetable oil based fuel has a flash point of 64 c. vegetable oil fuel also has the
advantage of not producing explosive fuel air mixtures.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATING WITH VEGETABLE OIL FUEL:

1. Viscosity of vegetable oils is much higher than that of diesel. It can cause problems in fuel handling,
pumping, atomization and fuel injection, incomplete combustion, poor cold startup, deposit formation and
ring sticking.
2. Slower burning rate: vegetable oil gives rise to exhaust smoke, fuel impingements of oil on cylinder walls
and lubricant oil contamination.
3. VOLATALITY of vegetable oils is very less which preclude their use in spark ignition engine.
4. FLOW PROPERTIES of the vegetable oils are poor which limit their utilization during cold weather in
moderate temperature climates.

MODIFICATIONS:
The problems associated with viscosity can be reduced by heating the oil before entering into the engine.
1. Further the fuel injection problem can be increasing the injection pressure.
2. The problems associated with late/slow burning can be avoided by advancing fuel injection and preheating
the fuel.
3. All the above problems can be eliminated up to certain extent by blending vegetable oils with diesel.
4. Low problems can be eliminated by winterization (popular technique for reducing high melting point by
freezing them over a prescribed time period and drawing the liquid portion off separately)

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POLLUTION ASPECT OF VEGETABLE OILS:
Vegetable oils have high carbon residue. Vegetable oil based fuel contribute less green house gases to
the atmosphere and its use results in reduced air pollution to local levels. The parameters, which improve with
vegetable oil based fuel, include smoke, polyrometric hydrocarbon, unburned hydrocarbon, sulphurdioxide, and
acetaldehyde. One more important thing is that vegetable oil based fuels are biodegradable and non toxic. If
spilled, it is at least 90% biodegradable with in three weeks. Therefore, its spill and leaks in mines and other
sensitive areas will have less impact on disturbed aquifers. These characteristics make it a valuable fuel
particularly in environmentally sensitive areas. Vegetable oil has good ignition qualities than lighter alcohols for
diesel engines, since their cetane number is above 30.

ECONOMICAL ASPECT OF VEGETABLE OIL FUELS:

Vegetable oil based fuel is currently more expensive than petrol & diesel. But by increasing the
production and by providing subsidies, the prices can be lowered down. Further, by using glycerin as bi-product,
the prices can be brought down. While considering about cost factor, we have to think about petroleum sources.
They will become scarce with in next 25-30 years, and by that time we must have some alternative sources to
run out millions of vehicles with out disturbance. The alternative fuels available are LPG, alcohol, and vegetable
oils etc., further these LPG sources are also limited. They may serve 30-40 years. So, next choice is to go for
vegetable oils. These vegetable oil based fuels are promising once. Their use doesn‟t requiring major engine,
vehicle or infrastructure modification in existing facilities. Because, these vegetable oils are renewable, the
promising feature of vegetable oil based fuel cannot be over looked.

IV. MAHUA OIL – LITERARY SURVEY

Introduction:
Two species of the genus madhuca indica and madhuca longifolia are found in India. Mahua is known
as Illupai maram in Tamil and Hippi in Kannada, which can be successfully grown in the wastelands and dry
lands. The seeds of the tree, popularly known as `Indian butter tree. The specific gravity of mahua oil was
9.11% higher than that of diesel. The kinematic viscosity of mahua oil was 15.23times more than that of diesel
at temperature of 40c. The kinematic viscosity of mahua oil reduced considerably with increase in temperature
to 80c and by increasing the proportion of diesel in fuel blends.

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Edible oil:
The seeds contain 30-40 per cent fatty oil called mahua oil, which is edible and is also used in the
manufacture of various products such as soap and glycerin. The oil cake is used as bio fertilizer, organic manure
and as feed for fish and cattle. The leaves are used as fodder and as green manure. The flowers are used for
extracting ethanol, which is used in making country liquor.

Potential income:
The tree is found in abundance in Thanjavur, Tiruchi and Perambalur regions of Tamil- Nadu and
along the Cauvery River basin. About 30-40 percent of the tribal economy in north India such as in Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh and Orissa is dependent on the mahua seeds and flowers. The tree has a potential of enhancing
rural income. Being an evergreen variety, it reaches a height of 45-60 feet, and is well adapted to varied weather
conditions. With its wide spreading branches and circular crown the trees present a visually appealing structure.
Though the tree starts bearing seeds from the seventh year of planting, commercial harvesting of seeds can be
done only from the tenth year. Seed yield ranges from 20-200 kg per tree every year, depending on its growth
and development. Being hardy and pest resistant, the tree requires little attention once it has taken root.

Propagation technique:
Elaborating on the technique for propagating the trees, he said the variety can be propagated through
seeds and transplanted seedlings. Seeds are sown at a depth of 1.5-2.5 cm on raised beds. The seeds germinate in
about ten days. One-month-old seedlings are transplanted in plastic containers of 15 x 25 cm. Six to twelve-
month old-seedlings are used for planting in the main field.

Comparison of mahua oil with diesel oil:

(a) Calorific Value and Carbon Residue: The calorific value of mahua oil was observed as 88.26% of diesel
on weight basis and 96.30% on volume basis. The calorific value of mahua oil was found nearer to diesel
fuel in comparison with other liquid fuel options like ethanol and methanol. The carbon residue of mahua
oil was found higher than that of the limit specified for gradeA diesel and this may increase the chances of
carbon deposition in the combustion chamber. The higher carbon residue may be due to the difference in
chemical composition and molecular structure of mahua oil.
(b) Flash point: the flash point of mahua oil was very high as compared to diesel thus indicating its low
volatile nature. The results of increase in concentration of mahua oil in diesel revealed that the power output
decreases at all compression ratios.
(c) Brake thermal efficiency and a/f ratio: Brake thermal efficiency decreased with the increase of mahua
oil in diesel at all three compression ratio in comparison with pure diesel. Exhaust gas temperature
increased with the increase in concentration of mahua oil in diesel. The air-fuel ratio and volumetric
efficiency decreased with increase in concentration of mahua oil in diesel.

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V. TRANSESTERIFICATION
Introduction:
Transesterification is the process of using an alcohol (methanol, ethanol, proponol, or butanol) in the
presence of catalyst to chemically break the molecule of the raw renewable oil into methyl or ethyl esters of the
renewable oils with glycerol as by-product.

Transesterification of vegetable oils and fats:

The transesterification reaction proceeds with catalyst or without catalyst by using primary or secondary
monohydric aliphatic alcohols having 1-8 carbon atoms as follows:
Triglycerides + monohydric alcohol ↔ glycerin + mono-alkyl esters
Transesterification means taking a triglyceride molecule or a complex fatty acid, neutralizing the free
fatty acids, removing the glycerin, and creating an alcohol ester. Theoretically, transesterification reaction is an
equilibrium reaction. In this reaction, however more amount of methanol was used to shift the reaction
equilibrium to the right side and produce more methyl esters as the proposed product. A catalyst is usually used
to improve the reaction rate and yield.
Alcohols are primary or secondary monohydric aliphatic alcohols having 1-8 carbon atoms. Among the
alcohols that can be used in the transesterification reactions are Methanol, ethanol, proponol, or butanol or amyl
alcohol. Methanol and ethanol are most frequently used. Ethanol is a preferred alcohol compared to methanol
because it is derived from agricultural products and is biologically less objectionable in the environment.
However methanol is preferable because if it‟s low cost and its physical and chemical advantages (polar and
shortest chain alcohol). The transesterification can also be catalyzed by alkalis, acid or enzymes.
In the conventional transesterification of animal fats and vegetable oils for biodiesel production, free fatty acids
and water always produce negative effects, since the presence of free fatty acids and water causes soap
formation, consumes catalyst and reduces catalyst effectiveness, all of which resulting in a low conversion.
The transesterification reaction based on the catalyst usage is divided into two types namely
1. catalytic transesterification method
2. non- catalytic transesterification method

Reaction mechanism of transesterification:

Tranesterification consists of a number of consecutive, reversible reactions. Triglyceride is converted
stepwise to diglyceride, monoglyceride and finally glycerol. The formation of alkyl esters form monoglycerides
is believed as a step which determines the reaction rate, since monoglycerides are the most stable intermediate
compound.
Triglyceride + ROH ↔ diglyceride + RCOOR1
Diglyceride + ROH ↔ glycerol + RCOOR2
Monoglyceride + ROH ↔ glycerol + RCOOR3

Several aspects, including the type of catalyst (alkaline, acid or enzyme), alcohol/vegetable oil molar
ratio, temperature, water content and free fatty acid content have an influence on the course of the
tranesterification. In the tranesterification of vegetable oils and fats for bio-diesel production, free fatty acids
and water always produce negative effects, since the presence of fatty acids and water causes soap formation,
consumes catalyst and reduces catalyst effectiveness, all of which result in a low conversion. When the original
ester is reacted with an alcohol, the transesterification process is called alcoholysis. The transesterification is an
equilibrium reaction and the transformation occurs essentially by mixing the reactants. In the transesterification
of vegetable oils, a triglyceride reacts with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or a base, producing a
mixture of fatty acids alkyl esters and glycerol. The stoichiometric reaction requires 1mol of a triglyceride and

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3mol of the alcohol. However an excess alcohol is used to increase the yield of the alkyl esters and to allow its
phase separation from the glycerol formed.
In the below graph various reaction times are plotted against various percentage yields of methyl esters
at two different temperatures.
REACTION TIME vs YIELD OF METHYL
ESTER

YIELD OF METHYL ESTER

120
100
80

(wt%)
473K
60
533K
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400
REACTION TIME (s)

Based on the type of catalyst used the transesterification process is classified as follows:
1. Acid-catalyzed process
2. Alkali- catalyzed process
3. Enzyme- catalyzed process

Acid-catalyzed process:
The transesterification process is catalyzed by acids, preferably by sulphonic and sulphuric acids.
These catalysts give very high yields in alkyl esters, but the reactions are slow. The alcohol/vegetable oil molar
ratio is one of the main factors that influence the transesterification. An excess of alcohol favors the formation
of products. On the other hand, an excessive amount of alcohol makes the recovery of glycerol difficult, so that
the ideal alcohol/oil ratio has to be established empirically considering each individual process.

Alkali-catalyzed process:
The reaction mechanism for alkali-catalyzed transesterification was formulated in a simple manner. This
reaction proceeds faster than that of the former one. The reaction mechanism will be explained in the later part.

Enzyme-catalyzed process:
This process is not yet commercially developed and also the reaction yields as well as the reaction times are still
unfavorable compared to the base-catalyzed systems.

Transesterification procedure:
Table 5:
Sl.no Chemical Proportions
1 Mahua oil 500ml
2 Catalyst- NAOH 5.2gram
3 Methanol 225ml
4 Acetic acid + water 150ml + 850ml

 The catalyst is dissolved into methanol by vigorous stirring in a flask.

 The oil is transferred into a round bottomed flask and is heated in a water bath at 70c in water the prepared
catalyst and alcohol mixture is added at first by constant stirring.
 The final mixture is stirred vigorously for 2hours at 340K in ambient pressure.
 A successful transesterification produces two liquid phases: ester and crude glycerol. Crude glycerol being
heavier liquid is collected at the bottom of the flask after several hours of settling.
 Phase separation can be observed within 10min and can be completed within 2hours of settling in the
separating funnel. Complete settling can take as long as 20hours.
 Before collecting the oil in the separating funnel it is mixed with acetic acid and water for distillation and
easy phase separation.
 The separating funnel should be shaken well for two to three times while the mixture is allowed for phase
separation.
 Finally, after 20hours, complete settling of oil and glycerol will take place.

VI. TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS

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Precautions:
 The vegetable oil should have an acid value less than one and all materials should be substantially
anhydrous. If acid value is more than one, more NaOH is injected to neutralize the free fatty acids.
 Water can cause soap formation and frothing. The resulting soaps can induce an increase in viscosity,
formation of gels and foams, and made the separation of glycerol difficult.
 The stochiometric ratio for transesterification reaction requires 3mol of alcohol and 1mol of triglyceride to
yield 3mol of fatty acid ester and 1mol of glycerol.
 Higher molar ratios result in greater ester production in a shorter time.
 Stirring plays a vital role in transesterification process. Constant stirring should be done for yielding of oil
else it will be solidified.

Test for glycerol:

 The glycerol is tested for whether it is unsaturated or saturated fatty acid. For that it is taken in a flask.
 Then acidified potassium permanganate solution is added to that glycerol drop wise and observed carefully
 In this experiment it is observed that the acidified potassium permanganate solution decolorized the
glycerol taken in the glass flask indication that it is unsaturated fatty acid.

FLOW CHART:

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fig: flow chart for preparation of esterified mahua oil

VII. ACID AND HYDROCARBONS TEST
TEST WITH NaHCO3:
The esterified mahua oil is partially soluble in NaHCO3 and regeneration with dil.Hcl to this the oil contains
“acidic groups”.

TEST WITH NITRATION:

The esterified mahua oil and Nitration mixture (1:1 ratio of sulphuric acid and nitric acid) is collected in ice for
about 15min and then heated in water bath for 20min and then poured into crushed ice then yellow precipitate is
formed due to this the oil contains “hydrocarbons”.
TEST WITH dil.Hcl:
The oil is insoluble in dil.Hcl due to this property the oil does not contain “basic groups”.

VIII. DISTILLATION
What is distillation?
The process in which a liquid (or) vapour mixture of two (or) more substances is separated into its component
factions of desired purity by the application and removal of heat. Distillation is the most common separation
technique.

Introduction
Distillation Experiment
One of the major tasks of the synthetic organic chemist is the purification of starting materials and the
isolation and purification of products. It is of particular importance to free a compound of impurities when its
structure is to be established or its physical properties are to be precisely determined.
Distillation is a very old technique which is frequently used to purify compounds and to determine their
boiling points. The boiling point is a useful molecular constant for the characterization and identification of pure
compounds. Furthermore, the boiling point range is usually a good indicator of the purity of a liquid.
In this experiment you will perform several distillations. You will compare distillations of a mixture of
methanol and water using the glassware set-up for a simple distillation and one for fractional distillation. You
will also measure the boiling point-range for an unknown compound and use this information as an aid in its
identification

Set Up
Distillation Experiment
The distillation flask, fractionation column and distillation head make up the part of the apparatus
where the liquid components are volatilized and separated. (This unit should be constructed high enough on a
ring stand to permit raising and lowering of the heating unit and assembled using the clamped flask as the
foundation for the apparatus.) The rest of the apparatus serves to condense the hot vapor back to a liquid as it
flows out the side-arm of the distillation head into the water-cooled condenser. (Caution: water should always
flow from bottom to top of the condenser) Liquid flows down the condenser and through the adapter into a
collection vessel. A thermometer is attached to the top of the distillation head by an adapter in order to
determine the temperature of the vapor being collected. The animation shows the step-by-step assembly of a
fractional distillation set-up.

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A simple distillation apparatus is less efficient than a fractional distillation apparatus, but is used to
purify materials containing only small amounts of impurities with much higher or lower boiling points.

IX. DISTILLATION PROCESS

Experiment
Distillation Experiment
The distillation flask is charged with the mixture of liquids and a couple of boiling chips. (Caution:
never heat a liquid without boiling chips and always add new chips to a cooled solution before reheating.) After
reattaching the flask, the liquid is heated to its boiling point to cause distillation. As the liquid travels up the
fractionating column, there is constant contact of the vapor and condensed liquid flowing back down the column
setting up equilibration all along the column. This results in the equivalent of a number of simple distillations,
depending on the particular column being used. As the liquid is removed, the sample is depleted of the lower
boiling component which is highly enriched at the top of the column until most of it is gone. An intermediate
fraction consisting of the two components is usually collected until all of the lower boiling component is
removed, at which point the pure higher boiling component is distilled. The progress of the distillation is
followed by measuring the temperature of the vapor at the top of the column. In a reasonably efficient
distillation, a fraction of each of the pure components will be obtained which boil over a small temperature
range near the boiling points of the components with an intermediate fraction, whose boiling range is broad and
between those of the pure components.

X. GLYCEROL REPRESENTATIONS:

GLYCEROL:
Glycerol, also well known as glycerin and glycerine, and less commonly as propane-1,2,3-triol,
1,2,3-propanetriol, 1,2,3-trihydroxypropane, glyceritol, and glycyl alcohol is a colorless, odorless,
hygroscopic, and sweet-tasting viscous liquid. Glycerol is a sugar alcohol and has three hydrophilic alcoholic
hydroxyl groups (OH-) that are responsible for its solubility in water. Glycerol has a wide range of applications.
Glycerol has a prochiral spatial arrangement of atoms.

Glycerol – uses and applications:

Glycerol literally has thousands of uses. However, those uses are in constant flux as new technologies are
adapted. Here is an overview of the most common uses.
Foods and Beverages  Cakes
Glycerol is used to moisten, sweeten and preserve  Casings for meats, cheese and dry pet foods
foods and drinks. As an intermediate, glycerol also is used in
Examples: margarine, salad dressings, frozen desserts and
 Soft drinks food coatings.
 Candies
Drugs

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Glycerol is one of the most widely used ingredients Glycerol keeps tobacco moist and soft to prevent
in drugs and pharmaceuticals, Uses include: breaking and crumbling during processing; it also
 Capsules adds flavor to chewing and pipe tobaccos. Glycerol
 Ear infection remedies also is used to manufacture cigarette filter tips.
 Anesthetics Paper and Printing
 Cough remedies Glycerol is used to soften and reduce shrinkage
 Gargles during paper manufacturing.
 As a vehicle for antibiotics and antiseptics Related uses:
 Grease-proof paper
Cosmetics and Toiletries  Food wrappers
Because glycerol is nontoxic, non-irritating and  To manufacture printing ink
odorless, it is used as a moisturizing agent and Textiles
emollient (softening agent) for cosmetics and Glycerol is used to size and soften yarn and fabric
toiletries, including: and to lubricate many kinds of fibers in spinning,
 Toothpaste knitting and weaving operations.
 Skin creams and lotions Other common uses:
 Pre-shaving lotions  As a lubricant for food processing machinery
 Deodorants  To manufacture resin coatings
 Make up  To add flexibility to rubber and plastic
 Lipstick  As a building block in manufacturing flexible
foams
Tobacco  To manufacture dynamite
 To create a component used in radios and neon
lights

XI. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE

The schematic diagram of the experimental setup to test the performance of the engine with esterified
mahua oil is shown in figure. The engine is rigidly fixed to engine bed by bolts and nuts. A surge tank is fixed to
the stand and air enters into the surge tank through air filter and passes through an orifice plate. The difference
in water column in two legs of U-tube manometer gives the pressure drop across orifice plate. This pressure
drop is used to calculate the mass flow rate of air.
The dynamometer used here is brake dynamometer. It has a brake drum connected to the crankshaft. A
belt runs over the brake drum one end connected to the spring balance and another end to the load carrying
plate. The reading of the spring balance is taken as the net load on the engine.

EXPERIMENTS:
For better homogenization of the blends, they were prepared by mixing the required proportions in the
fuel tank. The compressed air at 2-3 atmospheres from a compressor was bubbled through the mahua oil blend.
This ensures a thorough mixing and homogenization of the blend. The blended fuel was then injected into the
combustion chamber with the standard fuel injection system of the engine. The injection timing was optimized
for the fuel at the rated load and this injection timing is maintained constant through the test.
The experimental setup consists of
1. Setup for investigation of the performance characteristics of C.I.engine using diesel and mahua oil blends.
2. Setup for the investigation of fuel properties.
3. Setup for the transesterification of mahua oil.
4. Setup for changing the pressure of the injector of the engine.

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Kirloskar Single Cylinder 4-Stroke Diesel Engine

Experimental Setup For Investigation Of Performance Characteristics:

The experimental setup consists of single cylinder, 4-stroke, and water cooled KIRLOSKAR diesel
engine. It is provided with accessories for the measurement of the load, fuel consumption, exhaust gas
temperature, volume of air inducted. The experimental setup is shown in the figure.

Specification Of The Engine:

Name of the engine : KIRLOSKAR
General details : 4-stroke C.I, vertical, water cool
Number of cylinders :1
Bore : 80mm
Stroke : 110mm
Rated power : 5bhp at 1500rpm
Brake drum diameter : 310mm
Belt thickness : 6mm

Arrangement For Measuring Load:

A rope runs over the brake drum one end connected to the spring balance and another end to the load
carrying plate. The reading of the spring balance is taken as the net load on the engine. In the operation of the
rope brake drum dynamometer, the engine is made to run at constant speed. The frictional torque due to the rope
must be equal to the torque transmitted by the engine.

Apparatus For Measurement Of Fuel Consumption:

The fuel tank is attached with a graduated burette. The valve at the bottom of the tank is closed when fuel
consumption rate is to be measured so that fuel is consumed only from the burette. The time taken for “X”
amount of fuel consumption is recorded to measure the fuel consumption rate.

Experimental Set Up For The Investigation Of Fuel Properties:

For determination of properties of esterified mahua oil and diesel blends, the experimental setup consists of
(a) Apparatus to determine emission gases
(b) Apparatus to determine viscosity
(c) Apparatus to determine density
(d) Determination of aniline point and cetane number

Description Of Apparatus For Measuring Emission Gases:

(a) DC-5 GAS ANALYZER:
DC- 5 gas analyzer measures five emission gases, including hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon Monoxide (CO),
Carbon Dioxide (Co2), Oxygen (O2) and oxides of Nitrogen (NOX).
It will also provide a read-out for an optional Tachometer that handles up to 30,000 r.p.m.

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DC-5 GAS ANALYZER

(b)SMOKEMETER:
Many stationary sources discharge visible emissions into the atmosphere; these emissions are usually in
the shape of plume. This smoke meter involves to determination of plume opacity.

SMOKE METER

Description Of Apparatus For Measuring Viscosity:

The viscosity of the vegetable oil blends is determined by using redwood viscometer. The description
of apparatus is given below. The redwood viscometer consists of a copper cup, which is used to fill the liquid
whose viscosity, is to be determined. The cylinder cup is surrounded by a water jacket. To maintain a uniform
temperature throughout the volume of a stirrer is provided. A ball valve is provided to control the flow of liquid
through the small hole located at the bottom of copper cup. A collecting flask and stopwatch are required to
collect 50cc of oil and to determine the corresponding time.

Apparatus To Determine Density:

For measuring the density of fuel blends, the apparatus consists of gravity bottle is determined
accurately with the help of physical balance and weight. A 50cc of trans esterified mahua oil is taken in the
bottle and its weight is determined. From the readings obtained, the density of esterified mahua oil is determined

Apparatus For Determing Aniline Point And Cetane Number:

To determine the aniline point of fuel blends the apparatus consists of a water container in which a test
tube with the aniline mixture placed. The setup is heated using the Bunsen burner and the heat is distributed to
the stem by using a stirrer. Thermometer is placed in the mixture to, read the aniline mixture.

Experimental Technique:
The important fuel properties of esterified mahua oil where determined according to standard
procedure. The kirloskar 5bhp, single cylinder, 4stroke, water cooled engine having a bore(80mm) and stroke
(10mm) was used for this stud as shown in the figure 7.1.the experiments were conducted at constant speed of
1500rpm as applicable for stationary engine. The engine was coupled with a belt brake dynamometer. The
standard instrumentation was used to measure the fuel consumption, exhaust temperature, coolant
temperature(fig 1)for the stabilization of measuring parameters at each load setting and at the start of each test,
time period of 10 min and 30min were allowed. Three blends of esterified mahua oil with diesel and pure oil
were tested in the engine. The fuel blends were prepared in the proportion of 80% and 60% volume be volume

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
with diesel, respectively. Pure esterified mahua oil (100%) is also used as another blend to run the engine. The
base line test was conducted with diesel only. In the process of testing with esterified mahua oil – diesel fuel
blends, no change was made in the engine. The engine was directly started on the fuel blends with out a change
over from diesel fuel. The engine performance was compared on the basis of parameter, i.e. power output,
specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, and exhaust gas temperature, air/fuel ratio and volumetric
efficiency.
The values of power output, specific fuel consumption (SFC) and brake thermal efficiency was calculated using
the standard formula and compared with that of diesel.
Experimental Procedure:
The experimental procedure consists of
1. Tests for determination of fuel properties
2. Tests for finding out the performance characteristics
Test To Determine The Properties Of Blends:
A Procedure To Determine The Viscosity:
The apparatus is cleaned thoroughly. The ball valve is placed in position thus closing the orifice. The
sample is poured into the cup up to gauge point. The standard 50 ml flask is kept under the orifice of the cup.
The sample is heated to the required temperature, which is noted from the thermometer immersed in the oil.
After heating to the desired temperature the ball valve is lifted off. The oil drains in to the flask placed beneath.
The time taken to collect the oil up to the mark is measured using stop watch.
The kinematic viscosity of the sample is determined using the formula.
Kinematic viscosity = A*t – B/t in centistokes.
Density (Dt) = Dr-0.000675(T-Tr) in gm/cc.
Where t = Redwood seconds to collect the 50 ml sample.
A and B are constants given below
A = 0.26 and B = 171.5.
PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE CETANE NUMBER:
The aniline point is the lowest temperature at which equal parts of volume of freely
distilled aniline and test sample are completely miscible in each other.
It is determined by mixing in jacketed test tube to clear solution and recording the temperature at which
turbidity appears as mixture cools.

Aniline temperature in oC
Cetane number = - ----------------------------- - 31.5
1.95

for pure esterified mahua oil, diesel blends that are mixable with aniline at room temperature, the mid boiling
point is determined. From mid boiling point, the cetane number is determined.
The aniline point indicates the possible deterioration of rubber sealing, pacing, etc, in contact with the oil. The
aniline point, the lower the percentage of aromatic hydrocarbons and higher the content of paraffin lower the
aromatic content.

Procedure To Measure Density:

The gravity bottle is thoroughly cleaned and dried. The bottle is placed in the left pan of the balance
and mass of bottle is determined b placing weights from the weight box in the right pan so the weights of the
masses in the pans are balanced. The bottle is filled with the sample up to the mark, it is again placed on the pan
and its mass is also determined. The volume of the sample in the bottle is „X „cc
Density of the sample = (b – a)/ X g/cc
Where
b = mass of fuel + bottle in g.
a = mass of bottle in g.

XII. PROCEDURE TO CHANGE INJECTOR PRESSURE :

Higher fuel-injection pressure increases the degree of atomization. The fineness of atomization reduces
the ignition delay, due to higher surface volume ratio. Smaller droplet size will have low depth of penetration
due to less momentum of the droplet and less velocity relative to air from where it has to find oxygen after
vaporization. Because of this air utilization factor will be reduced due to fuel spray path being shorter. Also with
smaller droplets, the aggregate area of inflammation will increase after ignition, resulting in higher pressure rise
during the second stage of combustion. Thus, lower injection pressure, giving larger droplet size may give lower
pressure rise during the second stage of combustion and probably smoother running.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Generally mean droplet size decreases with increase in the injection pressure. Also the rate of injection
increases with the increase in injection pressure and there by the load on the injector push rod and cam increases
which may affect the durability of the engine.
Injector to be pressure changed should be placed in the pressure changing setup. The lever is pulled
down such that the nozzle sprays the fuel and the pressure reading is shown in the indicator in bar. Pressure can
be changed by removing the head nut of the nozzle and by adjusting the screw, by operating the lever the
pressure can be changed. The pressures we have used for injector is 200bar. The following steps show the
procedure of pressure changing of the injector.

Experimental Procedure For The Determination Of Performance Characteristics

The procedure comprises of determining Brake Horse power, Brake Thermal efficiency, specific
energy consumption, and Exhaust gas temperature. Before the actual tests are carried out the engine is checked
for lubrication and fuel supply. Rotating the flywheel manually and operation the decompression lever start the
engine. If the engine starting is difficult for blends, the engine is run on diesel initially. The nozzle injection
pressure is set at 200 kg/cm2.

Determination of Brake Power

The equivalent load „W‟ is recorded from the calibrated circular scale incorporated in the dynamometer setup.
B.P = W*N/1500 KW
Where,
N is speed of engine in rpm,
W is load applied in kg
Determination Of Brake Thermal Efficiency
Brake thermal efficiency = (B.P * 3600)/ (F.C.H * C.V)
Where,
C.V = calorific value of the blend in kJ/kg
F.C.H = fuel consumption in kg/hr
Determation Of Specific Fuel Consumption
. S.F.C = F.C.H / B.P kg / KW-hr
Procedure To Obtain Exhaust Gas Temperature
The Exhaust gas temperature is measured using a Dail thermometer. The indicator on a graduated Dail directly
reads the temperature in oC

Table: 6 Engine performance with 100 % diesel at an injection pressure of 200bar

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Table: 7 Engine performance with 25% esterified oil and 75% diesel at an injection pressure of 200bar

Table: 8 Engine performance with 50% esterified oil and 50% diesel at an injection pressure of 200bar

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

Table: 9 Engine performance with 75% esterified oil and 25% diesel at an injection pressure of 200bar

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

BRAKE POW ER v s BRAKE THERMAL

EFFICIENCY at 200bar

35
30
25
100%diesel
BTE (%)

20 25%esterified oil
15 50%esterified oil
10 75%esterified oil

5
0
0 2 4 6
BP (KW)

BRAKE POWER v s SPECIFIC FUEL

CONSUMPTION at 200bar

0.8
0.7
SFC (Kg/KW-hr)

0.6
100%diesel
0.5
25%esterified oil
0.4
50%esterified oil
0.3
75%esterified oil
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6
BP (KW)

BRAKE POWER v s EXHAUST

TEMPERATURE at 200 bar

250
exhaust temperature

200
100%diesel
150
25%esterified oil
50%esterified oil
100
75%esterified oil
50

0
0 2 4 6
BP (KW)

BRAKE POW ER v s INDICATED THERMAL

EFFICIENCY at 200bar

100
90
80
70 100%diesel
60
ITE(%)

25%esterified oil
50
50%esterified oil
40
30 75%esterified oil
20
10
0
0 2 4 6
BP (KW)

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

BRAKE POWER v s MECHANICAL

EFFICIENCY at 200bar

70
60
50
100%diesel
ME(%)

40 25%esterified oil
30 50%esterified oil
20 75%esterified oil

10
0
0 2 4 6
BP (KW)

BRAKE POWER v s INDICATED POWER

at 200bar

12

10

8 100%diesel
IP (KW)

25%esterified oil
6
50%esterified oil
4 75%esterified oil
2

0
0 2 4 6
BP (KW)

LOAD v s CARBON MONOXIDE at 200bar

0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
100%diesel
0.06
CO(%)

25%esterified oil
0.05
50%esterified oil
0.04
75%esterified oil
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 2 4 6 8
LOAD(Kg)

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

LOAD v s HYDROCARBONS at 200bar

35

30

25
100%diesel
HC(ppm)

20 25%esterified oil
15 50%esterified oil
75%esterified oil
10

0
0 2 4 6 8
LOAD(Kg)

LOAD v s NOx at 200bar

1600
1400
1200
100%diesel
NOx(ppm)

1000
25%esterified oil
800
50%esterified oil
600 75%esterified oil
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8
LOAD(Kg)

LOAD v s CO2 at 200bar

12

10

8 100%diesel
CO2(%)

25%esterified oil
6
50%esterified oil
4 75%esterified oil

0
0 2 4 6 8
LOAD(Kg)

LOAD vs OXYGEN at 200bar

20
18
16
14
100%diesel
12
O2(%)

25%esterified oil
10
50%esterified oil
8
75%esterified oil
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8
LOAD(Kg)

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LOAD v s OPACITY at 200bar

25

20

100%diesel
15
N(%)

25%esterified oil
50%esterified oil
10
75%esterified oil

0
0 2 4 6 8
LOAD(Kg)

XIII. CONCLUSIONS
 800-850ml of esterified mahua oil is extracted from 1000ml of mahua oil during esterification.
 Percentage increase in esterified mahua oil increases the viscosity of diesel.
 Increase in percentage of mahua oil increases the cetane number of the blend.
 Smooth running of engine is observed with esterified mahua oil compared with that of diesel.
 Slight increase in brake thermal efficiency and decrease in specific fuel consumption is observed in the case
of esterified mahua oil (all blends especially 75% mahua oil) compared to that of diesel.
 Particulate matter is some what less in the case of esterified mahua oil than that of diesel which is observed
by keeping a tissue paper at the outlet of the exhaust pipe.
 Among the injection pressures tested 200bar is the optimum pressure for esterified mahua oil.
 Observing the particulate matter esterified mahua oil is an eco-friendly fuel.

SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK:

 Attempts are to be made to extract more pure esterified oil during esterification.
 Attempts are to be made to extract pure bio diesel of esterified mahua oil by using distillation process.
 Increase in production of mahua oil reduces the cost of fuel.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] IC ENGINES by V.Ganesan
[2] IC ENGINES by Domukundwar
[3] Mahua oil (Madhuaca Indica seed oil) methyl ester as biodiesel preparation by Sukumar Puhan,
N.Vedaraman, G.Sankarnarayanan and K.Jayachandran
[4] Biodiesel production from vegetable oils via catalytic and non catalytic supercritical methanol
transesterfifcation methods by Ayhan Demirbas
[5] www.elsevier.com

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-48-51
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Emotional and Spiritual Intelligence as Predictors of Eco

Friendly Behavior of Undergraduate
Dr. Indira Sharma,
Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, DEI Deemed University, Dayalbagh, Agra.

Abstract: - The increase interference of human beings with Environmental processes has created environmental
crisis. To check and make aware to this problem and to develop environmentally responsible behavior,
environmental education is made compulsory subject. The present scenario is quite unsatisfactory as
environment is deteriorating further. An effort is made to know the role of emotional and spiritual intelligence
on eco-friendly behavior of undergraduate student. The co relational research design was used to conduct study.
Random sampling technique was used to select 300 student of 1st year of graduation from 3 degree college of
Agra city, 150 male and 150 female. The result indicated that educational and spiritual intelligence are powerful
predictor of eco-friendly behavior of undergraduates and both variables accounted for 55% variance in their eco-
friendly behavior.

I. INTRODUCTION
Nature is so fascinating and embodies the spirit of its creator. The nature has very intelligently evolved
the human species on earth to provide protection to the entire spectrum of the existing natural resources. The
great protector of the earth has today became potential predator of the entire natural environment and a prime
decimator of the wild life resources. Rapid industrialization, voracious appetite, men‟s greed and unlimited
exploitation has left us with polluted rivers, contaminated soil, depleted forest and wild life and exhausted
natural resources.
One fact we must bear in mind is that the survival of man depend upon how judiciously has he manage
the earth and maintains the quality of overall environment. In 1972, the leader of the international community
met at Stockholm and expressed grave concern over the readily deteriorating environment. A number of well
international declarations were made. Various institutions both at the national and international levels were set
up. Since Stockholm to Copenhagen number of conference, summit & meets have been held all over the world
and millions of dollars spent. From 1975 every nation is imparting environmental education and in India from
academic session 2004-05 it has been made a compulsory subject at each level of education.
From the above facts, pertinent and fundamental question arise, why in spite of such efforts Stockholm
(1972) to world summit of Copenhagen (2009), the world environment has deteriorated further and ecological
imbalance intensified. This may be because thinking and actions of contemporary societies are being shaped by
mechanical view of nature and thus little realization and sensitization that life and nature are inseparable parts of
a cosmic web. So the need of today is to channelize the thought system of individuals, making him sensitive
toward the nature and transforming their behavior consumerism to environment friendly. Some degree of
emotional self awareness and empathy is an important foundation for successfully start our spiritual growth.
Emotional intelligence makes us sensitive towards a thing or human being and to deal with own emotions and
others effectively and appropriately. While spiritual intelligence leads to that state of mind in which we think the
“Welfare of all”. Thus an effort is made to know whether these two intelligence have any role in making our
behavior eco-friendly.

II. OBJECTIVES
1. To study emotional intelligence of undergraduate students.
2. To study spiritual intelligence of undergraduate students.
3. To study eco friendly behavior of undergraduate students.
4. To ascertains the Zero order relationship between criterion and dependent variable.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
5. To study the relative contributory role of criterion variable in determining the eco friendly behavior.

Hypothesis
1. There is no significant difference between the emotional intelligence of male & female undergraduate
students.
2. Male and female undergraduate student do not differ in their spiritual intelligence.
3. No significant difference exists among eco friendly behavior of male and female undergraduate students.
4. No significant relationship exists among criterion and predictive variable.
5. Criterion variables do not play any role in determining the eco friendly behavior of students.

Variable
Independent variable – emotional & spiritual intelligence
Dependent variable – Eco friendly behavior

Method
The study involves correlation method.

Sample
Study is conducted on 300 students of undergraduates (Studying in 1st year of graduation) of both the
sex (150 male and 150 female) from 3 colleges of Agra city affiliated with B.R. Ambedkar university by
random sampling method.

Tools – The following tools are used for the collection of data.
1. Mangal emotional intelligence inventory by Mangal & Mangal.
2. Spiritual intelligence scale – self constructed.
3. Environmental friendly behavior measure – self constructed.

Statistical Techniques –
To analyses the data according to objective of study. Mean, S.D. C.R., product moment correlation and
regression analyses are used.

Result & discussions – Objective I - Study of Emotional intelligence of undergraduates

Table 1 Statistical Preview of emotional intelligence scores of undergraduates

Sex Male Female Total
Statistics
Mean 58.17 59.82 58.99
S.D. 38.57 38.72 38.62
C.R. 1.369

The mean value (58.99) for total group indicates that undergraduate students have average level of
emotional intelligence showing less ability of youth to cope with their emotions. The male and female
undergraduates do not differ in their emotional intelligence as confirmed by statistically insignificant value of
C.R. even at .05 level thus Null hypotheses is accepted.

Objective II - Study of spiritual intelligence of undergraduate students

Table – 2 Mean, S.D., C.R. of spiritual intelligence score of undergraduates
Sex Male Female Total N- 300
Statistics N(150) N (150)
Mean 116.75 120.42 118.58
S.D. 24.12 26.74 25.06
C.R. .917

The perusal of above table reveals that undergraduate students have average level of spiritual
intelligence as shown by mean (118.58), to some extent satisfactory as today‟s materialistic world our youth still
have spiritual nature. Great variation is observed in spiritual intelligence score as shown by high value of
standard deviation. The Male and female students do not differ in their spiritual intelligence inferred by value of
C.R. 917 which is not significant even at .05 levels of confidence, thus for this objective also Null hypothesis is

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
accepted. This is quite surprising that boys also have faith in some supreme power and neglecting the common
concept that females are more spiritualities than males.

Objective III - Study of eco friendly behavior of undergraduates

Table – 3 Statistical preview of eco friendly behavior score of undergraduates
Statistics Mean S.D. C.R
Sex
Male 54.17 36.41 .466
Female 56.98 37.19
Total group 55.57 36.12

The perusal of mean values shown in table indicates that undergraduate students do not have favorable
behavior towards environment as the obtained mean score of eco friendly is quite lower in comparison to the
maximum scores of eco friendly behavior scale i.e. 120. This picture is quite unsatisfactory and compelled us to
find the answer, why in spite of imparting compulsory environmental education in school and colleges, we are
fail to develop eco friendly behavior among our students. The same results were found by study conducted by
Japan science and technology agency in university of Tokyo on topic „change, in environmental consciousness
and behavior led by information concluded that environmental consciousness has been increasing in Japan,
where as environmental friendly behavior has not. This may be the reason that our environmental education is
imparting environmental awareness and knowledge among students but not channelizing our behavior toward
beneficiary to environment.
The value of C.R. (.466) which is lower than the calculated table value even at .05 level of significance
is revealing the fact that male and female undergraduate students do not differ in their eco friendly behavior and
thus null hypothesis framed for this objective is accepted.

Objective IV- Zero order Correlation among predictive & criterion variable
Table – 4 Showing inter correlation among variable
Variable (coefficient of correlation (r)
X1 X2 X3
X1 (eco friendly behavior) - .55 .68
X2 Emotional intelligence .55 - .41
X3 Spiritual intelligence .68 .41 -

The values of coefficient of correlation shown in table between eco friendly behavior (X1) and scores
of emotional intelligence (X2) and spiritual intelligence (X3) are .55 and .68 respectively which are positive and
significant, thus indicating the high and positive relationship between criterion and predictive variable.

Objective V - Relative Contributory Role Of Predictive Variable On Criterion Variable

To determine the relative contributory role of each predictive variable in determination of eco friendly
behavior of undergraduate students, multiple regression analysis is carried out. With the help of Zero order
correlation matrix, value of Beta coefficient (B) regression coefficients (b), coefficient of multiple correlation
(R), coefficient of multiple determination are computed.

Table – 5 Showing multiple correlation, Regression coefficient & common variable

Variable r R R2 B BXr (b)
Emotional intelligence & Eco friendly behavior (X2) .55 .5314 .372 .2156 .366
Spiritual Intelligence and eco friendly behavior (X3) .68 .729 Variance 53.14% .465 .3162 .670
Regression equation – X1 = .366 X2+ .670 X3 + K

The values of positive regression weights shown in table confirming the effect of both predictive
variables on eco friendly behavior of undergraduates. The value of R2 .5314 is the indicative of the fact that
53.14% variance in eco friendly behavior of undergraduates could be accounted by the cognitive predictive
variables i.e. emotional and spiritual intelligence. The separate variance of emotional intelligence and spiritual
intelligence for eco friendly behavior is 21.56% and 31.62% respectively and thus indicating, spiritual
intelligence as more powerful predictor for development of eco friendly behavior that emotional intelligence.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
III. CONCLUSION
On the basis of above analysis and discussion it can be inferred that Emotional and spiritual intelligence are
powerful predicator of eco friendly behavior and accounted for 53.14% variance in eco friendly behavior of
students, if we want to save our planet earth than we have to reconstruct our present environmental education
curriculum and some activities should be added to utilize and enhance both the intelligence. Human beings are
rational creatures who have an innate need to rationalize all their actions and thoughts. Spirituality provides the
rationale and make them sensitive towards other beings and nature, make able to realize that man is not the
owner but the steward or trustee of God‟s creation, and thus by the use of both intelligence we can develop
sensitiveness towards nature and morality can be sprouted in student and by that we can save our planet earth.

REFERENCES
[1] 2008, Adegems, D.B. (2008), Emotional intelligence, religiosity & self efficacy as predictors of
psychological well being among secondary school adolescent in Ogbomosho, Nigeria Ibadan.
[2] 2009,Bara Stewart, Factors influencing environmental attitude and behavior, U.K. Environment and
behavior, vol. 39 No. 4, Pg, 435- 473
[3] 2006, Gihar sandya, sakina. M.G. level of awareness of environmental pollution among rural and urban
women and its educational implications ,Experiment in education, Chennai, No. 4 page 25 –27
[4] 2008, Kalantari K, Femi A, Mohammad H.M. Investigating factors affecting environmental behavior of
urban residents, American journal of environmental science.
[5] 2007, Padiyals and Godiyas S. environmental awareness among university students a case study of
undergraduate student of Uttarakhand. Experiment in education, Chennai, vol. 35 No. 4, page 5-11
[6] 2008,Singh tirath, Arjindev and kaur B, Development of spiritual intelligence scale, psycho lingua
research journal of cognitive information and communication process, vol. 38, No. 2
[7] http.//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/spiritual

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-52-62
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Medical image processing using a service oriented Architecture

and Distributed Environment
Himadri Nath Moulick1, Moumita Ghosh2
1
CSE, Aryabhatta Institute of Engg & Management, Durgapur, PIN-713148, India
2
CSE,University Institute Of Technology,(The University Of Burdwan) Pin -712104,India

Abstract: - The aim of this paper is to present a services based architecture for medical image processing in
assisted diagnosis. Service oriented architecture (SOA) improves the reusability and maintainability of
distributed systems. In service oriented architectures, the most important element is the service, a resource
provided to remote clients via a service contract. We propose a generic model for a service, based on a loosely
coupled, message-based communication model. Our service model takes into account the possibility to integrate
legacy applications. Specialized image processing services can be dynamically discovered and integrated into
client applications or other services. Complex systems can be created with the help of some SOA concepts like
Enterprise Service Bus (ESB). DIPE is a distributed environment that provides image processing services over
integrated teleradiology services networks. DIPE integrates existing and new image processing software and
employs sophisticated execution scheduling mechanisms for the efficient management of computational
resources within a distributed environment. It can also be extended to provide various added-value services,
such as management and retrieval of image processing software modules, as well as advanced charging
procedures based on quality of service. DIPE can be viewed as the natural evolution of the legacy field of
medical image processing towards a service over the emergent health care telematics networks.

Keywords: - service oriented architecture, image processing, web service.

I. INTRODUCTION
In service oriented systems, operational entities are distributed across the network in order to improve
availability, performance and scalability. These entities are called services. The service provides access to its
functionality. The whole system is viewed as a set of interactions among these services. SOA promotes the reuse
of services. The system evolves through the addition of new services. SOA is not tied to a specific technology. It
can be implemented using a large variety of technologies, programming languages and communication
protocols. Interactions between services and clients in SOA are based on a very dynamic model [1]. A service
can be discovered at runtime, can be replaced if has become unavailable or can be used to create a new service
(and a new functionality). With these characteristics, SOA offers a powerful support for adaptability. The
adaptability can take many forms, depending on the terminal capabilities, the network connection, etc. Microsoft
has proposed a SOA based platform for healthcare [2]. Healthcare is an extremely fluid industry. Each change
requires an adaptation of systems. Point-topoint integration becomes costly and complex to maintain for
healthcare providers and consumers. The benefit of SOA to the healthcare industry is that it enables systems to
communicate using a common framework, integration of new elements becomes less complex and the system
can be adapted more rapidly. In recent years, advances in information technology and telecommunications have
acted as catalysts for significant developments in the sector of health care. These technological advances have
had a particularly strong impact in the field of medical imaging, where film radiographic techniques are
gradually being replaced by digital imaging techniques, and this has provided an impetus to the development of
integrated hospital information systems and integrated teleradiology services networks which support the digital
transmission, storage, retrieval, analysis, and interpretation of distributed multimedia patient records [1]. One of
the many added-value services that can be provided over an integrated teleradiology services network is access
to high-performance computing facilities in order to execute computationally intensive image analysis and
visualisation tasks [2]. In general, currently available products in the field of image processing (IP) meet only

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specific needs of different end user groups. They either aim to provide a comprehensive pool of ready to use
software within a user-friendly and application specific interface for those users that use IP software, or aim for
the specialised IP researcher and developer, offering programmer‟ s libraries and visual language tools.
However, we currently lack the common framework that will integrate all prior efforts and developments in the
field and at the same time provide added-value features that support and in essence realise what we call a
„service‟ . In the case of image processing, these features include: computational resource management and
intelligent execution scheduling; intelligent and customisable mechanisms for the description, management, and
retrieval of image processing software modules; mechanisms for the “plug-and-play” integration of already
existing heterogeneous software modules; easy access and user transparency in terms of software, hardware, and
network technologies; sophisticated charging mechanisms based on quality of service; and, methods for the
integration with other services available within an integrated health telematics network. In this paper we present
the architecture of DIPE, a novel distributed environment for image processing services. DIPE is based on a
distributed, autonomous, co-operating agent architecture [3]. It is designed so that it is modular, scaleable and
extensible, and it can be readily implemented on different hardware and software platforms, and over
heterogeneous networks. DIPE consists of a functional core which supports the persistent distributed execution
of IP algorithms, and can be extended to support other added-value services such as macros, resource
management, algorithm retrieval, charging, etc. Here we describe the functional core of the system and discuss
the mechanisms and notions employed to allow integration of third party IP algorithms and the development of
new IP software. Finally, we describe the functional extensions of the core that support macro execution and
resource management. DIPE has been developed to support distributed medical imaging processing, an added-
value teleradiology service within the integrated regional health telematics network, currently under
development by the Institute of Computer Science (ICS), Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas
(FORTH), on the island of Crete [4].

II. SOA BACKGROUND

The term Service Oriented Architecture, SOA for short, contains some important notions. We have the
following definitions for these notions [3]: An Architecture is a formal description of a system, defining its
purpose, functions, externally visible properties, and interfaces. It also includes the description of the system’s
internal components and their relationships, along with the principles governing its design, operation, and
evolution. A service is a software component that can be accessed via a network to provide functionality to a
service requester.The term service-oriented architecture refers to a style of building reliable distributed
systems that deliver functionality as services, with the additional emphasis on loose coupling between
interacting services.

1.Service
The service is the core element in SOA. A service is defined as “a mechanism to enable access to one
or more capabilities, where the access is provided using a prescribed interface and is exercised consistent with
constraints and policies as specified by the service description” [4]. A service can have the following
characteristics: A service provides a contract defined by one or more interfaces (just like a software component).
This allows the change of the service implementation without reconstructing the client as long as the contract is
not changed. Implementation details (programming languages, operating systems, etc) of the service are not the
concern of the service requestor. A service can be used as stand-alone piece of functionality or it may be
integrated in a higher-level service (composition). This promotes reusability. Legacy applications can be
transformed in services by using some wrapper techniques. Services communicate with their clients by
exchanging messages. Typically, the request/ response message pattern is used. From the client point of view, a
synchronous or asynchronous communication mechanism can be implemented. In SOA model is not fixed a
specific communication protocol. Many protocols can be used: HTTP, RMI, DCOM, CORBA, etc. Services can
participate in a workflow (the term is service choreography in SOA terminology). A workflow is “the
movement of information and/or tasks through a work process” [5] and it’s based on a workflow engine.
Services need to be discovered at design time and run time by clients. This mechanism is provided by a service
directory (service registry). A service provider can publish (register) his service. Services communicate with
other services and clients using standard, dependency-reducing, decoupled message-based methods such as
XML document exchanges. This characteristic is called loose coupling This term implies that the interacting
software components minimize their knowledge of each other: more information is achieved at the time is
needed. For instance, after discovering a service, a client can retrieve its capabilities, its policies, its location,
etc. The characteristics of loose coupling are [6] Flexibility: A service can be located on any server and
relocated as necessary (with the condition to update its registry information) and clients will be able to find it.
Scalability: Services can be added and removed depending on the needs. Replaceability: With the condition that
the original interfaces are preserved, a new implementation of a service can be introduced, and outdated

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implementations can be retired, without affecting the service clients. Fault tolerance: If a server, a software
component, or a network segment fails, or the service becomes unavailable for any other reason, clients can
query the registry for alternate services that offer the required functionality, and continue to work in the same
way.

2. SOA Interaction cycle

In figure 1 is depicted the basic case of using a service with three components: a service provider, a
service requester and a service directory (service registry). Some simple, bi-directional interactions
(synchronous request/response pattern) are represented as an interaction cycle [7]. A real-world implementation
can be more complex. A SOA architecture has three important elements:
2.1 Service directory
It acts as an intermediary between providers and requesters. Usually, services are grouped by categories.
2.2 Service provider
The Service Provider defines a service description and publishes it to the service directory.
2.3 Service requester
The service requester can use the search capabilities offered by the service directory to find service
descriptions and their respective providers.

Fig 1. SOA interaction cycle

The service provider has to publish the service description in order to allow the requester to find it.
Where it is published depends on the architecture. In the discovery the service requester retrieves a service
description directly or queries the service registry for the type of service required. In this step the service
requester invokes or initiates an interaction with the service at runtime using the binding details in the service
description to locate, contact and invoke the service.

3. Enterprise Service Bus

The Enterprise Service Bus (ESB) is sometimes described as a distributed infrastructure [8] and it’s a
logical architectural component that provides an integration infrastructure consistent with the principles of SOA.
Two different issues are being addressed: the centralization of control, and the distribution of infrastructure [9].
ESB and centralize control of configuration, such as the routing of service interactions, the naming of services,
and so forth. ESB might deploy in a simple centralized infrastructure, or in a more sophisticated, distributed
manner. ESB does not implement a service-oriented architecture (SOA) but provides the features with which
one may be implemented. ESB is not mandatory in SOA but is usually used in large (enterprise) systems with
many services. The ESB might be implemented as a distributed, heterogeneous infrastructure. Minimum ESB
capabilities considered in IMB view [8, 9]:

3.1 Communications
Routing and addressing capabilities providing location transparency, administrations capabilities to control
service addressing and at least one form of messaging (request/response, publish/subscribe, etc), support for at
least one communication protocol (preferable a widely available protocols such HTTP).

3.2 Integration
Support for multiple means of integration to service providers, such as Java 2 Connectors, Web services,
asynchronous messaging, adaptors, and so forth.

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3.3 Service interactions
An open and implementation independent service messaging that should isolate application code from the
specifics of routing services and transport protocols, and allow service implementations to be substituted.

III. MODEL FOR SOA-BASED IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEMS

In this section we propose a model for implementing SOA-based system oriented to medical image
processing. The model is generic enough to be used in other areas. The model contains a programming model, a
service model and a messaging model.

1. Programming Model
The programming model, depicted in figure 2, is composed by four layers: the service layer, the component
layer, the object layer and the technology layer.

Fig 2. Programming model

Typically, a service is created using one or more components and a component is created using one or
more objects. The service layer contains business services. A service is created with the help of the component
oriented programming (COP). The component layer relies on software component technologies like: COM
(component object model), EJB (Enterprise Java Beans), CCM (CORBA Component Model), OSGi (Open
Services Gateway Initiative) or .NET Component Model. The software components can be of two types:
functional components (business components) and non-functional components (like data access components,
communication components or any other components). A component is implemented using object oriented
techniques (the object layer). This layer is based on object oriented technologies (programming languages) like:
C++, java, C#. Our model addresses the problem of integrating legacy applications (existent applications that
are not servicebased). In order to integrate these applications, a wrapper pattern (adapter pattern) can be used.
The wrapper can be applied in every layer. For instance, if the legacy application is object oriented but is not
based on components, the wrapper should be applied in the component layer. If the legacy application is
implemented in C, the wrapper should be applied in the object layer. This respect the proposed model:
functionality is encapsulated in components, and components are created using objects.

2. Service Model
The service model is depicted in figure 3. It’s composed from 3 layers: the interface layer, the business layer and
the resource layer.

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Fig 3. Service model

The Service Interface Layer contains the service contract (service interface) and it’s detailed in the next
section. The Business Layer contains a business façade and business components (sometimes called functional
components). A business component performs (implements) operations described in the service contract. The
business façade (façade pattern) is optional and it may be used in a complex architecture, with many business
components. The resource layer contains different components (nonfunctional components) with the roll of
interacting with external resources. In the figure are represented three of the most common types of resource
access: a data access component for accessing database systems, a service gateway for accessing other services
(in SOA a service can be a consumer for another service) and a wrapper (adapter) component for accessing
legacy systems. The resource layer is not mandatory if the service does not use external resources. Accessing a
legacy application was treated in section 3.1 from a programming point of view. The service model is
extensible, new facilities like security, transactions or QoS capabilities can be introduced.

3. Messaging Model
Usually, a service communicates with its clients by sending and receiving well-defined messages. A
proposed messaging model is presented in figure 4. A service interface is similar with an interface in object
oriented programming. The service interface has the role to describe the service operations and the types of
messages needed by those operations.

Fig 4. Messaging model

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A message type contains one or many data types that can be translated in build-in or custom data types
from a programming language. In many cases, marshalling techniques may be used to provide compatibility
between server data types and client data types. Typically, this is the case when the client and the server are
implemented using different technologies. For instance, an image processing service interface can describe a
user defined data type (a class in object oriented programming) containing the image name, the image type, the
image data (as a specific format), etc. If the service is implemented as a web service, the data types are
encapsulated (serialized) in XML documents and send over network using SOAP. Messaging exchange patterns
(MEP) can be used for accessing a service. The most common access pattern used is the request/response (also
known as request/reply) pattern. In this case, the service consumer sends a request to the service and receives a
response. This access pattern is used in the web services applications. The client can use a synchronous or
asynchronous communication mechanism. The asynchronous mechanism is preferred when communication
costs are high or the network is unpredictable. Another pattern that can be used is publish/subscribe. This pattern
is based on the message queue paradigm. For instance, an image capture service allows to other services or
clients to subscribe to it. When a new image is captured all subscribers receives the new image. The
publish/subscribe pattern is typically used with an asynchronous communication mechanism.

IV. ARCHITECTURE AND IMPLEMENTATION

The core of the system consists of several communicating components: user applications, execution
agents, pools of IP algorithms, and management agents. [20] The management agent is the central element. Its
main purpose is to realise the network of individual modules (applications and execution agents) and initialise
the communication among them. However, the main body of messages is communicated directly among the
individual modules. The local cluster can be further expanded through a network of management agents, within
the same or even different organisations. Thus, the management agent ensures the scaleability of the
environment, a basic requirement of an integrated teleradiology services network [21]. Additionally, the
management agent authenticates users and provides unique image ids by using standard digital signature
technology.

Fig 5 . Communication within a DIPE cluster

The execution agent is responsible for the execution of a specific algorithm. It receives requests for
execution through the management agent and creates a communication link with the requesting application in
order to receive further information and input data required for the execution (Figure 5). After this point, this
agent can proceed autonomously to the execution of the algorithm. It stores input data into a local cache area
and executes the requested algorithm. Output generated through the execution of the algorithm is sent back to
the agent. The execution agent is responsible to forward this output to the requesting application. In case there is
a network failure or the requesting application is not running any longer, the agent keeps the results of the
execution in temporary storage for delivery upon request. This ensures persistent algorithm execution and
enhances the robustness of the system. The user application is the front end of the system and consists primarily

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of a customisable graphical user interface. A virtual temporary storage management module ensures that the
application can handle synchronously a considerable number of large data sets. An important feature of the user
application is that it incorporates certain image processing algorithms that require real-time response, and thus it
is not sensible to redirect their execution to an agent or over the network. These include routines necessary for
image visualisation (e.g., zoom, focus, resize, contrast adjustment, etc.), as well as certain algorithms for local,
real-time image processing. Finally, the graphical user interface provides toolkits that support the various
functionalities of the environment (algorithm insertion, monitoring of the system‟ s status, resource
management, macro composition and execution, etc.). A typical screen of the application is shown in Figure 6 .
The basic requirement that DIPE is readily implemented on various operating systems and over heterogeneous
networks poses certain implementation constraints. Thus, inter-process communication is based on the TCP/IP
network protocol, while operating system transparency is ensured by using ACE, an object-oriented network
programming toolkit for developing communication software [5]. DIPE is now implemented on UNIX and
Windows NT/95 workstations.

Fig 6. A typical screen of DIPE

1. The Algorithm Repository

The functional core of DIPE is the set of available image processing algorithms, private or public, local
or network wide. An important feature of DIPE is that it allows easy integration of third party algorithms, i.e.
software modules where only an executable is available and the only information known is the command line
syntax, as well as the input and output data formats. The integration is achieved through the algorithm wrapper,
a single generic process. The wrapper converts input data from the application format to the format that a
specific IP algorithm requires, executes the algorithm and finally converts the output data of the algorithm to the
format of the user application. While the algorithm is being executed, the wrapper is responsible to handle
requests from the user application. Such requests include the termination or pause of the execution, or the
resumption of a previously paused execution. Additionally, DIPE provides a library of ready-to-use routines for
the development of new IP algorithms, which consists of basic routines related to the starting and ending phases
of the algorithm, as well as of routines that support a more sophisticated mode of user-algorithm communication
during execution. In routine medical image processing, a common situation involves processing images using
the same set of algorithms often with a standard set of parameter values. DIPE provides the mechanisms to
simplify the complicated process of executing individual algorithms sequentially, by grouping them together
and thus creating a macro-algorithm (macro). In general, the DIPE macro is a set of individual algorithms that
may be performed independently on the same or different data sets, or may be performed sequentially. There is
no constraint on the complexity of algorithm combinations and the inter-relationships of their input and output

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data. The execution of a macro is the responsibility of a special macro agent. The macro agent acts as a mediator
for macro executions. It consists of three main functional parts: the interface with the application, the interface
with the rest of the system (management and execution agents), and the module which is responsible for the
management of the macro execution. The macro agent models macros as a directed acyclic graph, thus enabling
macro decomposition and individual scheduling of its components.

2. Resource Management
Quality of service in DIPE is guaranteed by a sophisticated resource management and execution
scheduling mechanism. The scheduling of a requested algorithm execution to the most appropriate processing
element (PE) is a distributed decision making process based on the market metaphor, and is realised through the
co-operation of the execution agents [16, 19]. Upon request for an algorithm execution, the management agent
initialises an „auction‟ . The request is forwarded to the appropriate „bidders‟ , that is those execution agents
that are able to perform the request. Each execution agent evaluates the request by taking into consideration the
load of the local PE, the possible existence of the required input data in its local cache vs. the cost for
transferring the data through the network, and the execution characteristics of the particular algorithm. Then,
each execution agent makes a bid to the management agent by returning the estimated „cost‟ of the execution.
The management agent evaluates all the bids it receives and assigns the execution to a particular execution
agent. It is important to note that the execution characteristics of each algorithm are drawn from its execution
profile, which includes information on size of input/output data, PE memory needed at runtime (relative to input
data) and time needed for execution (normalised to input data and PE). A good approximation about the
memory requirements and the execution time of an algorithm is derived from a statistical analysis based on
previous execution profiles of the algorithm.

V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In this section we present two service implementation using web services standard and OSGi (Open
services Gateway Initiative). OSGi [13] is a java-based service platform that implements a dynamic component
model (from our point of view, OSGi is a component model).

1. Web service example

The first example is a service implementation according to our model. The service receives an image
and returns a grayscale copy of that image. The service interface is named GrayscaleFilter (figure 7) and has a
single operation, transformImage(). The business layer (functional layer) contains 2 components:
GrayscaleComponent implementing the filter and BitmapUtilsComponent used to convert an image to byte array
and vice versa. Non-functional aspects of the service like handling incoming connections are treated by the web
service used to run our service. Also, on the client side, some tools (like Visual Studio .NET) greatly simplify
the work with web services by generating the necessary code to access the service.

Fig 7. Web service component diagram

The class diagram is represented in figure 8. Every component is implemented by a single class.

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Fig 8. Web service class diagram

Note that in this simple example the business façade from our service model is not used and the resource layer is
missing since no external resources are needed.

2. OSGi service example

In order to show that SOA is not based only on web services, the second example is an implementation
of an image processing service using OSGi. We are using the Knopflerfish framework [14] as support for
developing our service. In OSGi a deployment unit is called bundle. The framework manages the bundle
lifecycle. A bundle functionality is contained typically in a jar file (java archive file). After the bundle is created
it needs to be registered in the framework and other bundle can use the published service. Our OSGi service is
more complex than the web service because it needs communication facilities (offered by a communication
component) because OSGi does not specify a communication protocol like a web service. The component
diagram for our service is depicted in figure 9

Fig 9.OSGi service component diagram

The service interface is called ObjectDetectionService and exposes a single operation,

getObjectsFromImage. The input parameters (an image) and the return values (a collection of image objects) are
not represented on this diagram. The ObjectDetectionBundle represent the functional part of the service
(business layer). This component uses a communication component and a gateway component. In figure 11 is
depicted the class diagram for the communication bundle.

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Fig 10. Communication component, class diagram

The component interface is called CommunicationComponent and provides two operations, one for
sending a packet and the second for receiving a packet. A packet is a unit of information exchanged by the
service. In our case the packet contains the image as a byte array. The Activator class implements
BundleActivator interface and is necessary in order to allow the Knopflerfish framework to manage the bundle
(start and stop the bundle). To be used, a bundle must be started. The bundle interface has an implementation
provided by CommunicationComponentImpl. The communication is based on standard sockets (with the help of
ServerSocketListener and SocketHandler). For this service, the resource layer contains a component
(ServiceGatewayBundle) for accessing other services. The object detection algorithm implemented needs to use
a grayscale image in order to provide good results. This component contains the logic to access our grayscale
web service presented in section previous.

VI. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we have proposed a model for implementing SOA-based image processing systems. The
model contains a programming model, a service model and a messaging model. We have focused on the concept
of service. The service is represented as a layered architecture with a service interface layer, a business layer and
an optional resource layer. The service interface layer contains the service contract (service interface). The
business layer contains the service functionality, contained in business components. The resource layer contains
non-functional components, used to access external resources like database systems, other services or legacy
applications. Service Oriented Systems are very flexible. A service can be discovered at runtime, can be
replaced if is unavailable or can be incorporated in a new service (a powerful support for adaptability). Our
future goals are to create a SOA based platform for adaptation with applicability in medical domains. This
platform may be based on ESB in order to provide full SOA facilities. DIPE has been designed and developed
to offer image processing services over integrated health care services networks, and to act as an integration
platform for diverse image processing software. It exhibits a modular, extensible and scaleable architecture that
ensures system robustness and execution persistence. A sophisticated resource management and execution
scheduling mechanism allows the medical expert to take full advantage of geographically distributed
computational resources. Future research will address the development of intelligent and customisable
mechanisms for the description, management, and retrieval of image processing software modules, as well as
charging mechanisms based on quality of service. DIPE is currently being extended through its functional
integration with other medical information systems that have been developed in our laboratory. Important
examples include CoMed [17], a desktop conferencing application which allows interactive real-time co-
operation among several medical experts, as well as TelePACS [16], an information system for medical image

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management and communication. DIPE is one of the diverse telematics applications incorporated in the regional
health telematics network, which is currently being developed by ICS-FORTH on the island of Crete.

REFERENCES
[1] Michael Herrmann, Muhammad Ahtisham Aslam, Oliver Dalferth, Applying Semantics (WSDL, WSDL-
S, OWL) in Service Oriented Architectures (SOA), Universität Leipzig, Germany, Technical report,
2005.
[2] Microsoft Healthcare [online], http://www.microsoft.com/ industry/healthcare, (Jun, 2007).
[3] J. Treadwell, Open Grid Services Architecture Glossary of Terms, Hewlett-Packard, January 25, 2005.
[4] Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS), “Service Oriented
Architecture (SOA) Reference Model,” Public Review Draft 1.0, February 10, 2006.
[5] Workflow definition [online], http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Workflow (June 2007).
[6] Latha Srinivasan and Jem Treadwell, An Overview of Service-oriented Architecture, Web Services and
Grid Computing, , HP Software Global Business Unit, November 3, 2005.
[7] Armin Haller, Juan Miguel Gomez, Christoph Bussler, Exposing Semantic Web Service Principles in
SOA to Solve EAI Scenarios, May, 2005.
[8] Rick Robinson, Understand Enterprise Service Bus scenarios and solutions in service-oriented
architecture, IBM, Jun 15, 2004.
[9] Patterns: Implementing an SOA Using an Enterprise Service Bus (IBM Redbooks), IBM.Com/Redbooks,
2004.
[10] WS Specifications [online], http://www.w3schools.com/ webservices/default.asp, (Jun, 2007).
[11] Jeffrey Hasan, Expert Service-Oriented Architecture in C#: Using the Web Services Enhancements 2.0,
Apress, 2004.
[12] SOAP Specifications [online], http://www.w3schools.com/ soap, (Jun, 2007).
[13] OSGi Service Platform, The Open Service Gateway Initiative, IOS Press, 2003.
[14] OSGi Tutorial A Step by Step Introduction to OSGi Programming Based on the Open Source
Knopflerfish OSGi Framework , Sven Haiges, http://www.knopflerfish.org /tutorials, October 2004.
[15] S.C. Oprhanoudakis, E. Kaldoudi, and M. Tsiknakis, “Technological Advances in Teleradiology”, Eur. J.
Radiology, vol. 22, 205-217, 1996.
[16] S.C. Orphanoudakis, “Supercomputing in Medical Imaging” IEEE Eng Med Biol, vol. 7, 16-20, 1988.
[17] P. Maes, “Modelling Adaptive Autonomous Agents”, Artificial Life Journal, ed. C. Langton, vol. 1, nos.
1&2, MIT Press, 1994.
[18] S.C. Orphanoudakis, M. Tsiknakis, C. Chronaki, S. Kostomanolakis, M. Zikos, and Y. Tsamardinos,
“Development of an Integrated Image Management and Communication System on Crete”. In: Lemke
HU, Inamura K, Jaffe CC, Vanier MW, eds. Proc. of CAR‟ 95, Berlin, p. 481-487, 1995.
[19] D.C. Schmidt, “The ADAPTIVE Communication Environment: An Object-Oriented Network
Programming Toolkit for Developing Communication Software”, 12th Sun User Group Conference, San
Francisco, California, June 14-17, 1993.
[20] D.F. Ferguson, Y. Yemini, C. Nikolaou, “Microeconomic Algorithms for Load Balancing in Distributed
Computer Systems.”, . In Proceedings of International Conference on Distributed Systems (ICDCS 88).
San Jose, California: IEEE Press, 1988.
[21] M. Zikos, C. Stephanidis, and S.C. Orphanoudakis, “CoMed: Cooperation in Medicine”, Proceedings of
EuroPACS‟ 96, pp. 88-92, Heraklion, Greece, October 3-5, 1996.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-63-73
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

An Efficient Spam Filtering Techniques for Email Account

S. Roy, A. Patra, S.Sau, K.Mandal, S. Kunar
1,2,3
Computer Science & Technology&4Mechanical Engineering, NITTTR, Kolkata, India
5
Production Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

Abstract: - Unsolicited emails, known as spam, are one of the fast growing and costly problems associated with
the Internet today. Electronic mail is used daily by millions of people to communicate around the globe and is a
mission-critical application for many businesses. Over the last decade, unsolicited bulk email has become a
major problem for email users. An overwhelming amount of spam is flowing into user’s mailboxes daily. Not
only is spam frustrating for most email users, it strains the IT infrastructure of organizations and costs
businesses billions of dollars in lost productivity. The necessity of effective spam filters increases. In this paper,
we presented an efficient spam filter techniques to spam email based on Naive Bayes Classifier. Bayesian
filtering works by evaluating the probability of different words appearing in legitimate and spam mails and then
classifying them based on those probabilities.

Keywords: - Spam, Filters, Bayesian, Content based spam filter and Email

I. INTRODUCTION
The Internet is gradually becoming an integral part of everyday life. Internet usage is expected to
continue growing and e-mail has become a powerful tool intended for idea and information exchange, as well as
for users‟ commercial and social lives. Along with the growth of the Internet and e-mail, there has been a
dramatic growth in spam in recent years. The majority of spam solutions deal with the flood of spam. However,
it is amazing that despite the increasing development of anti-spam services and technologies, the number of
spam messages continues to increase rapidly. The increasing volume of spam has become a serious threat not
only to the Internet, but also to society. For the business and educational environment, spam has become a
security issue. Spam has gone from just being annoying to being expensive and risky. The enigma is that spam
is difficult to define. What is spam to one person is not necessarily spam to another. Fortunately or
unfortunately, spam is here to stay and destinedto increase its impact around the world. It has become an issue
that can no longer be ignored; an issue that needs to be addressed in a multi-layered approach: at the source, on
the network, and with the end-user [1].
In this digital age, which is the era of electronics & computers, one of the efficient & power mode of
communication is the email. Undesired, unsolicited email is a nuisance for its recipients; however, it also often
presents a security threat. For ex., it may contain a link to a phony website intending to capture the user‟s login
credentials (identity theft, phishing), or a link to a website that installs malicious software (malware) on the
user‟s computer. Installed malware can be used to capture user information, send spam, host malware, host
phish, or conduct denial of service attacks as part of a “bot” net. While prevention of spam transmission would
be ideal, detection allows users & email providers to address the problem today [2].
Spam filtering has become a very important issue in the last few years as unsolicited bulk e-mail imposes large
problems in terms of both the amount of time spent on and the resources needed to automatically filter those
messages. Email communication has come up as the most effective and popular way of communication today.
People are sending and receiving many messages per day, communicating with partners and friends, exchanging
files and information. E-mail data‟s are now becoming the dominant form of inter and intra-organizational
written communication for many companies and government departments. Emails are the essential part of life
now just likes mobile phones & i-pods [3].
Emails can be of spam type or non-spam type. Spam mail is also called as junk mail or unwanted mail
whereas non-spam mails are genuine in nature and meant for a specific person and purpose. Information

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retrieval offers the tools and algorithms to handle text documents in their data vector form. The Statistics of
spam are increasing in number. At the end of 2002, as much as 40 % of all email traffic consisted of spam. In
2003, the percentage was estimated to be about 50 % of all emails. In 2006, BBC news reported 96 % of all
emails to be spam.
Spam can be defined as unsolicited (unwanted, junk) email for a recipient or any email that the user do
not wanted to have in his inbox. It is also defined as “Internet Spam is one or more unsolicited messages, sent or
posted as a part of larger collection of messages, all having substantially identical content.” There are severe
problems from the spam mails, viz., wastage of network resources (bandwidth), wastage of time, damage to the
PC‟s & laptops due to viruses & the ethical issues such as the spam emails advertising pornographic sites which
are harmful to the young generations[4].
Email is the most widely used medium for communication worldwide because it‟s Cheap, Reliable, Fast and
easily accessible. Email is also prone to spam emails because of its wide usage, cheapness & with a single click
you can communicate with anyone anywhere around the globe. It hardly cost spammers to send out 1 million
emails than to send 10 emails. Hence, Email Spam is one of the major problems of the today‟s internet, bringing
financial damage to companies and annoying individual users.
 Rule based
Handmade rules for detection of spam made by experts (needs domain experts & constant updating of rules).
 Customer Revolt
Forcing companies not to publicize personal email ids given to them (hard to implement).
 Domain filters
Allowing mails from specific domains only (hard job of keeping track of domains that are valid for a user).
 Blacklisting
Blacklist filters use databases of known abusers, and also filter unknown addresses (constant updating of the
data bases would be required).
 White list Filters
Mailer programs learn all contacts of a user and let mail from those contacts through directly (every one should
first be needed to communicate his email-id to the user and only then he can send email).
 Hiding address
Hiding ones original address from the spammers by allowing all emails to be received at temporary email-id
which is then forwarded to the original email if found valid by the user (hard job of maintaining couple of
email-ids).
 Checks on number of recipients by the email agent programs.
 Government actions
Laws implemented by government against spammers (hard to implement laws).
 Automated recognition of Spam
Uses machine learning algorithms by first learning from the past data available (seems to be the best at
current). Here, follows a brief overview of e-mail spam filtering. Among the approaches developed to stop
spam, filtering is an important and popular one. It can be defined as automatic classification of messages into
spam and legitimate mail. It is possible to apply the spam filtering algorithms on different phases of email
transmission at routers, at destination mail server or in the destination mailbox[5]. Filtering on the destination
port solves the problems caused by spam only partially, i.e., prevents end users from wasting their time on junk
messages, but it does not prevent resources misuse, because all the messages are delivered nevertheless. In
general, a spam filter is an application which implements a function:
ƒ(m, L) = { cspam, if the decision is “spam” cleg, otherwise }
Where „m‟ is a message or Email to be classified, L is a vector of parameters, and cspam and cleg are
labels assigned to the messages. Most of the spam filters are based on a machine learning classification
techniques. In a learning-based technique the vector of parameters L is the result of training the classifier on a
pre collected dataset:
L = R(M),
M = {(m1, y1),…… (mn, yn)}, yi { cspam, cleg}
Where m1, m2…mn are previously collected messages, y1, y2…yn are the corresponding labels, and R
is the training function. In order to classify new message, a spam filter can analyze them either separately (by
just checking the presence of certain words) or in groups (consider the arrival of dozen of messages with same
content in five minutes than arrival of one message with the same content). In addition, learning-based filter
analyzes a collection of labeled training data (pre-collected messages with reliable judgment).
This paper explores statistical learning algorithms such as Bayesian techniques for classifying spam. This spam
probability and non spam probability for every word occurred in incoming message by using training sets of

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words. Every word contains two frequencies one is spam frequency and other is non-spam frequency. Using this
frequency calculate spam and non-spam probability [6]. If spam probability greater than non-spam probability
then incoming message is considered as spam email message. After that all words have been updated in
trainings set. All time training sets will be updated.

II. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SPAM

Spam is not only offensive and annoying; it causes loss of productivity, decreases bandwidth and costs
companies a lot of money. Therefore, every smart company that uses email must take measures in order to block
spam from entering their email systems. Although it might not be possible to block out all spam, just blocking a
large proportion of it will greatly reduce its harmful effects. In order to effectively filter out spam and junk mail,
the proposed system is able to distinguish spam from legitimate messages and to do this it needs to identify
typical spam characteristics & practices. Once these practices are known, suitable measures can be put into
place to block these messages. Of course, spammers are continually improving their spam tactics, so it is
important to keep up to date on new spam practices from time to time to ensure spam is still being blocked
effectively.
Spam characteristics appear in two parts of a message; email headers and message content:

2.1 Email Header

Email headers show the route an email has taken in order to arrive at its destination. They also contain
other information about the email, such as the sender and recipient, the message ID, date and time of
transmission, subject and several other email characteristics. Most spammers try to hide their identity by forging
email headers or by relaying mail to hide the real source of the message. Since they need to send mails to a large
number of recipients, spammers use certain methods for mass mailing that can be classified as pure spam
practices and can therefore be identified in the email headers. Although newsletters and legitimate mailings are
also sent to a large number of recipients, these will generally not display the same characteristics since the
message source does not need to be concealed.
Typical email header characteristics in spam messages:
Recipient’s email address is not in the To: or Cc: fields
Empty To: field
To: field contains invalid email address
Missing To: field
From:
Missing From: field
Missing or malformed Message ID
More than 10 recipients in To: and/or Cc: fields
X-mailer field contains name of popular spam ware
Bcc: header exists
X-Distribution = bulk
X-UIDL header exists
Code and space sequence exists
Illegal HTML exists
Table 1. Statistics of spam based on spam characteristics
Spam Characteristics % of Searched mails
Recipient address not in To: or Cc: field 64%
To: field missing 34%
To: field contains invalid email address 20%
No message ID 20%
Suspect message ID 20%
Cc: filed contains more than 15 recipients 17%
From: is same as the To: field 6%
Cc: field contains more between 5-15 recipients 3%
To: field contains more between 5-15 recipients 2%
Cc: field contains more than 5-15 recipients 1%
Bcc: field exists 0%
To: field is empty 0%
From: is blank or missing 0%

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2.2 Message contents
Apart from headers, spammers tend to use certain language in their emails that companies can use to distinguish
spam messages from others. Typical words are free, limited offer, click here, act now, risk free, lose weight, and
earn money, get rich, and (over) use of exclamation marks and capitals in the text. Spam canbe blocked by
checking for words in the email body and subject, but it is important that you filter words accurately since
otherwise you might be blocking legitimate mails as well.

III. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

3.1 Overview of Design Methodology
The proposed system using naive bayes classifier to classify an email is spam or not. Proposed system
should be good rate for false positive and false negative. While false positive means a good email can be
identified as spam email. False negative means a spam emails identified by a good email.

3.1.1 Bayes Theorem

The probability of an event may depend on the occurrence or non-occurrence of another event. This dependency
is written in terms of conditional probability:
P(A|B) = P(AB) / P(B)
P(B|A) = P(AB) / P(A)
P(AB) =P(B|A) P(A) = P(A|B) P(B)

An event A is INDEPENDENT from event B if the conditional probability is the same as the marginal
probability.
P(B|A) = P(B)
P(A|B) = P(A)

From the formulas the Bayes Theorem States the Prior probability: Unconditional probabilities of our
hypothesis before we get any data or any NEW evidence. Simply speaking, it is the state of our knowledge
before the data is observed. Also stated is the posterior probability: A conditional probability about our
hypothesis (our state of knowledge) after we revised based on the new data.
Likelihood is the conditional probability based on our observation data given that our hypothesis holds.
P(A|B) = P(B|A) P(A)/ P(B)
P(B|A) = P(B|A) P(B)/ P(A)

Where P (A|B) is the posterior probability, P(B|A) is the likelihood and P(A) prior probability.
Thomas Bayes (c. 1702 – 17 April 1761) was a British mathematician and Presbyterian minister, known for
having formulated a specific case of the theorem that bears his name: Bayes' theorem, which was published
posthumously.
The following are the mathematical formalisms, and the example on a spam filter, but keep in mind the basic
idea.

The Bayesian classifier uses the Bayes theorem, which says:

P(cj | d) = P(d |cj) P(cj) / P(d)
Considering each attribute and class label as a random variable and given a record with attributes (A1,A2,…,
An), the goal is to predict class C. Specifically, we want to find the value of C that maximizes P(C|
A1,A2,…An).
The approach taken is to compute the posterior probability P(C| A1,A2,…An) for all values of C using the
Bayes theorem.
P(C | A1 A2 ...An) = P(A1 A2 ....An | C) P(C) / P(A1 A2 ....An)
So you choose the value of C that maximizes P(C| A1,A2,…An). This is equivalent to choosing the value of C
that maximizes P(A1,A2,…An | C) P(C).

3.2 Evaluation Process

Naïve Bayesian prediction requires each conditional probability be non zero. Otherwise, the predicted
probability will be zero.

In order to overcome this, we use probability estimation from one of the following:

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In order to classify and predict a spam email from a non spam one, the following techniques and assumptions
are used:

1. Sorting according to language (spam or non spam), then words, and then count.
2. If a word does not exist, consider to approximate P(word|class) using Laplacian.
3. A learning dataset for analysis.
4. The Learning Datasetcontains each word that content filtering uses to determine if a message is spam.
Beside each word, there are two numbers. The first number is the number of times that the word has
occurred in non-spam e-mail messages. The second number is the number of times that the word has
occurred in spam e-mail messages.

Table 2.Example of learning dataset containing words

Word Occurred in Non Spam Occurred in Spam
Specializing 391 4022
Graciously 2095 380
Bringing 2772 11854
Mbps 425 823
Tantra 96 52

3.3 Algorithm of the Proposed System

Input: keyword list, stop word list, ignore list, email message
Step1:- Let m be an email message. Take two variables Nonspam percent and
Spam percent initialized to 1. Convert all words to lower case.
Step2:- Find out all special character from m and remove all special character
from m.
Step 3:- For each word wi in m
If wi found in stopword list
Then w is removed from m.
End If.
End For.
Step 4:-For each word wj in m
If wj found in learning keyword dataset
Take spam value and calculate the probability using spam value divided by total spam value and multiply this
probability with Spam percent
Else Take spam value as 1(using Laplace) and calculate the
Probability using 1 divided by total spam value and
Multiply this probability with Spam percent. And add to keyword dataset.
End For.
Step 4:-For each word wk in m
If wk found in learning keyword dataset
Take non spam value and calculate the probability using non spam value divided by total non spam value and
multiply this probability with NonSpam percent
Else take non spam value as 1(using Laplace) and calculate
the Probability using 1 divided by total non spam
value and Multiply this probability with NonSpam percent. And add to keyword dataset.
End For.
Step 5:- Find out spam and non spam probability from learning dataset and multiply spam probability with
Spam percent to get all word spampercent and similarly multiply non spam probability with non spam
percent to get all word non spam percent
Step 6:- If Spam percent >Nonspam percent
Then m will be identified as Spam Email.

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Else m will be legitimate Email.

3.4 Explanation of Algorithm

Input of the above algorithm is ignoring list, stop word list, and keyword list. Ignore list contains set of
special character like (~,!,@,#,$,%,^,&,*,<,>,.,? etc)
First to remove from email content this ignores character. Then remove stop word from email content. Stop
word list like (am, is, are etc). Rest of the word contains in email is termed as keyword. To maintain a huge
learning data set using this keyword. Learning datasets contain lots of word. And each word has two properties.
One spam count and another is non spam count [7]. Where spam count is no of spam email contains this word.
Non spam count is the no of non spam email that contains this word.
First find out probability of mail type from the training dataset. Probability of spam email will be
P (SpamMailType) = (Total spam count from learning set/ Total count)
Similarly probability for non spam email will be
P (NonSpamMailType) = (Total spam count from learning set/ Total count)
Then take two variable example spampercent and nonspampercent and initialized to 1. Then look for percent of
word in non spam. Similarly look for percent of word in spam. Final probability by multiplying each word to the
total probability. Compare spampercent with nonspampercent. If spam percent greater than nonspampercent,
then email is considered as spam email.

IV. IMPLEMENTATION
To implement a system, there are some software and hardware required. Some softwares as well as
hardwaresare used to implement the above proposed system.
Hardware Used: 1. Windows 7
Software Used: 1.Visual studio 2010
2. Sql Server 2008
3. IIS 7.0
Some of this system snapshot is given below.
Login page of this email system

Fig 4.1 Login page

After login successful page

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Fig 4.2. Home page

Compose mail

Fig 4.3 Compose mail page

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After sending mail

Fig.4.4 After email sending Page

After login successful page

Fig. 4.5 After login to another account page

See spam folder contain the incoming email

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Fig. 4.6 Spam folder page

Login to another account

Fig.4.5 Another login page

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Spam email content

Fig. 4.7 Content of Spam Mail.

V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Estimating classifier accuracy is important in that it allows one to evaluate how accurately a given classifier will
label the test data. It can be calculated using the formula discussed below. A classifier is trained to classify e-
mails as non-spam and spam mails. An accuracy of 85 % may make the classifier accurate, but what if only 10-
15 % of the training samples are actually “spam”? Clearly an accuracy of 85 % may not be acceptable-the
classifier could be correctly labeling only the “non-spam” samples. Instead, we would like to be able to access
how well the classifier can recognize “spam” samples (referred to as positive samples) how well it can recognize
“non-spam” samples (referred to as negative samples)[8].The sensitivity (recall) and specificity measures can be
used, respectively for this purpose.
The use precision to access the percentage of samples labeled as “spam” that actually are “spam” samples. The
evaluation measures which are used in approach for testing process in our research work could be defined as
follows:
True Positive (TP): This states the no. of spam documents correctly classified
as spam
True Negative (TN): This states the number of non-spam documents correctly
classified as non spam.
False Positive (FP): This states the number spam documents classified as non
spam.
False Negative (FN): This states the number of non-spam document classified
as spam.

Table.3: Measurement, Formula, and Meaning of TP, TN, FP and FN

Measurement Formula Meaning
Precision TP / (TP + FP) The percentage of positive predictions that is correct.
Recall / Sensitivity TP / (TP + FN) The percentage of positive labeled instances that ispredicted as
positive.
Specificity TN / (TN + FP ) The percentage of negative labeled instances that is predicted
as negative.
Accuracy (TP + TN) / (TP The percentage of predictions that is correct.
+ TN + FP + FN)

500 spam document and 100 non spam document are tested. From the experimental result, out of 500 spam to
identify 468 as a spam and from 100 non spam document to identify 86 documents as nonspam.
True Positive (TP) = 477

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True Negative (TN) = 88
False Positive (FP) = 23
False Negative (FN) = 12
Precision = TP / (TP + FP) = 0.95
Recall / Sensitivity = TP / (TP + FN) = 0.97
Specificity = TN / (TN + FP) = 0.79
Accuracy = ((TP + TN) / (TP + TN + FN + FP))*100 = 94.16%

VI. CONCLUSION
In this Dissertation, the email client system that has capability to send email and receive email and
project mainly concerned about an efficient email spam filtering techniques for an email account. For this
system, we collected statistical data by which we create a training set. This dataset is updated time by time. The
filtering techniques based on Naive bayes Theorem, which is a good one machine learning algorithm. The
projectis concentrated only on text word not any other content. But the system is very much effective to identify
spam from email for text based.

REFERENCES
[1] A. Androutsopoulos, J. Koutsias, K.V. Cbandrinos and C.D. Spyropoulos. An experimental comparison
of naive Bayesian and keyword-based anti-spam filtering with personal e-mail messages. In Proceedings
of the 23rd ACM International Conference on Research and Developments in Information Retrieval,
Athens, Greece, 2000, 160–167.
[2] B.Klimt and Y.Yang. The Enron corpus: A new data set for e-mail classification research. In Proceedings
of the European Conference on Machine Learning, 2004, 217–226.
[3] A. McCallum and K. Nigam. A comparison of event models for naive Bayes text classification. In
Proceedings of the AAAI Workshop on learning for text categorization, 1998, 41–48.
[4] F.Sebastiani. Machine learning in automated text categorization. ACM Computing Surveys, 34(1):1–47,
2002.
[5] M. Sahami, S. Dumais, D. Heckerman and E. Horvitz. A Bayesian approach to filtering junk e-mail.
AAAI Technical Report WS-98-05, Madison, Wisconsin, 1998.
[6] L. Zhang, J. Zhu and T. Yao. An evaluation of statistical spam filtering techniques. ACM Transactions on
Asian Language Information Processing, 3(4):243–269, 2004.
[7] J. Golbeck and J. Hendler. Reputation network analysis for email filtering. In Proceedings of the First
Conference on Email and Anti-spam,2004.
[8] T.M. Mitchell, Machine Learning, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-74-76
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Fuzzy gc-super Irresolute Mappings

M. K. Mishra, Manisha Shukla
Professor, EGS PEC Nagapattinam
And Asst.Prof. AGCW Karaikal

Abstract: - In this paper we study the concept of fuzzy gc-super irresolute mappings and introduced some of
their basic properties in fuzzy topology.

Keywords: - fuzzy super closure ,fuzzy super interior, fuzzy super closed set, fuzzy super open set ,fuzzy super
continuity ,fuzzy g -super closed sets and fuzzy g –super open sets, fuzzy g -super continuous mappings.

I. INTRODUCTION
After the introduction of fuzzy sets by Zadeh [15] in 1965 and fuzzy topology by chang [4] in 1967.
Several researches were conducted on the generalizations of the notions of fuzzy sets and fuzzy topology. The
concept of fuzzy sets was introduced by Atanassov [1] as a generalization of fuzzy sets . In the last 20 years
various concepts of fuzzy mathematics have been extended for fuzzy sets. In 1997 Coker [5] introduced the
concept of fuzzy topological spaces. Recently many fuzzy topological concepts such as fuzzy compactness [8],
fuzzy connectedness [14], fuzzy multi functions [9] fuzzy g -super closed set [11] and fuzzy g -super continuity
[12] have been generalized for fuzzy topological spaces. Topological space. In the present paper we introduce
and study the concept of fuzzy gc-super irresolute mappings in fuzzy topological space.

II. PRELIMINARIES
Definition 2.1[8,9,12]: A fuzzy set A of a fuzzy topological space (X,) is called a
(a) fuzzy generalized super closed ( fuzzy g -super closed) if cl(A)  O
Whenever A  O and O is fuzzy super open.
(b) Fuzzy generalized super open if its complement is fuzzy generalized super closed.

Remark 2.1 [8,9,12]: Every fuzzy super closed set is fuzzy g -super closed set but its converse may not be true.

Definition 2.2[9]: Let (X,) and (Y,) be two fuzzy topological spaces and let f: XY be a function. Then
(a) f is said to be fuzzy super continuous if the pre image of each fuzzy open set in Y is an fuzzy super open
set in X.[8]
(b) f is said to be fuzzy g -super continuous if the inverse image of every fuzzy super closed set of Y is fuzzy
g -super closed set in X.[13]

Definition 2.3[8,9,13]: An fuzzy topological space X is called fuzzy g -super connected if there is no proper
fuzzy set of X which is both fuzzy g -super open and fuzzy g -super closed.

Definition 2.4[8,9,13]: An fuzzy set B of a fuzzy topological space (X,) is said to be fuzzy GO- super
compact relative to X, if for every collection {Ai: i} of fuzzy g –super open sets of X such that B  {Ai:
i}. There exists a finite subset 0 of  such that B  {Ai: i0}.

Definition 2.5[8,9,13] : A crisp subset Y of an fuzzy topological space (X,) is said to be fuzzy GO- super
compact if Y is fuzzy GO- super compact as a fuzzy subspace of X.

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Definition 2.6.[8,9,13]: Let (X, ) be an fuzzy topological space. The generalized closure of a fuzzy set A of
X denoted by gcl(A) is the intersection of all fuzzy g -super closed sets of X which contains A.

III. FUZZY GC-SUPER IRRESOLUTE MAPPINGS

Definition 3.1: A mapping f from an fuzzy topological space (X,) to another fuzzy topological space (Y,) is
said to be fuzzy gc-super irresolute if the inverse image of every fuzzy g -super closed set of Y is fuzzy g -
super closed in X.
Theorem 3.1: A mapping f : (X,)(Y,) is fuzzy gc-super irresolute if and only if the inverse image of
every fuzzy g –super open set in Y is fuzzy g -super open in X.
Proof: It is obvious because f -1(Uc) = (f -1(U))c, for every fuzzy set U of Y.
Remark 3.1: Since every fuzzy closed set is fuzzy g -super closed it is clear that every fuzzy gc-super irresolute
mapping is fuzzy g -super continuous but the converse may not be true.
Remark 3.2: Example (3.1) and example (3.2) asserts that the concepts of fuzzy gc-super irresolute and fuzzy
super continuous mappings are independent.
Theorem 3.2: If a mapping f : (X,)(Y,) is fuzzy gc-super irresolute then
(a) f(gcl(A)) gcl(f(A)
(b) gcl(f -1(B))  f -1(gcl(B)).
Proof: Obvious.
Theorem 3.3: Let f: (X,)(Y,) is bijective fuzzy super open and fuzzy g -super continuous then f is fuzzy
gc- super irresolute.
Proof: Let A be a fuzzy g -super closed set in Y and let f -1(A)  G where G is fuzzy open set in X. Then A 
f(G). Since f(G) is fuzzy super open and A is fuzzy g -super closed in Y, cl(A)  f(G) and f -1(cl(A)) G. Since
f is fuzzy g -super continuous and cl(A) is fuzzy super closed in Y, cl(f -1(cl(A)))  G. And so cl(f -1(A))  G.
Therefore f -1(A) is fuzzy g -super closed in X. Hence f is fuzzy gc- super irresolute.
Theorem 3.4: Let f : (X,)(Y,) and g: (Y,)(Z,) be two fuzzy gc-super irresolute mappings, then gof :
(X,)(Z, ) is fuzzy gc- super irresolute.
Proof : Obvious.
Theorem 3.5: Let f : (X,)  (Y,) is fuzzy gc-super irresolute and g: (Y,)(Z,) is fuzzy g -super
continuous then the gof : (X,)(Z, ) is fuzzy g -super continuous.
Proof: Obvious.
Theorem 3.6: Let f : (X,)(Y,) is fuzzy gc-super irresolute mappings, then gof : (X,)(Z, ) is fuzzy
gc-super irresolute and if B is fuzzy GO- super compact relative to X, then the image f(B) is fuzzy GO-
super compact relative to Y.
Proof : Let {Ai: i}be any collection of fuzzy g–super open set of Y such that f(B)  {Ai: i}. Then B 
{f -1(Ai): i}. By using the assumption, there exists a finite subset 0 of  such that B  {f -1(Ai): i0}.
Therefore, f(B) {Ai: i0}. Which shows that f(B) is fuzzy GO- super compact relative to Y.
Corollary 3. 1: A fuzzy gc-super irresolute image of a fuzzy GO- super compact space is fuzzy GO- super
compact.
Theorem 3.8: Let (XxY, x) be the fuzzy product space of non-empty fuzzy topological spaces (X,) and
(Y,). Then the projection mapping p: XxYX is fuzzy gc- super irresolute.
Proof: Let F be any fuzzy g -super closed set of X. Then fx1(= p-1(F)) is fuzzy g -super closed and
hence p is fuzzy gc- super irresolute.
Theorem 3.9: If the product space (XxY, x) of two non empty fuzzy topological spaces (X,) and (Y,) is
fuzzy GO-super compact, then each factor space is fuzzy GO- super compact.
Proof: Obvious.
Theorem: 3.10: Let f : (X,)(Y,) is an fuzzy gc-super irresolute surjection and (X,) is fuzzy GO- super
connected, then (Y,) is fuzzy GO- super connected.
Proof: Suppose Y is not fuzzy GO- super connected then there exists a proper fuzzy set G of Y which is both
fuzzy g -super open and Fuzzy g -super closed, therefore f -1(G) is a proper fuzzy set of X, which is both fuzzy g
-super open and fuzzy g -super closed, because f is fuzzy g -super continuous surjection. Therefore X is not
fuzzy GO- super connected, which is a contradiction. Hence Y is fuzzy GO- super connected.
Theorem 3.11: If the product space (XxY ,x) of two non-empty fuzzy topological spaces (X,) and (Y,)
is fuzzy GO- super connected, then each factor fuzzy space is fuzzy GO- super connected.
Proof: Obvious.

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REFERENCES
[1] K. Atanassova, Fuzzy Sets, In VII ITKR’s Session, (V.Sgurev,Ed.) Sofia, Bulgaria, (1983)
[2] K. Atanassov and S. Stoeva., Fuzzy Sets, In Polish Symposium on Interval and Fuzzy Mathematics ,
Poznan, (1983), 23-26
[3] K. Atnassov, Fuzzy Sets. Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 20(1986), 87-96.
[4] C.L. Chang, Fuzzy Topological Spaces, J.Math.Anal.Appl. 24(1968) 182-190.
[5] D. Coker, An Introduction to Fuzzy Topological Spaces, Fuzzy Sets and Systems .88(1997), 81-89.
[6] D.Coker and A. Es. Hyder., On Fuzzy Compactness in Fuzzy Topological Spaces, The Journal of Fuzzy
Mathematics, 3-4(1995),899-909.
[7] H. Gurcay, D. Coker and Es., A.Haydar, On Fuzzy Continuity in Fuzzy Topological Spaces. The Journal
of Fuzzy Mathematics Vol.5, no.2, 1997, 365-378.
[8] Mishra M.K. ,et all on “ Fuzzy super closed set” International Journal International Journal of
Mathematics and applied Statistics.
[9] Mishra M.K. ,et all on “ Fuzzy super continuity” International Review in Fuzzy Mathematics ISSN :
0973-4392July –December2012.
[10] Mishra M.K., Shukla M. “Fuzzy Regular Generalized Super Closed Set” Accepted for publication in
International Journal of Scientfic and Research Publication ISSN2250-3153. July December 2012.
[11] N. Levine., Generalized Closed Sets In Topology, Rend. Cerc. Mat. Palermo.19(2), 1970, 571-599.
[12] O. Ozbakir and D. Coker., Fuzzy Multifunctions in Fuzzy Topological Spaces Notes on IFS 5(1999) No.
3.
[13] S.S. Thakur and Malviya R., Generalized Closed Sets In Fuzzy Topology, Math. Notae 38(1995), 137-
140.
[14] N.Turnali and D. Coker, Fuzzy Connectedness in Fuzzy Topological Spaces. Fuzzy Sets And Systems
116(2000) (3), 369-375.
[15] L.A.Zadeh, Fuzzy Sets, Information and Control, 18(1965), 338-353.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-77-85
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Experimental Analysis of Particle Size Distribution using

Electromagnetic Sieve
Ujam, A.J., and Enebe, K. O
a. Department of Mechanical and production Engineering Enugu State University of Science and Technology,
Enugu, Nigeria
b. Scientific Equipment Development Institute, Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria.

Abstract: - This work is aimed at grading the particle sizes of powders and granular distribution of particle
sizes of a local agricultural product, GARRI. To be able to do this, an electromagnetic sieving machine which
transforms electromagnetic energy to mechanical energy was designed and constructed. The Choice of
Electromagnetic Sieving Machine was to increase the amplitude of oscillation and thereby reducing the time
of sieving. With the aid of the machine, sieving was carried out three times at different voltage settings. The
tests conducted show that with increase in voltage, the amplitude of oscillation also increased, thereby reducing
the sieving time. Optimal output (from 1kg of Garri) was obtained in 120 seconds at a voltage setting of 255
volts which generated 5mm amplitude. The different particle sizes were evaluated by the use of an electronic
microscope. The efficiency of the machine was evaluated to be 98%.

Key words: - Particle size, Vibration, Sieve, Energy, magnetic flux

I. INTRODUCTION
The particle-size distribution (PSD) of a powder, or granular material, or particles dispersed in fluid,
is a list of values or a mathematical function that defines the relative amount, typically by mass, of particles
present according to size.[1] PSD is also known as grain size distribution.[2]
The PSD of a material can be important in understanding its physical and chemical properties. It affects the
strength and load-bearing properties of rocks and soils. It affects the reactivity of solids participating in chemical
reactions, and needs to be tightly controlled in many industrial products such as the manufacture of printer toner
and cosmetics.
The way PSD is usually defined is by the method by which it is determined. The most easily
understood method of determination is sieve analysis, where powder is separated on sieves of different sizes.
Thus, the PSD is defined in terms of discrete size ranges: e.g. "% of sample between 45 μm and 53 μm", when
sieves of these sizes are used. The PSD is usually determined over a list of size ranges that covers nearly all the
sizes present in the sample. Some methods of determination allow much narrower size ranges to be defined than
can be obtained by use of sieves, and are applicable to particle sizes outside the range available in sieves.
However, the idea of the notional "sieve", that "retains" particles above a certain size, and "passes" particles
below that size, is universally used in presenting PSD data of all kinds.
One of the most important types of analytical work associated with producing resources and wares with
desired properties, is particle size, shape, and distribution analysis. [3]
Sieving, microscopy, computerized image analysis, laser diffraction, sedimentation, and centrifugation, are
some of the particle size analysis methods by which a samples particle characterization may be established.
The method one employs, has to do with the nature of the sample, ie...liquid or solid, the size range of the
particles to be analyzed, the relevance of the results to the finished product properties, and cost. For some
applications, like certain pharmaceuticals, particle shape characteristics may also have a bearing on the outcome
of the finished good.
The use of sieves with different sized mesh is one of the oldest, most reliable, and most commonly used
methods for providing an analysis of particle size distribution.

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Although sieve shakers have limitations based on the assumption that all particles are spherical, they work well
for a wide variety of applications, and because it is relatively inexpensive, is generally the first method
employed by companies when a particle size distribution analysis program is initiated. [3]
A sieve analysis consists of using a single or set of screens (typically woven wire mesh), decreasing in
opening size, to separate or classify a sample. Several mechanisms are used to disperse the sample and transport
it through the screens (i.e. vibration, air entrainment or flowing liquid). While considered relatively low
resolution, sieving’s practical application lends itself well to quality control specifications. ASTM E-11
establishes acceptance criteria for the woven wire mesh opening tolerances of standard sieve sizes. For optimal
quality control, PTL verifies its in-house sieves with an external vendor for compliance with the ASTM E-11.
[4]
While sieving may appear rudimentary compared to more modern instrumental particle
characterization techniques, it still requires several important considerations to obtain the best repeatable and
precise results. Several factors must be considered when developing a robust sieving method or performing a
routine quality analysis. Sample size, sieving duration, controlled agitation parameters and end point
determination are all critical method variables which need to be addressed.
The vibrating sieve shaker applies the principle of electromagnetic induction. When the particles are
characterized, the products are useful as a raw material or consumption purposes. Many dependent variables are
considered in this work and the effectiveness of each of them contributes to the overall efficiency. Such
dependent variables are the amplitude of vibration, voltage variation which is a function of magnetic flux
density, the mass of product collected and the resident time for the sieving. The effectiveness of the designed
sieve will help in particle separation in local industries, especially cassava (garri) processing industries.
The test sieve shakers electromagnetic design offers many equipment – feature benefit compared with
manual motor driven units. The electromagnetic shaker combines sharp, vertical motion with rotary motion at
3,600 vibrations per minutes for optimum performance. This high speed straight to line vibratory actions
minimizes particle detention, provide faster particle separation with improved accuracy and assure uniform
particle size distribution. Electromagnetic drives also assure outstanding durability with virtually no
maintenance or part replacement. There are no motor for overheat or burn out, no belt, gears, pulley or other
moving components to wear and lubrication is not required. Operation is simple. The operator places the nested
sieve on the top sieve and pushes the handle down to lock the sieve in position. The unit preset timer is actuated
to test the material sample. The time control devices guarantees uniformly – timed sample analysis. A rheostat
control can be set to a fixed voltage value to assure a consistence analysis of the design and operation noise
level conform with standard. Test sieve shakers are compact, light weight. Each sieve shakers hold about six -
eight – inch diameter standard screen full height testing sieves and a bottom pan, or twelve half height sieves
and bottom pan Units operates at 230 volts, 50Hz single phase ac.

1.2 Mathematical models

Probability distributions
 The log-normal distribution is often used to approximate the particle size distribution of aerosols, aquatic
particles and pulverized material.
 The Weibull distribution or Rosin Rammler distribution is a useful distribution for representing particle
size distributions generated by grinding, milling and crushing operations.
 The log-hyperbolic distribution was proposed by Bagnold and Barndorff-Nielsen[5] to model the particle-
size distribution of naturally occurring sediments. This model suffers from having non-unique solutions for
a range of probability coefficients.
 The skew log-Laplace model was proposed by Fieller, Gilbertson and Olbricht [6] as a simpler alternative
to the log-hyperbolic distribution.

Rosin-Rammler distribution
The Weibull distribution, now named for Waloddi Weibull was first identified by Fréchet (1927) and
first applied by Rosin & Rammler (1933) to describe particle size distributions. It is still widely used in mineral
processing to describe particle size distributions in comminution processes.

where
: Particle size
: 80th percentile of the particle size distribution

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: Parameter describing the spread of the distribution
The inverse distribution is given by:

where
: Mass fraction
Parameter estimation
The parameters of the Rosin-Rammler distribution can be determined by refactoring the distribution function to
the form[7]

Hence the slope of the line in a plot of

versus
yields the parameter and is determined by substitution into

Fig.1 Log-Normal Distribution results graph-Cumulative percent less than indicated size as a function of
particle size. [8]

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Sample Collection:
Cassava tubers are harvested wet, pealed and ground in the grinding machine. It is partially dried using
the screw jack. The product “garri” is then fried in the frying pan and ready for consumption. But sometimes, it
becomes difficult for consumption or other useful purposes due to sizes of the grain. The designed sieves
however, solved a problem of difficulty posed by large sizes of the particles. The grading process using the
electromagnetic sieve provides better particle sizes of the product that are exportable to other countries of the
world.

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2.2 – Equipment/Material used for Experiment
1. One Kilogram (1000g) of fried “garri” sample
2. A stop watch
3. A locally fabricated electromagnetic sieving machine.
4. Sieves
5. Voltage regulator (digital meter)
6. Springs

2.3: Experimental Procedures

1 kg (1000g) sample of “garri” was weighed using the weighing balance. The designed electromagnetic
sieve was connected to the electric mains and voltage was adjusted with the regulator to read 235 volts. The
sieve agitated as the voltage is varied and a stop watch is set to measure the time for a complete sieving.
Different aggregate of “garri” particle sizes were collected on each sieve and weighed. The procedure was
repeated with the voltage varied at 245, 255 and 265 volts. The corresponding time (seconds) for each
experiment was noted. The particles sizes were also recorded and evaluated using the electronic microscope.

III. RESULTS
The result shows that the designed sieve is capable of grading the product “garri” at different
aggregates. The mass of “garri” on each sieve was noted at different voltage variation in a particular time
intervals. The results are tabulated below.

Table 1 Voltage Varied at 235 Volts: Time for sieving – 230 seconds
Mesh Nos Weight of Mesh Weight of Mesh + Weight of Particle Size
(Kg) Weight of Garri(Kg) Garri(Kg)- (µ)
Product

1 0.380 0.440 0.120 >18µm

2 0.480 0.770 0.290 18µm
3 0.480 0.720 0.240 24µm
4 0.680 1.020 0.340 30µm

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25
Mass (kg)

0.2

0.15 Column1

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Particle size (μm)

Fig 2: Graph of mass Vs Particle size for 235volts

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.Table 2 Voltage varied at 245Volts. Time of sieving – 180seconds
Mesh Weight of Mesh Weight of Mesh + Weight of Particle
Nos (Kg) Weight of Garri(Kg) Garri(Kg)- Size (µ)
Product Y
1 0.380 0.420 0.040 >18µm
2 0.480 0.780 0.300 18µm
3 0.480 0.640 0.260 24µm
4 0.680 1.060 0.380 30µm

Y-Values
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
Mass (kg)

0.2
0.15 Y-Values
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Particle size (μm)

Fig 3: Graph of mass Vs Particle size for 245 volts

Table 3.Voltage varied at 255Volts. Time of sieving – 120 seconds

Mesh Weight of Mesh Weight of Mesh + Weight of Particle
Nos (Kg) Weight of Garri(Kg) Garri(Kg)- Size (µ)
Product Y
1 0.380 0.390 0.010 >18µm
2 0.480 0.780 0.300 18µm
3 0.480 0.760 0.280 24µm
4 0.680 1.080 0.400 30µm

Y-Values
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
Mass (kg)

0.25
0.2
0.15 Y-Values
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Particle Size (μm)

Fig 4 Graph of mass Vs Particle size for 255 volts

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Table 4: Variation of voltage with time.
Voltage (Volts) Time (Seconds)
235 230
245 180
255 120
265 90

Y-Values
270
265
260
Voltage (Volts)

255
250
245 Y-Values
240
235
230
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (seconds)

Fig 5: Graph of Voltage Vs time.

Table 5 Variation of average mass collected with time

Voltage (Volts) Average mass(Kg) Time (Seconds)
235 0.290 230
245 0.313 180
255 0.326 120

Y-Values
0.33
0.325
0.32
0.315
Mass (kg)

0.31
0.305
0.3 Y-Values
0.295
0.29
0.285
230 235 240 245 250 255 260
Volts

Fig 6 Graph of average mass Vs voltage

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Y-Values
0.33
0.325
0.32
0.315
Mass (kg)

0.31
0.305
0.3 Y-Values
0.295
0.29
0.285
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time

Fig 7: Graph of average mass Vs time at 255 volts.

IV. DISCUSSIONS
The designed electromagnetic sieve was operated with a combined action of electricity and magnetism.
The shaking principle was also achieved with the help of spring (amplitude) displacement due to the increased
magnetic flux existing between the air gap.
Fig. 2 indicates that there is an increase in mass collected at the sieves as the particle size decreases except in the
second set of sieve when the voltage was varied at 235Volts. The decrease in mass at the second sieve can be
attributed to the uneven distribution of the agitation.
Fig.3 indicates that there is an increase in mass collected at the sieves as the particle size decreases
except in the second set of sieve as the voltage was varied at 245Volts. The decrease in mass at the second sieve
may also be attributed to poor agitation at the middle sieve. There was also an increase in mass collected at the
bottom due to the direct flux.
Fig.4 indicates that there is an increase in mass collected at the sieves as the particle size decreases
except in the second set of sieve as usual. Here the voltage is varied at 255Volts and highest separation was
achieved. This is known as the peak voltage. The decrease in mass at the second sieve may also be attributed to
poor agitation.
Fig.5 indicates that as the voltage increases, the time of sieving decreases proportionally. This is as a
result of increase in amplitude.
Fig.6 shows that mass collected from the sieves increases as the voltage increases.
The result shows that the designed sieve is capable of grading the product “garri” into different aggregates. The
mass of “garri” on each sieve is noted at different voltage variation in a particular time intervals. It was observed
that with increase in voltage sieving time was reduced.

V. CONCLUSION
Many natural and manufactured materials occur in a diverse form, which means that they consist of
differently shaped and sized particles. The particle size distribution is responsible for important physical and
chemical properties such as: Mechanical bulk behavior, Surface reaction, Taste, Miscibility, Filtration
properties, Conductivity.
If the particle distribution changes during the manufacturing process then the quality of the finished product will
also change. Only a continuous monitoring of the particle size distribution can guarantee a constant product
quality.
The designed “Throw action” type utilizes the electromagnetic induction at varied voltages. The
vertical oscillation is used to determine the amplitude of the vibration and hence maximum sample collected per
sieve. The sieve is capable of handling up to one kilogramme (1000g) of garri sample at a batch. The three
grades of particle sizes collected (30μm, 24μm and 18μm) are exportable to other countries of the world if
labeled accordingly.

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The result show that increased voltage gives a maximum collection of finest particle at a smallest
resident time. The amplitude of the vibration and mass of the sieved samples, also increases as the voltage
increases. But as the voltage increase arbitrarily, the mass of the finest particle decreases because the
electromagnetic energy are not all converted to electromechanical energy. Therefore, several losses are
encountered. The particle sizes collected at the different sieves was evaluated using an electronic microscope.

Fig. 8 Constructed electromagnetic sieve shaker

Fig.9 Views of the electromagnetic sieve shaker

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Fig.10. Assembled Sieve and Shaker

REFERENCES
[1] Jillavenkatesa, A; Dakpunas, S. J and Lin-Sien Lum (2001), “Particle Size Characterization”, NIST
Special Publication, 960-1.
[2] Sivakugan, N. (2000), “Soil Classification”, James Cook University Geoengineering Lecture Handout
www.coffeelabequipment.com (2013), “Particle Size Analysis”
[3] www.advantechmfg.com (1995), “Principles and Procedures-manual with tables 2”,
[4] ASTM E11-04
[5] Bagnold, R. A and Barndoff-Nelson, O. (1980) “The Pattern of natural distribution”, Sedimentology
27 (2); 199:207
[6] Fieller, N. R; Gilbertson, D. D and Olbricht, W. (1984), “A new method of environmental analysis of
particle size distribution data from shoreline sediments”, Nature 311 (5987): 648-651.
[7] Wills, B. A and Napier-Munn. (2006), “Mineral Processing Technology: an introduction to the
practical aspects of ore treatment and mineral recovery”, Elsevier, Great Britain, 7th Ed.
[8] www.wikipedia.org/wiki/user:Rhoades500. (2009), “Particle size distribution.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-86-91
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Common Fixed Point Theorems for Sequence Of Mappings

Under Contractive Conditions In Symmetric Spaces
T.R.Vijayan,
Department of Mathematics, Pavai College of Technology, Namakkal - 637018, India.

Abstract: - The main purpose of this paper is to obtain common fixed point theorems for sequence of
mappings under contractive conditions which generalizes theorem of Aamri [1].

Keywords And Phrases: - Fixed point, Coincidence point, Compatible maps, weakly compatible maps,
NonCompatible maps Property (E.A).

I. INTRODUCTION
It is well known that the Banach contraction principle is a fundamental result in fixed point theory,
which has been used and extended in many different directions. Hicks [2] established some common fixed point
theorems in symmetric spaces and proved that very general probabilistic structures admit a compatible
symmetric or semi-metric. Recall that a symmetric on a set X is a nonnegative real valued function d on X × X
such that (i) d(x, y) = 0 if, and only if, x = y, and (ii) d(x, y) = d(y, x). Let d be a symmetric on a set X and
for r > 0 and any x ∈ X, let B(x, r) ={y ∈ X: d(x, y) < r}. A topology t (d) on X is given by U ∈ t (d) if, and only
if, for each x ∈ U, B(x, r) ⊂ U for some r > 0. A symmetric d is a semi-metric if for each x ∈ X and each r > 0,
B(x, r) is a neighbourhood of x in the topology t(d). Note that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑥) = 0 if and only if xn  x in the
topology t (d).

II. PRELIMINARIES
Before proving our results, we need the following definitions and known results in this sequel.

Definition 2.1([3]) let (X, d) be a symmetric space. (W.3) Given {xn}, x and y in X, lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑥) = 0 and
lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦) = 0 imply x = y. (W.4) Given {xn}, {yn} and x in X lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑥) = 0 and
lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) = 0 imply that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑦𝑛 , 𝑥) = 0.
Definition 2.2([4]) Two self mappings A and B of a metric space (X, d) are said to be weakly commuting if d
(ABx,BAx) ≤ d (Ax,Bx), ∀x ∈ X.
Definition 2.3([5]) Let A and B be two self mappings of a metric space (X, d). A and B are said to be
compatible if lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝐴𝐵𝑥𝑛 , 𝐵𝐴𝑥𝑛 )= 0, whenever (xn) is a sequence in X such that
lim𝑛∞ 𝐴𝑥𝑛 = lim𝑛∞ 𝐵𝑥𝑛 =t for some t ∈ X.
Remark 2.4. Two weakly commuting mappings are compatibles but the converse is not true as is shown in [5].
Definition 2.5 ([5]) Two self mapping T and S of a metric space X are said to be weakly compatible if they
commute at there coincidence points, i.e., if Tu = Su for some u ∈ X, then TSu = STu.
Note 2.6. Two compatible maps are weakly compatible. M. Aamri [6] introduced the concept property (E.A) in
the following way.
Definition 2.7 ([6]). Let S and T be two self mappings of a metric space (X, d). We say that T and S satisfy the
property (E.A) if there exists a sequence {xn} such that lim𝑛∞ 𝑇𝑥𝑛 =lim𝑛∞ 𝑆𝑥𝑛 =t for some t ∈ X.
Definition 2.8 ([6]). Two self mappings S and T of a metric space (X, d)
will be non-compatible if there exists at least one sequence {xn} in X such that if lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑆𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑇𝑆𝑥𝑛 ) is
either nonzero or non-existent.
Remark 2.9. Two noncompatible self mappings of a metric space (X, d) satisfy the property (E.A).
In the sequel, we need a function φ: IR+  IR+ satisfying the condition 0 < φ (t) < t for each t > 0.

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Definition 2.10. Let A and B be two self mappings of a symmetric space (X, d).A and B are said to be
compatible if lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝐴𝐵𝑥𝑛 , 𝐵𝐴𝑥𝑛 ) = 0 whenever (xn) is a sequence in X such that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝐴𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡)
=lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝐵𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡) = 0 for some t ∈ X.
Definition 2.11. Two self mappings A and B of a symmetric space (X, d) are said to be weakly compatible if
they commute at their coincidence points.
Definition 2.12. Let A and B be two self mappings of a symmetric space (X, d). We say that A and B satisfy the
property (E.A) if there exists a sequence (xn) such that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝐴𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡) =lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝐵𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡) = 0 for some t ∈ X.
Remark 2.13. It is clear from the above Definition 2.10, that two self mappings S and T of a symmetric space
(X, d) will be noncompatible if there exists at least one sequence (xn) in X such that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑆𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡)
=lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡) = 0 for some t ∈ X. but lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑆𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑇𝑆𝑥𝑛 ) is either non-zero or does not exist.
Therefore, two noncompatible self mappings of a symmetric space (X, d) satisfy the property (E.A).
Definition 2.14. Let (X, d) be a symmetric space. We say that (X, d) satisfies the property (HE) if given {xn},
{yn} and x in X, and lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑦𝑛 , 𝑥) =0 imply lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑦𝑛 , 𝑥𝑛 ) = 0
Note that (X,d) is not a metric space.
Aamri [1] prove the following theorems.
Theorem 2.15 (Aamri [1]). Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.3) and (HE). Let A and B be two
weakly compatible self mappings of (X, d) such that (1) d(Ax,Ay) ≤ φ(max{d(Bx,By), d(Bx,Ay), d(Ay,By)}) for all
(x, y) ∈ X2, (2) A and B satisfy the property (E.A), and (3) AX ⊂ BX. If the range of A or B is a complete
subspace of X, then A and B have a unique common fixed point.
Theorem 2.16 (Aamri [1]). Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.3), (W.4) and (HE). Let A, B, T and S
be self mappings of (X, d) such that (1) d(Ax,By) ≤ φ(max{d(Sx, Ty), d(Sx,By), d(Ty,By)}) for all (x, y) ∈ X2,
(2) (A, T) and (B,S) are weakly compatibles, (3) (A, S) or (B, T) satisfies the property (E.A), and
(4) AX ⊂ TX and BX ⊂ SX. If the range of the one of the mappings A, B, T or S is a complete subspace of X,
then A, B, T and S have a unique common fixed point.

III. MAIN RESULTS

In this section we prove common fixed point theorem for sequence of mappings that generalizes Theorem 2.16.
Theorem 3.1. Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.3) (W.4) and (HE). Let {Ai}, {Aj}, S and T be self
maps of a metric space (X, d) such that
(1) d(Aix,Ajy) < max{d(SxTy), d(Aix,Sx), d(Ajy,Ty), d(Aix,Ty), d(Ajy, Sx)} for all (x,y)  X2,(i≠j),
(2) (Ai,S) or (Ak,T) are weakly compatibles. (3) (Ai, S) or (AjT) ,(i≠j) satisfies the property(E.A) and
(4) AiX⊂ TX and AjX ⊂ SX for (i≠j)
If the range of the one of the mappings {Ai}, {Aj}, S or T is a complete subspace of X,
then (I) Ai and S have a common fixed point,  i (II) Aj,(i≠j) and T have a common fixed point provided that
(Ak, T) for some k > 1 is weakly compatible. (III) Ai,Aj, S (i≠j) and T have a unique common fixed point
provided that (I) and (II) are true.
Proof. Suppose that (Aj,T) (i≠j) satisfies the property (E.A.).
=>There exists a sequence {xn} in X such that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐴𝐽 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡 = lim𝑛∞ 𝑑(𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡) =0 for (i≠j) and for
some t  X. Since AjX ⊂ SX (i≠j), there exists a sequence {yn} in X such that Ajxn = Syn.
Hence, lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝑆𝑦𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0 (since, lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐴𝑗 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0)
Let us prove that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐴𝑖 𝑦𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0
It is enough to prove that Aiyn = Ajxn, (i≠j) and for sufficiently large n.
Suppose not, then using (1)
d(Aiyn,Ajxn) < max{d(Syn,Txn), d(Aiyn ,Syn), d(Ajxn,Txn), d(Aiyn ,Txn), d(Ajxn ,Syn)} for all (x,y)  X2, (i≠j)
d(Aiyn,Ajxn) < max{d(Ajxn,Txn), d(Aiyn,Ajxn), d(Ajxn ,Txn), d(Aiyn ,Txn)} for all (x,y)  X2,(i≠j),
For sufficiently large n, { since, Ajxn=Syn}
d(Aiyn,Ajxn) < max{ d(Aiyn,Ajxn), d(Aiyn ,Ajxn)}< d(Aiyn ,Ajxn) {Since, Ajxn= Txn as n∞}(By HE)
=><= Aiyn ≠ Ajxn for (i≠j)
lim𝑛∞ d (Aiyn,Ajxn)=0 By(W.2),we deduce that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑( Ai 𝑦𝑛 , 𝑡)=0.
Suppose SX is a complete subspace of X.Then t = Su for some u X.
Therefore, lim𝑛∞ d(Aiyn ,Su)= lim𝑛∞ d(Ajxn ,Su)= lim𝑛∞ d(Txn,Su)
= lim𝑛∞ d(Syn,Su)=0 (i≠j)
Using (1),it follows d(Aiu,Ajxn) < max{d(Su,Txn), d(Aiu,Su), d(Ajxn ,Txn), d(Aiu,Txn), d(Ajxn ,Su)} for
sufficiently large n, (i≠j)
d(Aiu,Su) < max{d(Aiu,Su), d(Aiu,Su)}(i≠j),
<d(Aiu,Su)  i =><= when Aiu≠Su  i
Therefore, Aiu=Su  i
This means that Ai and S have coincidence point. But (Ai, S)  i is weakly compatible.

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SAiu = AiSu  i and then AiAiu = AiSu = SAiu = SSu.  i
Suppose AiX ⊂ TX  i
=>There exists v  X such that Aiu=Tv  i
=> Aiu=Su=Tv  i
To prove that Tv= Ajv, (i≠j)
Suppose T v ≠ Ajv,then
(1)=> d(Aiu,Ajv) < max{d(Su,Tv), d(Aiu, Su), d(Ajv,Tv), d(Aiu,Tv), d(Ajv,Su)}
= max{d(Tv ,Tv), d(Su, Su), d(Ajv,Tv), d(Tv,Tv), d(Ajv,Tv)} (i≠j)
= max{d(Ajv,Tv), d(Ajv,Tv)} (i≠j)
= d(Ajv,Tv) = d(Ajv,Aiu), (i≠j)
Therefore (Aiu,Ajv)<d(Ajv,Aiu) (i≠j)
=><= Therefore Aiu=Ajv (i≠j)
=>Ajv=Aiu=Tv Therefore,Ajv=T v for i≠j
=>Aiu=Su=Tv=Ajv, i≠j
But (Ak,T) is weakly compatible for some k>1
AkT v=TAkv for some k>1 and TTv=TAkv=AkT v=AkAkv, for some k>1
We shall prove that Aiu is a common fixed point of Ai and S  i
Suppose Aiu≠AiAiu  i
d(Aiu,AiAiu) =d(Ajv,AiAiu) (since, Ajv=Aiu) (i≠j)
d(AiAiu,Ajv) < max{d(SAiu,Tv), d(AiAiu, SAiu), d(Ajv,Tv), d(AiAiu,Tv), d(Ajv,SAiu)} (i≠j)
= max {d(AiAiu,Ajv), 0,0, d(AiAiu,Ajv), d(Ajv,AiAiu)} (i≠j)
= d (AiAiu,Ajv) Therefore, d(Ajv,AiAiu)< d(AiAiu Ajv)
=><=
Therefore, AiAiu =Ajv (i≠j)
=> AiAiu =Aiu=SAiu (since, AiAiu =SAiu)
=> Aiu is a common fixed point of Ai and S.  i This proves (I).
To prove that Akv = Aiu for some k>1 is a common fixed point of Aj (i≠j) and T
Suppose Akv≠AjAkv, then
d(Akv,AjAkv)= d(Aiu,AjAkv)
< max{d(Su,TAkv), d(Aiu,Su), d(AjAkv ,TAkv), d(Aiu,TAkv), d(AjAkv,Su)}
= max{d(Aiu,AjAkv),0, d(AjAkv,AjAkv), d(Aiu, AjAkv), d(AjAkv Aiu)} (since,Ajv=Tv)
= max{d(Aiu,AjAkv),0,0, d(Aiu, AjAkv), d(AjAkv ,Aiu)}
Therefore, d(Akv,AjAkv)< d(Aiu,AjAkv).
=><= ( since,Aiu=Akv)
Therefore, Aiu=AjAkv ie., Akv=AjAkv=TAkv (since,Ajv=Tv)
=>Akv is the common fixed point of Aj and T. This proves (II)
Now,Aiu is a common fixed point of Ai and S.  i
Akv=Aiu is the common fixed point of Ajand T for i≠j
Therefore, Aiu is the common fixed point of Aj,Tand S for all j (i≠j)
The proof is similar when TX is assumed to be complete subspace of X.
The cases in which AiX or AjX (i ≠j) is a complete subspace of X are similar to
the cases in which SX or TX respectively is a complete space because AiX ⊂TX and AjX⊂ SX (i≠j).
Uniqueness. Suppose u, v are two fixed points of Ai, Aj (i≠j), TandS.
Then Aiu = Su = Aju = Tu = u, (i≠j) and Aiv = Ajv = Tv = Sv = v, (i≠j).Then
d(u,v) = d(Aiu,Ajv) (i≠j)
< max{d(Su,Tv),d(Aiu,Su), d(Ajv,Tv), d(Aiu,Tv), d(Ajv, Su)}
= max{d(u,v),0,0,d(u,v), d(u,v)}
=d(u,v).
Therefore, d (u,v)=d(u,v)
==><== when u≠v.
Therefore, u=v.
ie., Ai, Aj,T and S have unique common fixed point for all i and j.
The following result due to Aamri [1] is a special case of the previous theorem 3.1.
Corollary 3.1.Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.3) (W.4) and (HE).Let A1, A2, S and T be self
mappings of a metric space (X,d) such that
(i) d(A1x,A2y) < max{d(Sx,Ty), d(A1x, Sx),d(A1x,Ty),d(A2,Ty), d(A2y,Sx)} for all (x,y) ε X2,
(ii) (A1, S) and (A2, T) are weakly compatibles.
(iii)(A1, S) or (A2, T) satisfies the property (E.A.) and

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(iv) A1X ⊂TX and A2X⊂ SX. If the range of one of the mappings A1, A2, S or T is a complete subspace of X,
then A1, A2, S and T have a unique common fixed point.
Proof. The proof of Corollary 3.1 follows from Theorem 3.1 by putting i = 1 and j=2.
Corollary 3.2. Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W. 3), (W.4) of Wilson and (HE).
Let A, B and T be self mappings of a metric space (X,d) such that
(i)AX, BX ⊂ TX.
(ii) (A, T) is weakly compatible,
(iii) (A,T) or (B,T) satisfies the property (E.A.),
(iv) d(Ax,By) < max {d(Tx,Ty),d(Ax,Tx),d(By,Ty), d(Ax,Ty),d(By,Tx)}
If the range of one of the mappings A, B or T is a complete subspace of X, then
(I) A and T have a common fixed point,
(II) B and T have a common fixed point provided that (B, T) is weakly compatible.
(III) A, B, S and T have a unique common fixed point provided that (I) and (II) are true.
Corollary 3.3. .Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.3),(W.4)and(HE).Let G, T be self mappings of a
metric space (X,d) such that (i) d(Tx,Ty) ≤  (max{d(Gx,Gy),
d(Gx, Ty),d(Gy,Ty),1/2[d(Gx,Ty)+ d(Gy,Ty)} for all (x,y) ε X2,
(ii)G and T are weakly compatibles, (iii)T and G satisfy the property (E.A), and
(iv)TX ⊂GX .If the range of one of the mappings G or T is a complete subspace of X,
then G and T have a unique common fixed point.
Corollary 3.4. Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.1) of Wilson and (HE).
Let S and T be two weakly compatible self mappings of a metric space (X,d) such that
(i) d(Tx,Ty) ≤  (max{d(Sx,Sy),d(Sx,Ty),d(Sy,Ty),1/2[ d(Sx,Ty)+d(Sy,Ty)]} for all (x,y) ε X2,
(ii) Sand T satisfy the property (E.A.) and
(iii) SX ⊂ TX. If the range of S or T is a complete subspace of X, then S and T have a unique common fixed
point.

Theorem 3.2. Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.3),(W.4) and (HE). Let A, B, T and S be self
mappings of a metric space (X,d) such that (i) d(Ax,By) < α d(By,Ty){ [ 1 + d(Ax , Sx )] 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑥 , 𝑇𝑦 )} +
β[d(By,Ty)+ d(Ax,Sx)]+ γ[d(By,Sx)+ d(Ax,Ty)]+δ d(Sx,Ty) for all (x,y) x  X2 with α, β, γ, δ≥0 and α + β + 2γ + δ
< 1 (ii) (A,S) and (B,T) are weakly compatibles. (iii) (A, S) or (B, T) satisfies the property (E.A.) (iv) AX⊂TX
and BX⊂SX. If the range of one of the mappings A, B, S or T is a complete subspace of X, then A, B, S and T
have a unique common fixed point.
Proof. Suppose (B, T) satisfies the property (E.A). Then there exists a sequence {xn} in X such that
lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐵𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡 = lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0 for some t  X. Since BX ⊂SX, there exists in X a sequence (yn)
in X such that Bxn = Syn. Hence lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝑆𝑦𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0.
Let us show that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐴𝑦𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0
It is enough to prove that Ayn = Bxn. Suppose not, by (1), we get
d(Ayn,Bxn) < α d(Bxn,Txn){ [ 1 + d(Ayn , Syn )] 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑦𝑛 , 𝑇𝑥𝑛 )}+β[d(𝐵𝑥𝑛 𝑇𝑥𝑛 )+
d (𝐴𝑦𝑛 ,𝑆𝑦𝑛 )]+γ[d(𝐵𝑥𝑛 ,𝑆𝑦𝑛 )+ d(𝐴𝑦𝑛 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 )]+δ d(𝑆𝑦𝑛 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 ),
<αd(𝐵𝑥𝑛 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 ) {[ 1 + d(Ayn , Bxn )] 1 + 𝑑(𝐵𝑥𝑛 , 𝑇𝑥𝑛 )}+β[d(𝐵𝑥𝑛 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 )+d(𝐴𝑦𝑛 ,𝐵𝑥𝑛 )]+γ[d(𝐵𝑥𝑛 ,𝑆𝑦𝑛 )+d(𝐴𝑦𝑛 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 )
] + δ d(𝐵𝑥𝑛 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 )
For sufficiently large n,
d(Ayn,Bxn)<0+ β[0+d(Ayn,Bxn)]+ γ[0+d(Ayn,Txn) < βd(Ayn,Bxn)+ γd(Ayn,Txn)
= (β+ γ) d(Ayn,Bxn) (since, lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐵𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡 = lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0)
This is a contradiction, lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐴𝑦𝑛 , 𝐵𝑥𝑛 = 0
By (W.3), we deduce that lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐴𝑦𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0
Suppose that SX is a complete subspace of X. Then t = Su for some u X
Subsequently, we have lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝐴𝑦𝑛 , 𝑆𝑢 = lim𝑛→∞ 𝑑(𝐵𝑥𝑛 , 𝑆𝑢 )=lim𝑛→∞ 𝑑(𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑆𝑢 )=lim𝑛→∞ 𝑑(𝑆𝑦𝑛 , 𝑆𝑢 ) =0
Using (1),
d(Au,Bxn) < α d(Bxn,Txn){ [ 1 + d(Au , Su )] 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑢 , 𝑇𝑥𝑛 )}+β[d(𝐵𝑥𝑛 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 )+(d(𝐴𝑢 ,𝑆𝑢 )]+γ[d(𝐵𝑥𝑛 ,𝑆𝑢 )+
d(𝐴𝑢 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 )]+δ d(𝑆𝑢 ,𝑇𝑥𝑛 )
Letting n  ∞, we havelim𝑛→∞ 𝑑 𝐴𝑢 , 𝐵𝑥𝑛 < βd (Au,Su) +γd(Au,Su)
d(Au,Su)< (β+ γ)d(Au,Su).
This is a contradiction for Au ≠ Su.
The weakly compatibility of A and S implies that
ASu =SAuand then AAu = ASu = SAu = SSu.
Since AX ⊂TX, there exists v  X such that Au = Tv. Therefore Au = Su = Tv.
We claim that Tv = Bv. If not condition (1) gives

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d(Au,Bv) < α d(Bv,Tv) {[ 1 + d Au , Su ] 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑢 , 𝑇𝑣 )} + β[d(𝐵𝑣 ,𝑇𝑣 ) + d(Au,Su)]+γ[d(Bv,Su)+ d(Au,Tv)]+
δ d(Su,Tv) < α d(Bv,Au) {[ 1 + 0] (1 + 0)}+β[d(𝐵𝑣 ,𝑇𝑣 )+0]+γ[d(Bv,Au)+ 0]+δ (0)
d(Au,Bv) < α d(Bv,Au)+βd(𝐵𝑣 ,𝐴𝑢 )+γd(Bv,Au).
d(Au,Bv) < (α+β+γ)d(Bv,Au).
This is a contradiction for Au ≠ Bv.
Therefore Au = Bv and then Bv = Au = Tv.
This implies that Au = Su = Tv = Bv.
But (B, T) is weakly compatible implies BTv = TBv and TTv = TBv = BTv = BBv.
We shall prove that Au is a common fixed point of A and S.
Suppose that AAu ≠Au.
d(Au,AAu) = d(AAu,Bv)
< α d(Bv,T v) { 1 + d AAu , SAu 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝐴𝑢 , 𝑇𝑣 )}+β[d(𝐵𝑣 ,𝑇𝑣 )+ d(AAu,SAu)]+γ[d(Bv,SAu)+ d(AAu,Tv)]+
δ d(SAu,Tv)
=γ[d(Bv,AAu)+ d(AAu,Bv)]+δ d(AAu,Bv)
= (2 γ+ δ)d(AAu,Bv)
This is a contradiction for AAu≠ Bv.
Therefore AAu = Bv and then AAu = Au = SAu (since AAu = SAu)
Therefore Au is a common fixed point of A and S.
To prove that Bv = Au is a common fixed point of B and T.
Suppose Bv ≠ BBv.
d(Bv,BBv) = d(Au,BBv)
< α d(BBv,TBv) { 1 + d Au , Su 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑢 , 𝑇𝐵𝑣 )} +β[d(𝐵𝐵𝑣 ,𝑇𝐵𝑣 ) + d(Au,Su)]+γ[d(BBv,Su)+ d(Au,TBv)]+
δ d(Su,TBv)
= γ[d(BBv,Au)+ d(Au,BBv)]+δ d(Au,BBv)
= (2 γ+ δ)d(Au,BBv)= (2 γ+ δ)d(Bv,BBv)
which is a contradiction for Bv ≠ BBv.
Therefore Bv = Au = BBv = TBv.
This means that Bv is a common fixed point of B and T.
Therefore, Au is the common fixed point of A and S.
Bv = Au is the common fixed point of B and T.
Therefore, Au is the common fixed point of A, B, T and S.
The proof is similar when TX is assumed to be a complete subspace of X.
The cases in which AX or BX is a complete subspace of X are similar to the
cases in which SX or TX respectively is a complete space because AX ⊂TX and
BX⊂SX.
Uniqueness. Suppose u, v are two fixed points of A, B, T and S.
Then Au = Su = Bu = Tu = u.
and Av = Bv = Tv = Sv = v. Then for u≠ v, and then (1) gives d(u,v)=d(Au,Bv)
< α d(Bv,T v) { 1 + d Au , Su 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑢 , 𝑇𝑣 )}+β[d(𝐵𝑣 ,𝑇𝑣 )+( d(Au,Su)]+γ[d(Bv,Su)+ d(Au,Tv)]+δ d(Su,Tv) =
γ[d(Bv,Au)+ d(Au,Bv)]+δ d(Au,Bv)
=(2 γ+ δ)d(Au,Bv)= (2 γ+ δ)d(u,v).
This is a contradiction for u≠ v.Therefore u = v.
This means that A, B, T and S have unique common fixed point.
For three maps, we have the following result by altering the condition (i) in theorem 3.2.
Corollary 3.3. Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.3), (W.4) of Wilson and (HE). Let A, B and S be self
mappings of a metric space (X,d) such that
(i) AX, BX⊂SX,
(ii) (A, S) is weakly compatible.,
(iii)(A, S) or (B, S) satisfies the property (E.A.),
(iv) d(Ax,By) < α d(By,Sy) {[ 1 + d(Ax , S x )] 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑥 , 𝑆𝑦 )}+β[d(By,Sy) + d(Ax,Sx)]+γ[d(By,Sx)+ d(Ax,Sy)]+δ
d(Sx,Sy) for all (x,y) x  X2 with α, β, γ, δ≥0 and α + β + γ + δ < 1. If the range of one of the mappings A, B or S
is a complete subspace of X, then A, B and S have a unique common fixed point.
For two maps, we have the following result by altering the condition (i) in theorem of Aamri [1].
Theorem 3.3. . Let d be a symmetric for X that satisfies (W.3) of Wilson and (HE).
Let S and T be weakly compatible self mappings of a metric space (X,d) such that
(i) d(Tx,Ty) < α{ 𝑑(𝑇𝑥 , 𝑆𝑥 ) 1 + 𝑑 𝑆𝑥 , 𝑇𝑦 } +βd(Tx,Sx)+γ[d(Ty,Sx)+ d(Tx,Ty)]+δ d(Sx,Ty) for all (x,y) x  X2 with
α, β, γ, δ≥0 and α + β + 2γ + δ < 1. (ii)T and S satisfy the property (E.A.), (iii) TX⊂SX, If SX or TX is a
complete subspace of X, then T and S have a unique common fixed-point.

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Proof. Since T and S satisfy the property (E.A). Then there exists a sequence (xn) in X such that
lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝑆𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡 = lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑡 = 0 for some t  X.
Therefore, by (HE), we have lim𝑛∞ 𝑑 𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑆𝑥𝑛 = 0
Suppose that SX is a complete subspace of X.
Then t=Su for some u  X.
We claim that Tu=Su
By (1) we have d(Txn,Tu) < α {𝑑(𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑆𝑥𝑛 ) 1 + 𝑑 𝑆𝑥𝑛 , 𝑇𝑢 } +β( d(Txn,Sxn)]+γ[d(Tu,Sxn)+ d(Txn,Tu)]+
δ d(Sxn,Tu). Letting n->∞, we have
lim𝑛→∞ 𝑑(𝑇𝑥𝑛 , 𝑇𝑢 )<lim𝑛→∞ {γ[ 𝑑(𝑇𝑢 , 𝑆𝑥𝑛 ) +d(Txn,Tu)]+δ d(Sxn,Tu)}
d(Su,Tu)<2 γd(Su,Tu)+ δd(Su,Tu)=(2γ +δ) d(Su,Tu)
This is a contradiction Su ≠Tu. Therefore, Su =Tu.
Since S and T are weakly compatible, STu = TSu and therefore TTu = TSu = STu = SSu.
Let us prove that Tu is a common fixed point of T and S. Suppose Tu ≠TTu,
Then d(Tu,TTu) < α{ 𝑑(𝑇𝑢 , 𝑆𝑢 ) 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑢 , 𝑇𝑇𝑢 )} +β( d(Tu,Su)]+γ[d(TTu,Su)+ d(Tu,TTu)]+δ d(Su,TTu)
<(2γ +δ)d(Tu,TTu)
This is a contradiction for Tu≠TTu.
Therefore, Tu=TTu and STu=TTu=Tu.
The proof is similar when TX is assumed to be a complete subspace of X since TX ⊂ SX.
Uniqueness. Suppose Tu, Tv are two fixed points of T and S withTu≠T v. Then
d(Tu,Tv) < α {𝑑(𝑇𝑢 , 𝑆𝑢 ) 1 + 𝑑(𝑆𝑢 , 𝑇𝑣 )} +β( d(Tu,Su)]+γ[d(Tv,Su)+ d(Tu,Tv)]+δ d(Tu,Tv)
Therefore d(Tu,Tv)<(2γ +δ)d(Tu,Tv).
This is a contradiction for Tu ≠T v
Therefore, Tu=Tv and hence, T and S have unique common fixed point.

REFERENCES
[1] M. Aamri and D. El. Moutawakil, common fixed point theorems under contractive conditions in
symmetric spaces Appl.Math, 3 (2003) 156-162.
[2] T. L. Hicks, Fixed point theory in symmetric spaces with applications to probabilistic spaces, Nonlinear
Analysis, 36(1999), 331—344.
[3] W. A. Wilson, on semi-metric spaces, Amer. J. Math., 53(1931), 361—373.
[4] S. Sessa, on a weak commutativity condition of mappings in fixed point considerations, Publ. Inst. Math.
(Beograd), 32(46) (1982), 149—153.
[5] G. Jungck, Compatible mappings and common fixed points, Intl. J. Math. Sci., 9 (1986), 771-779.
[6] M. Aamri and D. El. Moutawakil, Some new common fixed point theorems under strict contractive
conditions, J. Math. Theory and App., 270 (2002) 181-188.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-92-99
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Internet of Car: Accident Sensing, Indication and Safety with

Alert system
Md. Maminul Islam, Md. Rabiul Hasan, Imran Chowdhury,
Md. Towhid Chowdhury
1
(EEE, AIUB, Bangladesh) 2(EEE, AIUB, Bangladesh) 3(EEE, AIUB, Bangladesh) 4(EEE, AIUB, Bangladesh)

Abstract: - Detecting an accident before occurring it can save human life. To do this, advance accurate human
detection and accident detection capability is needed. Several researches are going on regarding pre-crash
detection & avoidance system from obstacle. To implement this system, priorities crash is essential for human
or animal compared to obstacle. How the system will operate when it faces a situation to between human and
obstacle? Differentiating human or animals and obstacles is more important by detecting them. If the system is
unable to detect human then there will be a possibility to hit human rather than obstacle. Driver when drive a car
in high speed may bypass humans, animals, or any obstacle for a few inches and the measurement is done by his
own eyes which may occur an accident. Moreover, risk increases in foggy weather to see further that any
animals, human or any obstacle is present in front of the car or any car is coming from opposite direction.
Giving the priorities to human or animal, this paper work is done. By this system, a car will try to avoid obstacle
after avoiding human or animal if there is any. Driver will also be notified with red lights indicating that
obstacles are in front. However, if the system would not be able to avoid accident then our system will
automatically generate a tweet in tweeter. For further safety, this system also contains relay and buzzer where
relay will protect the car from battery ignition and buzzer will make noise to inform people surrounded.

Keywords: - Accident Avoidance, Accident detection, Obstacles detection, Wi-Fi, vehicle tracking.

I. INTRODUCTION
According To The Who 2013 Global Status Report On Road Safety [1], Road Traffic Deaths Would
Become The Fifth Leading Cause Of Death. The Report Showed That There Had Been No Overall Reduction In
The Number Of People Killed On The World's Roads: About 1.24 Million Deaths Occur Annually. Among
Them Cyclist, Motorcyclists, Car Occupants & Unspecified Road Users Are High. Number Of Animals Die In
Road Accident Is Also Quite Good. Even In Several Countries The Number Is Pretty High. In Order To Reduce
The Number Of Car Crash Charles Birdsong, Ph.D., Peter Schuster, Ph.D., John Carlin, Daniel Kawano,
William Thompson Has Designed Pre-Crash Detection System Using Ultrasonic, Laser Range Finder And
Radar Sensors [2]. Accident Avoidance And Detection On Highways Is Designed By S.P. Bhumkar, V.V.
Deotare, R.V.Babar [3]. These Systems Have The Ability To Detect Obstacles But The Most Important To
Detect Human Being Or Animals And Avoid Them Are Missing. This Sensing Technology Can Reduce A
Large Number Of Bikers, Cyclist And Passerby Death. There Are Also Lots Of Research Work Is Available On
Accident Avoidance, Crash Detection And Alarm System. Megalingam, Rajesh Kannan & Their Group Mate
Have Developed “Wireless Vehicular Accident Detection And Reporting System” [4]. Automatic Accident
Detection Via Embedded Gsm Message Interface With Sensor Technology Is Developed By C.Vidya Lakshmi,
J.R.Balakrishnan [5]. These Methods Uses Break System, Windows Close, Seat Belt Stiffen To Save Life From
The Accident But If The Obstacle Is Human Or Animal Then Our System Uses Avoidance System Also. It Also
Indicates The Driver That Obstacles Are Ahead. So The Driver Can Turn Left Or Right According To The
Indication. If Avoidance Is Not Possible And Accident Happens Then This System Detects The Accident.
Beside That It Will Also Generate A Tweet To Tweeter Through Wi-Fi System. It Is Also Possible To
Coordinate Location Through Gps System Which Is Not The Main Concern Of Our Project.

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5 Meter

Fig. 1:- Human and obstacle detection before 5m distance

II. MAIN TECHNOLOGY USED

1.1 Obstacle detection & indication sensor
This is one of the photoelectric sensors which is a set of transmitter and receiver. Detection distance
can be adjusted as it is required. The sensor can detect distance by visible light interference which is small,
cheap, and easy to assemble, easy to use, and other characteristics are given bellow:-
1, output current DC / SCR / Relay Control output: 100mA/5V powered
2, DC current consumption < 25mA
3, response time < 2ms
4, point angle: 15 °, effective distance 3-50CM adjustable
5, detection of objects: transparent or opaque body
6, working environment temperature: 25 °C ~ 55 °C
7, standard sensing object: sunlight 10000LX The following incandescent 3000LX

Fig. 2:- Obstacle detection and Indication

In both side of the car two IR obstacles sensors are placed. Anyone coming from the left side of the car
or any obstacle found at the left side can be detected by left sensor and right sensor also work in same manner.
The presence of an obstacle or human is indicated through red light when it detects human or obstacle. When
human detection sensor detects human at the right side of the car and obstacle sensor detects an obstacle at the
left side of the car then car will be moved toward left side to save human. As obstacles in both side of the car are
detected thus both indication lights will be turned on.

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Fig. 3:- Fresnel lens, increase sensitivity and range of PIR sensor

1.2 Passive Infra Red sensor

The key of this project is Human sensing technology. In this project passive infra red sensor has been
used to detect human. Infrared radiation exists in the electromagnetic spectrum at a wavelength which is longer
than visible light. It can be detected though it cannot be seen. Objects that generate heat also generate infrared
radiation and those objects include animals and the human body whose radiation is strongest at a wavelength of
9.4um [5]. PIR sensor is able to detect the change of radiation of this infra red radiation. A picture of working
principle of PIR sensor is given below.

Fig. 4:- Typical configuration of PIR

PIR sensor generates +5v and -5v sine signal when any human or animal passes in front of the sensor
or any movement is detected of human or animal in front of this. A breakout board is used to detect this signal
and convert it into a longer digital signal. The output of PIR sensor can be adjusted. For max it can create an
output signal for approximately 1.2 seconds [6]. This is more than enough to detect the signal.

2.3 Fresnel lenses

FL65 Fresnel lens is made of an infra red transmitting material that has an IR transmission range of 8 to
14um which is most sensitive to human body radiation. It is designed to have its grooves facing the IR sensing
element so that a smooth surface is presented to the subject side of the lens which is usually the outside of an
enclosure that houses the sensor. The lens element is round with a diameter of 1 inch and has a flange that is 1.5
inches square. This flange is used for mounting the lens in a suitable frame or enclosure. Mounting can best and
most easily be done with strips of Scotch tape.

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Fig. 5:- Reduced width of PIR sensor

Detection area of a PIR sensor is 3m in width, 5m in length & 3m in height. But on average the width of any car
is around 1.5m. We have to detect humans or animals within this width. So, we have covered the lens area to
reduce the width to 1.5m. Here is a picture below:-

Fig. 6:- Reduced width of PIR sensor

In order to identify the position of the human being we need two sensors. Their detection area will
overlap each other at the center. If both the sensor detect human means human is at the center. If left PIR only
detect means the person is at the left side of the car and same for the right side. With the help of distance sensor
this system [2] is also able to find out the distance of the human. Here is a figure describing the covered area.

Fig. 7:- Area covered by PIR & IR sensors, human position detection & indication

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2.4 Accident avoidance system
An advance pre-crash system is also capable to avoid accident by sensing human and their distance
from vehicle. For example an automated braking force can be executed in this system. Moreover, the system can
handle the steering by determining the position of human or obstacle. If driver forgets to press horn then the
system can also generate an auto horn to indicate the person in front of the car.

2.5 Accident Detection

Most of the accident detection system uses complex 3 axis accelerometer, gravity sensor or costly
android mobile phones with complex circuitry. In this system the accident detection method is also cheap and
simple. We have used a tilt sensor to detect accident. Whenever any major accidents happens car jump or even
flip over. We are detecting the amount of angle it rotated from ground. Tilt sensor can measure a rotation of
minimum +15degree or -15 degree [7].

Fig. 8:- Accident Detection using tilt sensor

2.6 Wi-Fi shield

The RN-171 module has been used here as Wi-Fi shield which is a complete TCP/IP wireless
networking module. This module is perfect for mobile wireless applications for mobile wireless applications for
its small form factor and low power consumption. It incorporates a 2.4 GHz radio, 32-bit SPARC processor,
TCP/IP stack, real time clock, crypto accelerator, power management and analog sensor interfaces. It also
contains 8 Mbit flash memory and 128 KB RAM, UART and SPI slave hardware interfaces, 10 general purpose
digital I/O and 8 analog inputs (14 bit,400mv). It accepts 3.3v regulated power supply or 3v battery.

Fig. 9:- Wi-Fi Shield top and side view

2.7 Arduino
The Brain of this project is Arduino uno which is a microcontroller board based on the Atmega328. It
has14 digital input/output pins, 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack,
an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller. To get started it
is just needed to connect it to a computer with a USB or power it with an AC to DC adapter. The board can
operate on an external supply 6 to 20v. The recommended voltage is 7-12v, otherwise 5v pin may supply less
than 5v if supply is less than 7v and the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board for supplying
more than 12v.

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Fig. 10:- Arduino uno board

2.8 Relay and Buzzer

In this project 12A/220vAC relay has been used to protect the car from battery ignition when an accident occurs.
If any accident occurs then the relay will trip its coil to avoid battery sparking. Buzzer has been used to make
noise thus it can inform peoples surrounded when any accident occurs.

Fig. 11:- Relay and Buzzer

III. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Fig. 12:- Schematic diagram

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The controller used in this project is Arduino Uno. Two PIR sensors are connected to IO3 & IO4 bit.
One tilt sensor is connected to sens0 bit. All these sensors give digital input that’s why all these 3 pins are pulled
down by 10K resistors. Here all the VCC are +5v. IR sensors also consume +5v and both sensors are connected
to IO0, IO1 bit. Wi-Fi module communicates with microcontroller through serial communication. Other pins are
used to control the Wi-Fi modem. Relay is connected to Sens1 no pin. And Buzzer is connected with sens2 no
pin. Here LM317T IC is used to generate 3.3v which powers the Wi-Fi module. Power of Arduino comes from
USB.
Circuit operation is simple. First step is to detect human. There are three possibilities, human is at left
side of the car, at the middle of the car or at right side of the car. If human is at left side only PIR1 will generate
a high signal, if human is at the center both the PIR will generate high signal & if the person is at right side only
PIR2 will generate a signal. According to the PIR a signal will be sent to turn the staring to avoid the human. If
avoidance of obstacle is not possible then the tilt sensor will be get shorted and a +5v will go through sens2 pin.
When microcontroller gets this signal it initiates an alarm and sends a tweet to internet through Wi-Fi module.
We did not included GPS module for location tracking as there are several Wi-Fi modules are available in
market to know the pin point location of car. Relay is used to disconnect the battery of the car while accident
occurs. Lots of time spark from batteries ignite fire and cause severe damage. To avoid spark from battery relay
is used to disconnect the positive terminal of battery. And buzzer also continuously indicates that accident has
occurred and need emergency help. Tilt sensor measure any angle rotation around +15degre of -15degree which
confirms the indication of accident.
This module tweets to owners account. Owners tweet account is previously saved in Arduino and Also
connecting IP of Wi-Fi module. There are others alert systems can be also implemented like mailing to GMAIL,
post in facebook, etc. Bellow showing the output of tweet once accident occurred.

Fig. 13:- Tweet from car indication of accident

Fig. 14: - Front view of the hardware

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Fig. 15: - Top view of the hardware

IV. FURTHER APPLICATION

1. Avoiding Helicopter or Air plane collision with birds.
2. Robots will be able to identify humans & animals.
3. In NASA robot to detect presence of life using sensor.
4. Earthquake survival finding inside buildings.
5. Fire survival finding inside buildings.

V. CONCLUSION
Passive Infra red sensor is a reliable solution for detecting human or animals and this technique certainly can
save lots of life. Human lives are most valuable. Pre-crash detection system must be equipped with combination
of different sensors. Detecting humans or animals including obstacles will certainly give us a better solution to
reduce the death of humans in road crash.

REFERENCES
[1] Global Status Report on Road safety 2013 by World Health Organization (WHO).
[2] Charles Birdsong, Ph.D., Peter Schuster, Ph.D., John Carlin, Daniel Kawano, William Thompson,“Test
Methods and Results for Sensors in a Pre-Crash Detection System”in California Polytechnic State
University, San Luis Obispo, California, Paper Number 06AE-19.
[3] S.P. Bhumkar , V.V. Deotare , R.V.Babar, “ACCIDENT AVOIDANCE AND DETECTION ON
HIGHWAYS”in International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume3 Issue2- 2012.
[4] Megalingam, Rajesh Kannan ; Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam, India ; Nair, Ramesh Nammily ;
Prakhya, Sai Manoj, “Wireless vehicular Accident Detection and Reporting System”in Mechanical and
Electrical Technology (ICMET), 2010 2nd International Conference on 10-12 Sept. 2010.
[5] For fig.2 and information about PIR sensor http://www.glolab.com/pirparts/infrared.html
[6] For Figure .3 , figure.4 and information of PIR and lens http://www.ladyada.net/learn/sensors/pir.html
[7] http://learn.adafruit.com/tilt-sensor/overview
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Network_Code

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-100-106
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Fault Tree-Based Reliability Assessment of a 132-kV Transmission

Line Protection Scheme
Isaac A. Samuel1, Ayokunle A. Awelewa 1, James Katende2,
and Ishioma A. Odigwe1
1
Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, College of Science and Technology, Covenant
University, P. M. B. 1023, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria.
2
The Founding Dean of College of Technology, Botswana International University of Science & Technology,
Gaborone

Abstract: - The reliability of a power system network depends greatly on the performance of the protection
system. Improving the reliability of the protection scheme of the transmission lines will enhance the overall
reliability of the power system network. The focus of this paper is the improvement of the reliability of a power
system transmission line using fault tree analysis (FTA). The paper considers the development of fault tree
diagrams for the protection scheme of the 150km-long 132-kV transmission line in Northern Nigeria. The
existing protection scheme is analyzed and compared with a proposed scheme equipped with a redundancy
arrangement. And the result shows that the new scheme offers significant improvement (about 51%) in the
availability of the line.

Keywords: - failure rate, fault tree analysis, mean time before failure, power system reliability, component
unavailability

I. INTRODUCTION
The ability of an electric power system to supply electricity constantly and reliability has a direct effect
on the social, economic and industrial development of any nation. The power system is vulnerable to system
abnormalities such as control failures, protection and / or communication system failure, and disturbances which
include lightning, human operational errors, etc. Therefore, maintaining a reliable power system is an important
issue for power system design, operation and maintenance. Reliability study helps system operators in making
engineering decisions in planning, designing and operating the entire system, and it is the probability that an
item or system will perform a required function without failure under stated conditions for a stated period of
time [1]. It is always desirable that an electric power system satisfies the system load requirement with a
reasonable assurance of continuity and quality. This concept of power system reliability is extremely broad and
covers all aspects of the ability of the system to satisfy consumer requirements. The IEEE Power Engineering
Task Force on Bulk Power System Reliability describes a proper level of electric utility system reliability as that
which meets customer load demands and energy at the lowest possible cost while maintaining acceptable levels
of service quality [2]. In addition, power system reliability has to do with system adequacy and system security.
Adequacy relates to the existence of sufficient facilities within the system to satisfy the consumer‟s load
demand, while system security relates to the ability of the system to respond to disturbances arising within the
power system [3]. Vitally important to power system reliability are protection systems. And it can be said that a
power system is as reliable as its protection systems, which are collections of devices that detect defective
power system elements or conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature, initiate the appropriate control action,
and isolate the appropriate power system components [4]. Meanwhile, a fault is any condition that causes
abnormal operation of the power system or equipment serving the power system. This fault includes but is not
limited to short or low impedance circuits, open circuits, power swings, over voltages, elevated temperatures
and off-normal system frequency. Although the function of the protection system (which uses electronics or
electromechanical relays) is not to prevent faults, it must be able to take immediate action upon fault

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recognition, which is to protect equipment and limit injury caused by electrical failure. This function suggests
that the system must have an appreciably high level of reliability. Therefore, the aim of this work is to employ a
graphical approach to assess the reliability of a protection scheme of the 150km-long 132-kV transmission line
in Northern Nigeria with a view to improving it.

II. FAULT TREE ANALYSIS (FTA): A REVIEW AND PROCEDURE

Fault tree analysis (FTA) was developed in 1962 for the US Air Force by A. H. Watson of the Bell
Telephone Laboratories for use with the Minuteman control system, was later adopted and extensively applied
by the Boeing Company. FTA is one of many symbolic logic analytical techniques found in the operations
research discipline [1]. Following the Aerospace Industry, the nuclear power industry discovered the virtues and
benefits of deploying it for nuclear power plants. Many key individuals in the nuclear power industry
contributed to advancing fault tree theory and fault tree software. This method used and refined over the years is
attractive because it is a practical tool any engineer can learn to use while computer programs are available to
assist in developing and analyzing complex fault tree [2]. Fault Tree analysis is a model that graphically and
logically represents the major faults or critical failures associated with a product or system, the causes for the
faults, and potential countermeasures [6]. In this respect, FTA is a systematic deductive technique, which allows
the development of the causal relations leading to a given undesired event. It is deductive in the sense that it
starts from a defined system failure event and unfolds backward its causes, down to the primary (basic)
independent faults. The method focuses on single failure mode and can provide quantitative information on how
a particular event can occur, to what consequences it leads, while at the same time allowing the identification of
those components, which play a major role in determining the defined system failure. Moreover, it can be solved
in quantitative terms to provide the probability of events of interest starting from knowledge of the probability
of occurrence of the basic events, which cause them [7]. In fault tree analysis, a desirable event (which generally
represents a system failure mode or hazard for which predicted reliability data are required) is called a top event.
And the lower events in each branch of a fault tree are called basic events. These basic events are linked via
logic gates symbols to one or more undesirable top events [8], and represent hardware, software, and human
failures for which the probability of failure is given based on historical data. Most FTA can be carried out using
four basic components: 1) the rectangular boxes used for top and intermediate events. The top event is the
foreseeable, undesired event towards which all fault tree logic flows, while the intermediate event describes a
system state that is generated by antecedent events, 2) the „OR‟ gate, which produces an output if any of its
inputs exists, 3) the „AND‟ gate, which produces an output if all its inputs co-exist, and 4) the circular boxes
used to represent the basic events, which are events initiating fault/failure. The basic events mark the limit of
resolution of the analysis. Normally, when analyzing a protection scheme using the FTA method, the scheme
failure of concern is designated as the top event, and the probability that the scheme fails for the top event is a
combination of the failure probabilities of the components in the scheme. Whereas for an OR gate, in which any
input can contribute to scheme failure, the total probability is the sum of the input events, for an AND gate, in
which all inputs to that gate must fail together to cause scheme failure, the upper level probability for scheme
failure is the product of input probabilities.
To quantify the probability of the top event in a fault tree, the probability of each basic event must be
provided. These basic event probabilities are then propagated upward to the top event using the Boolean
relationships for the fault tree. The input data that must be supplied for a basic event is usually a component
failure probability in some time interval, event occurrence probability in some time interval, pure event
probability, or component unavailability [4]. The component unavailability is used for the assessment in this
paper and is provided for the basic event to be able to generate the overall unavailability of the top event. This
information is provided for a component that is repairable or checkable, i.e., a component which is out of
service and unavailable if called upon to operate [7]. And this is exactly the situation with protective schemes.
To estimate the failure probability for each device in the scheme, the device failure rate can be used. One
industry practice is to provide failure rates as Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF), which could be based on
field failure data or on assumptions about complexity and exposure of equipment. To use this information to
estimate probability, the fraction of time that a device cannot perform is assumed [10]. Equation (1) gives the
unavailability, q, in terms of MTBF [9]
q ≅ λT = T / MTBF (1)
where λ is the failure rate, and T the average down time per failure. Because each failure causes down time T,
then the system is unavailable for time T, and the fraction of time the system is not available is depicted in eqn.
(1).

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III. THE CASE STUDY: 132-KV KANO – KANKIA POWER
TRANSMISSION LINE
The case study, 132-kV Kano – Kankia transmission line is supplied via two parallel 132-kV bus bars.
This is to allow for operational flexibility and redundancy of the system. These buses are with their associated
isolators and circuit breakers to allow for operational flexibility. The132-kV Kano – Kankia transmission line is
a very important line as it supplies the Katsina Steel Rolling Mill and other consumers. More importantly, it is
an inter-country transmission line, as it also takes power to Gazaoua at Niger Republic. It is a radial
transmission line and its length is about 180km with a load of about 30MVA, including the Gazaoua load in
Niger Republic.
The protection scheme used on the 132-kV transmission line is the non-pilot three-zone distance
protection scheme. The distance protection zones offer backup protection and take care of phase to phase, phase
to phase to ground, and phase to ground faults, operating independently of each other. This scheme uses the
Siemens‟ type electromechanical relay and has a reach setting that is up to 80% of the protected line for
instantaneous zone 1 protection (based on the line impedance). Zone 2 setting covers the remaining 20% of the
line impedance. The minimum setting of the protected line is 120%. Zone 3 setting is delayed beyond all other
protection within its reach and is determined for maximum fault in-feed. Its reach is set to at least 1.2 times the
impedance presented to the relay for a fault at the remote end of the second line section. Additionally, breaker
failure protection provides backup protection for the primary circuit breaker if it fails to clear a system fault.
The data used in this work are the Kumbotso 330/132/33-kV transmission station single-line diagram and the
single-line schematic of the principle of protection and measuring diagram. This information was made
available by Power Holding Company Nig. Plc., Kano transmission station, Kano. The data (MTBF) required
for the reliability assessment of the protective scheme were obtained from field experience as given in [10]. The
protection components on this line are as listed below:
 Distance protection relay 1 piece
 Over Load Relay 2 pieces
 Current transformer 12 pieces
 Voltage transformer 3 pieces
 Circuit Breaker 7 pieces
 Bus differential Relay 2 pieces
 Breaker failure relay 1 piece
 DC battery bank (110V) 1 piece

IV. CONSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT OF THE FAULT TREE

FT for the protection scheme used on the 132-kV Kano – Kankia transmission line is now developed
from the system schematic diagram. The scope of this assessment is limited to the Kaduna downstream of the
line. The resolution is the level or extent to which the failure causes for the top event will be developed. Here
the top event is given as general protection failure (Main and Back-up). And the immediate faults and or failures
that could lead to the top events are:
 132-kV protection failure (Main & back up)
 110-V battery bank failure
 Kumbotso 330-kV backup failure
 Kaduna 330-kV circuit breaker failure.
These four events can lead to the occurrence of the top event. They are linked to the top event via an „OR‟ gate
showing that any of them that occur can cause the top event. These events are broken down until the basic event
is finally reached. In addition, the gates relating one level of events to another were duly selected based on the
relationship between the events.
Now the unavailability of the basic event components is calculated for the protective relays, instrument
transformers, DC power supply and circuit breakers as highlighted below.

 Protective relays:
The distance protection, bus differential, and the overload relays used for this protective scheme are the
electromechanical type. Based on field experience, they require routine testing for proper operation, so their
reliability is dependent on their regular testing and maintenance. Failure of these relays could go unnoticed until
the next maintenance period or until their operation is required. Failure could occur the day following a
maintenance test or a day before the next period, which is an average time of six months. T is always large
because of lack of automatic supervision. Therefore, from field experience an MTBF of this relay is assumed as
200 years. Hence, unavailability q = (6 x 30) / (200 x 365) = 0.002465. ≈ 2465 x 10-6.

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 Instrument Transformers:
These include both Current Transformer (CT) and Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT). Based on
field experience, an MTBF of 500 years and an average protection down time of 2 days are assumed. Therefore,
unavailability q = 2 / (500 x 365) = 1.095890411 x 10-5 ≈ 10 x 10-6.
 DC Power Supply:
The dc power bank is 110V and it consists of battery, charger and distribution circuit. The loss of dc alarm is
monitored and responded to promptly in less than a day, say 0.5 day. MTBF is 27 years. Hence, unavailability q
= 0.5 / (27 x 365) = 5.073566717 x 10-5 ≈ 50 x 10-6 .

 Circuit Breaker:
The circuit breaker used is the oil type circuit breaker. The unavailability of 300 x 10 -6 is assumed.

V. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
The unavailability of the basic events and component unavailability are tabulated as in Table 1 below to allow
for quick inspection.
Table 1: Unavailability of the Several Protection Components.
S/no Component MTBF T Unavailability 10-6
1 Over Load Relay 200 6months 2465
2 Current transformer 500 2days 10
3 Voltage transformer 500 2days 10
4 Circuit Breaker - - 300
5 Bus differential Relay 200 6months 2465
6 Distance protection relay 200 6months 2465
7 Breaker failure relay 200 6months 2465
8 Wiring - - 1000
9 DC battery bank (110) 27 0.5day 50
.
The fault tree (shown in Appendix 2) illustrates the unavailability of the basic events inserted and
propagated upward. Using the rare event approximation, the unavailability associated with each event expressed
with the OR gates is summed up and the ones associated with AND gates are multiplied. The unavailability of
this protection system, i.e., general protection failure on the 132kV Kano-Kankia transmission line is 5085.023
x 10-6. From the assessment, it could be seen that the relays are the most vulnerable components in this
protective scheme because they lack automatic supervision. And this implies that the principal weakness of this
scheme is its dependency on several electromechanical relays.
This protection scheme, however, can be improved upon by adding redundant relays to the existing
system. The relays could be added as shown in Figure A3 in Appendix 3. The unavailability of the top event
(general protection failure) with this redundancy arrangement is 2616 x10-6 as against the unavailability of 5085
x10-6 of the protection scheme without redundancy. Therefore, the percentage improvement is 51.45%.

VI. CONCLUSION
The fault tree approach to reliability assessment of the 132-kV Kano-Kankia transmission line
protective scheme has been successfully carried out. The reliability index used for this assessment is the
unavailability. The unavailability of the existing protection scheme of the 132-kV Kano-Kankia has been found
to be 5085 x10-6. With a redundancy arrangement of relays, a percentage improvement of 51.45% has been
realized. The FTA is a very useful tool for design and operation of complex systems. It helps to identify critical
components and enhance system understanding. As a diagnostic tool, it can be used to predict the most likely
causes of system failure in the event of break down. As design tool, it helps in eliminating costly design changes
and retrofits. In order to improve the reliability of the system, however, electro-mechanical relays should be
replaced with modern digital self-test relays and pilot distance protection should be adopted as pilot
communications between relays have an added advantage of discrimination and isolation of fault in good and
reasonable time.

VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Profound gratitude is due to Engineer Shehu Abba of the Power Holding Company of Nigeria Plc., Kumbotso
Transmission Station, Kano for the immeasurable assistance he gave during this research work.

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REFERENCES
[1] http://www.slideshare.net/ASQwebinars/verview-of-reliability-engineering Overview of reliability
engineering, 18th August, 2012.
[2] s.pangonilo.com/index.php?.../Introduction_To_Practical_Power_Systems: Introduction to practical
power system protection.
[3] www.ornl.gov/info/reports/1992/3445603649149.pdf Steven L. Purucker et al., Feasibility Study:
Application of RCM Techniques for Substation Maintenance at the Bonneville Power Administration.
[4] Don Zhu: “Power System Reliability Analysis with Distributed Generator”, M.Sc. Thesis, Virgina
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA., May 2003.
[5] C. R. Bayliss, Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering, Second Edition, Newnes, New
Delhi, 1999.
[6] Clint T Summers: “Distance Protection Aspects of Transmission Lines Equipped With Series
Compensation Capacitors”, M.Sc. Thesis, Virgina Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
VA. 1999.
[7] Michael Stamatelatos and William Vesely, SAIC Fault Tree Handbook with Aerospace Applications,
August 2002.
[8] www.itemsoftware.com/faulttree.html Itemsoftware Demo CD.
[9] E.O. Schweitzer, B. Fleming, T. J. Lee, and P. M Anderson, “Reliability Analysis of Transmission
Protection Scheme Using Fault Tree Methods‟‟, 51st Annual Conference for Protection Relay Engineers,
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 6th-8th April, 1998.
[10] Jean Leon Eternod, and AntulioJarquin, Reliability Analysis for Generation Shedding Scheme on the
CFE Maim Transmission Line, 29th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington,
22nd - 24th October, 2002.

APPENDIX 1
BUS (132KV)

ZARIA

330KV FROM KADUNA

HADEJIA

DAKATA

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

PROFILE OF KUMBOTSTO 330 / 132KV NEPA TRANSMISSION STATION KANO
DANAGUNDI
T2 A (150MVA)
330/132KV

KANKIA
BUS (132KV)

KATSINA

ANGELS SPINNERS
BUS (132KV)

MADOBI

SHARADA
T2 (40MVA)
132/33KV

WATER WORKS & ATM

SPANNISH
AUTO TRANSFORMER

REACTOR

TRANSFORMER

GROUND/GROUND SWITCH

BREAKER

ISOLATOR
T1 (30MVA)
132/33KV

BAGAUDA

Fig. A1. Single Line Diagram of the132-kV Kano – Kankia transmission

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APPENDIX 2

Fig. A2. Fault Tree with unavailability values inserted

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APPENDIX 3

Fig. A3. Fault Tree of the Protection scheme with Redundant Relays

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)
e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-107-111
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Research Paper Open Access

Robot Selection Using Analytic Hierarchy Process and System Of

Equations of Matrices
R. Naveen kumar1, A. Sreenivasulu Reddy2, and G. Padmanabhan3
1, 2&3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, India

Abstract: - The problem of robot selection plays an important key role concern to various fields of different
applications since three decades. This problem has become more difficult in recent years due to increasing
complexity of applications of the environment, features and specifications, and facilities offered by various
manufactures. The primary objective of this paper is to select the suitable type of robot based on various factors
such as type of application, payload, working environment, accuracy, lifespan, weight, purchasing cost etc. The
selection procedure is developed for selection of particular type of robot based evaluating the various alternative
selection factors using AHP technique and systems of equations of the matrices i.e. Eigen values and Eigen
vectors. The ranking evolution will provide a good guidance for the robot selection to the end user. The concept of
this work is an attempt has been made to create exhaustive database for identifying maximum possible number of
attributes.

Keywords: - AHP, Robotics, Payload, Cost, System of Equations of matrices

I. INTRODUCTION
A Robot selection is one of the critical issues, while designing of work cells in the fields of manufacturing
environment related to various types of products. Robot selection for a particular type of application is generally
described based on experience, manufacturing institution and kinematic considerations like workspace,
manipulability, etc. Therefore selection problem has become more difficult in recent years due to increasing
complexity, available features, and facilities offered by different robotic manufactures. Systematic procedures
were developed for selection of robot manipulator based on their different attributes.

II. METHODOLOGY
The objectives of this work is to develop AHP method for robot selection. The methodology of this work has
been adopted from Yahya and Kingsman (1999), Tam and Tummala (2001) and Yu and Jing (2004). In order to
comply with collecting quantitative and qualitative data for AHP robot selection model that could be applied by a
six steps approach was performed to insure successful implementation

2.1 Robot Selection Criteria

Robots are being used increasingly in industrial workstations to enhance firm’s performance. Robots are
employed to perform repetitive production jobs, hazardous jobs, multi-shift operations etc., so that it helps to
reduce the delivery time, improve the work environment, lower the production cost and even increase the product
range to suit market demand from time to time. When a choice must be made among several robots for a given
application, it is necessary to compare their performance characteristics in a proper fashion. Some of the main
performance criteria of an industrial robot are drive systems, geometrical dexterity, path measuring systems,
material of robot, load-carrying capacity, velocity, weight of the robot, programming flexibility, size of the robot
and accuracy of the robot. The importance of these criteria is commonly known and thus not elaborated.

2.2 AHP Method

Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is one of Multi Criteria decision making method that was originally
developed by Prof. Thomas L. Saaty. In short, it is a method to derive ratio scales from paired comparisons. The
input can be obtained from actual measurement such as Weight, Payload, Precision, Cost, Life of robot, Process

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
etc., or from subjective opinion such as satisfaction feelings and preference. AHP allow some small inconsistency
in judgement because human is not always consistent. The ratio scales are derived from the principal Eigen
vectors and the consistency index is derived from the principal Eigen value.

2.3 System of Equation of Matrices

The eigenvalue problem is a problem of considerable theoretical interest and wide-ranging application.
For example, this problem is crucial in solving systems of differential equations, analyzing population growth
models, and calculating powers of matrices (in order to define the exponential matrix). Other areas such as
physics, sociology, biology, economics and statistics have focused considerable attention on "eigenvalues" and
"eigenvectors"-their applications and their computations. Before we give the formal definition, let us introduce
these concepts

III. FIGURES AND TABLES

Fig 1: selection criteria

Table 2: pair wise comparison in AHP preference [8]

Verbal judgment preference Numerical rating
Extremely preferred 9
Very strongly preferred 7
Strongly preferred 5
Moderate preferred 3
Equally preferred 1

Table 3: Pair-wise comparison matrix

Factors Spherical Cylindrical Sacra Cartesian coordinate Joint arm
Spherical 1 7 3 1 1
Cylindrical 1/7 1 0.14 0.2 0.2
Sacra 1/3 1/0.14 1 1 1
Cartesian coordinate 1 1/0.2 1 1 1
Joint arm 1 1/0.2 1 1 1

Table 4: Criterion weights obtained in AHP

Factors Spherical Cylindrical Sacra Cartesian coordinate Joint arm Average
Spherical 0.29 0.28 0.48 0.23 0.23 0.31
Cylindrical 0.041 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.04
Sacra 0.09 0.1 0.16 0.23 0.23 0.20
Cartesian coordinate 0.29 0.2 0.16 0.23 0.23 0.23

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Table 5: random inconsistency indices (RI) for N=10[8]
Sample Size(N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Random Index(RI) 0 0 0.58 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45

3.2. Equations
Step 1: An overall summation of the product of sum of each vector column for both the decision matrix
and pair wise comparison matrices with the PV values of each row is carried out to obtain the principal Eigen
value i.e.,

Where Cj is the sum of each column vector

Step 2: Comparison of Eigen values and Eigen vectors

Eigen Value

Eigen Vector

Step 3: The level of inconsistency in both decision and pair wise compression matrix is checked using the
following equation.

Where I.I is the inconsistency index, N is the number of element of each of matrix.

Step 4: Prof. saaty proved that for consistent reciprocal matrix, the largest Eigen value is equal to the number of
comparisons, or =n. then he gave a measure of consistency, called consistency index as deviation or degree
of consistency using the following formula

Step 5: Random inconsistency indices (R.I) are then determined for each of the square matrices equation

Step 6: consistency ratio (C.I) which is a comparison between consistency index and random consistency index,
or in formula

IV. RESULTS
AHP Technique
= (3.48*0.31) + (25*0.04) + (6.14*0.20) + (4.20*0.23) + (4.20*0.23)

=5.23

Having a comparison matrix, now compute priority vector, which is the normalized Eigen vector of the matrix. To
know what are Eigen vector, Eigen values and how to compute manually. The following method will give a
detailed explanation of getting an approximation of Eigen vector (and Eigen value) of reciprocal matrix. This
approximation is actually worked well for small matrix and there is no guarantee that the rank will not reverse
because of the approximation error. Nevertheless it is easy to compute because all we need to do is just to
normalize each column of matrix.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
System of Equation of Matrices
Eigen value
= [5.17, 0.93, 0.93, 0.07, 0]
Eigen Vector

0.6433 0.8065 0.8065 0.5556 0.0000

0.0793 0.0487 0.0487 0.1608 0.0000
0.4057 0.4417 0.4417 0.2010 0.0000
0.4557 0.2758 0.2758 0.5590 0.7071
0.4557 0.2758 0.2758 0.5590 0.7071

The largest Eigen value is called the principal Eigen value, that is =5.17
Which is very close to our approximation =5.23. The principal Eigen vector is the Eigen vector that
corresponds to the highest Eigen value.

Thus in the previous example, we have =5.23 for five comparisons, or n=5, thus the consistency index is

C.I=0.05

Knowing the consistency index, prof. saaty, T. (1980) proposed that consistency index by comparing it with the
appropriate one. The appropriate consistency index is called Random Consistency Index (R.I)

Then, proposed what is called consistency ratio, which is a comparison between consistency index and random
consistency index, or in formula

C.R=0.5

If the value of consistency ratio is smaller or equal to 10%, the inconsistency is acceptable. If the consistency ratio
is greater than 10%, we need to revise the subjective judgment.

1.1 GRAPHS

0.35

0.3

0.25
C
r 0.2
i
t 0.15
e criterias
r 0.1
i
a 0.05
s
0
spherical cylindrical scara cartesian joint arm
coordinate

Robots
Fig 2: Final criterion weight obtained via AHP.

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S
y
s
t
e
m

o
f

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

Robots
Fig 2: Final result for robot selection according to system of equations

V. CONCLUSION
The priorities obtained from the group decision makers’ judgments are depicted. It shows that reliability of robot.
the best robot selection criterion, followed by quality of product, life time of the robot, process, work
environment, accuracy, life span, weight and cost of product. Thus, suggesting that the decision makers in the case
of manufacturing firms should integrate the preceding criteria into robot selection decision. The inconsistency
referred as Consistency Ratio is 0.5 < 10 reported by the Mat lab Software. This implies that the group decision
maker’s evaluation is consistent.

VI. REFERENCES
[1] Agrawal, V.P., Kohil, V. and Gupta. A., computer aided robot selection: the ‘multiple attributed decision
making’ approach. Int. j. Prod. Res., 1991, 29(8), 1629-1644.
[2] Booth, D.E., Kouja, M. and Hu, M., A robust multivariative statistical procedure for evaluation and
selection of industrial robots. Int. j. operat. Prod. Manage., 1992, 12, 15-24.
[3] Satty, T. (1980) The Analytical Hierarchy Process: Planning, Priority Setting. New York: McGraw-Hill
[4] Sharma M.J., Moon I., Bae H.: Analytic hierarchy process to assess and optimize distribution network,
Applied Mathematics and Computation, 202, 256-265, 2008.
[5] Yahya, S. & B. Kingsman. (1999). Vendor rating for an entrepreneur development programme: a case
study using the analytic hierarchy process method. Journal of the operational research society 50: 916-930.
[6] Tam, M.C.Y. & V.M.R. Tummala. (2001). An Application of the AHP in vendor selection of
telecommunications system. Omega 29(2): 171-182.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-112-116
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Research Paper Open Access

A Study on Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Groundwater in

the Industrial Zone of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
Dr. Yerramsetty Abbulu, Dr. G.V.R.Srinivasa Rao
Abstract: - An attempt is made in the present study to assess the groundwater quality in the industrial zone of
Visakhapatnam, a port city. Groundwater samples collected from 114 sampling locations covering uniformly the
entire industrial zone of the city are analysed for various physico-chemical characteristics to assess the
groundwater quality. From the analysis, it is observed that the port area is found to have high concentrations of
hardness, sulphates and calcium. The groundwater in Duvvada, a region surrounded by special economic zone
and steel plant is found have more fluoride concentrations. Since, the study is conducted only for one year
period, it is suggested to extend the study for more number of years continuously, with due consideration to
various hydrological features, so that an authentic conclusion on the quality of groundwater can be made.

Key words: - Groundwater quality, Physico-chemical characteristics, Hydrological features.

I. INTRODUCTION
Water is an essential element of nature for the sustenance of life on the planet earth. It is available in
the forms as surface water and sub-surface water or groundwater. Surface water is predominantly used for
public water supply systems. However, the rapid growth of population and the resultant increased demand of
water, necessitated for the usage of groundwater to augment the existing water supply systems, in most of the
cities in the country. Secondly, the growing urbanization and industrialization and the consequent pollution of
surface water sources, also increased the necessity of using groundwater for various domestic and industrial
purposes.
Since, groundwater is occupying a major portion of water supply for both domestic and industrial
purposes nowadays, it is highly essential that, its quality should match the domestic water standards. But in most
of the industrial cities, the indiscriminate disposal of industrial wastes on to the land is resulting in the
deterioration of groundwater quality due to the leachates from these wastes[1] [2][3][5]. However, due to the
paucity of sufficient surface waters, invariably the people are thriving upon the groundwater sources to meet
their water requirements. Hence, if groundwater sources are to be suggested for various uses, its quality should
be assessed [6][4].
Visakhapatnam, the fastest developing industrial city of Andhra Pradesh, is no exception w.r.t. to the
increased usage of groundwater for domestic and industrial purposes as well as the degradation of its quality due
to the improper disposal of industrial wastes. Hence, an attempt is made in the present work to assess the
groundwater quality in the industrial zone of Visakhapatnam city, keeping in view of the increased usage of
groundwater in the recent times.

II. METHODOLOGY
A reconnaissance survey is conducted in the industrial area of the Visakhapatnam city with the help of
a layout plan of the region, obtained from Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) in order to
fix up the study area. The study area comprised of different parts of Visakhapatnam city spreading from ward
numbers 40 to 72, where almost all large and small scale industries are located. The sampling points are located
in such a way that, they are uniformly distributed in all the wards of the study area. 114 sampling locations are
fixed up for sampling. Mostly, bore wells are considered for sampling. At certain places a few open wells and
hand pumps are also considered for the sampling. Water samples are collected from each sampling point and are
analysed for the parameters Viz., pH, Conductivity, Turbidity, Alkalinity, Hardness, Chlorides, Fluorides, TDS,
Dissolved Oxygen, Iron, Sulphates, Calcium and Nitrogen as per the standard procedures.

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III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results of the study are presented in the following table no.1. The following observations are made from the
results.
1. The pH of the samples is found to be varying from a minimum value of 6.2 to a maximum value of 9.2. The
maximum values are found in ward nos. 67, 68 and 70.
2. Conductivity is found to be more in the wards 45, 49, and 58 indicating high TDS concentration in
groundwater of these areas. Conductivity varied from a minimum of 260 micro-seimans to a maximum of
2200 micio-seimans.
3. Turbidity is found to vary from 0.5. NTU to 0.79 NTU with an average value of 0.62 NTU.
4. Alkalinity is found to be more in the wards 67, 68 and 70 and varying from a minimum of 352 mg/l to a
maximum of 892 mg/l.
5. Hardness is found to be more in the ward 25 which covers port areas. The maximum and minimum values
are found to be 1398mg/l and 92mg/l.
6. Chloride concentration is varied from a minimum of 11mg/l to a maximum of 332mg/l.
7. Fluoride concentration is varied from a minimum of 1.02mg/l to a maximum of 1.65mg/l and it is found to
be more in ward no. 57 and 58 covering Duvvada and Steel plant regions.
8. TDS is found to vary from 600mg/l to 1920mg/l with maximum values appearing in wards 45, 49 and 58.
9. D.O levels are found to be in the permissible limits and they varied from a minimum of 4.02mg/l to
maximum of 8.2mg/l.
10. Iron is found to vary from a minimum of 0.31mg/l to a maximum of 0.76mg/l.
11. Sulphates are found to be more in the port area. They varied from a minimum of 12mg/l to a maximum of
144mg/l.
12. Calcium is also found to be more in port area and steel plant. It varied from 4.9mg/l to 164mg/l.
13. Nitrates, the analysis of which is done keeping in view of large scale industries dealing with organics, are
found to vary from a minimum of 10mg/l to a maximum of 68.5mg/l.

IV. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

1. pH, Conductivity, Alkalinity and Turbidity are found to be within the permissible limits, over the entire
study area.
2. Chlorides and Iron are also found to be in acceptable limits.
3. Hardness, Calcium and Sulphates are found to be more than the permissible limits in the wards covering the
entire port area.
4. Nitrates are found to be in permissible limits except in ward no. 45.
5. Fluoride is found to be exceeding the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/l in the region surrounding steel plant.
6. Since the study is conducted for a period of one year only, it is suggested to extend the study for more
number of years and covering all seasons, in order to make more authentic conclusions.

REFERENCES
[1] A.K. Sinha and Kamala Kant “Underground water quality and its impact on the health of its users in
Sarani Block of Rae Bareli” IJEP, 23(9):pp.1017-1024(2003)
[2] Anuraag Mohan, Kinty Pandey, R.K. Singh and Vineet Kumar. “Assessment of Underground water
quality in industrial area of Bareilly” IJEP, 26(2):pp.153-158(2006)
[3] D. Buddhi, Punam Tyagi, R.L.Sawhnay and Richa Kothani. “Groundwater Quality of Pithampur
Industrial area: Opinion survey of the residents” IJEP, 24(3):pp.167-172(2004)
[4] G.R.Chaudhari , Deepali Sohani and V.S. Shrivastava “Groundwater Quality Index near Industrial
Area”
[5] IJEP, 24(1):pp.29-32(2004)
[6] G.V.Pandian , N. Kannan, K. Paulraj and S. Paulrajan “Effect of Industrial Pollution on ground
water in Madurai Suburban Area” IJEP, 26(10):pp.939-945(2006)
[7] K. Karunakaran , A. Samoon Nesaraj, S. Manjunatha, A.Doorty, M. Raja and D. Srividhya. “A
study on the Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater in Salem Corporation. IJEP, 25(6):pp.510-
512(2005)

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

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Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-117-127
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Research Paper Open Access

Component Cost of Fuel Oil of Waste Transportation Cost

Burhamtoro, Achmad Wicaksono, M. Bisri, Soemarno
1)
Ph.d Candidate on Environment and Development Studies, Graduate School, University of Brawijaya,
Malang, East Java, Indonesia
2)
Department of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic of Malang, Indonesia
3)
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculity of Engineering, University of Brawijaya, Indonesia
4)
Department of Water Resources Engineering, Faculity of Engineering, University of Brawijaya, Indonesia
5)
Laboratory of Remote Sensing, Faculity of Agriculture, University of Brawijaya, Indonesia

Abstract: - The success of the transportation system can be measured based on four things, namely the
efficiency of time, energy and fuel efficiency, environmental impact, and safety. Efficiency of energy and fuel is
often stated as part of vehicle operating costs (VOC). So need to know the amount of the percentage of the fuel
cost component of vehicle operating costs. The purpose of this study was to determine the percentage of the fuel
cost component of the total cost of transportation. Research object is a dump truck or on the SCS transport
system that serves the city of Malang. Stages of research begins with getting the data needed to analyze the cost
of transporting waste. Furthermore, the analysis performed to determine the percentage of each component of
transport costs. Results of the analysis showed that the greatest percentage of the cost of each component of the
cost of transporting waste is a component of the fuel, while the smallest percentage of the cost of the mechanical
components. For the percentage of fuel costs by 28.90% of the variable cost per kilometer, while the percentage
of fuel costs by 27.45% of the total cost of transporting waste on his m 3 each.

Keywords: - Fuel Oil, Vehicle Operating Costs, Costs of transporting waste, percentage, Stationery Container
System (SCS)

I. INTRODUCTION
Calculation of vehicle operating cost (VOC) involves several components, such as fuel, oil, spare parts,
tires, mechanic and driver wages. Components are calculated using a specific formula obtained from previous
studies. Analysis conducted by descriptive approach, based on quantitative data as a result of calculation of the
cost of operating the vehicle. The entire cost of the data collected from the survey activities, will be converted
into rupiah per 1000 km mileage (Bina Marga, 1995).
The success of the transportation system can be measured based on four things, namely the efficiency
of time, the efficiency of energy and fuel, environmental impact, and safety. The efficiency of energy and fuel
are often poured as part of the vehicle operation cost (VOC) (Sugiyanto, 2012). So need to know the amount of
the percentage of the fuel cost component of vehicle operating costs.
Rise in world oil prices also affected in Indonesia. As a result, vehicle operating costs also increased.
But the effect of fuel price increase on vehicle operating costs (VOC) are yet to be in percentage, due to
unknown percentage of the cost components of fuel oil to the vehicle operating costs. So that the necessary
analysis of the percentage of the cost components of fuel oil to the vehicle operating costs.
Waste transport vehicle operating costs assessed by the volume of waste transported. In the calculation
of the transport vehicle operating costs also need to consider the cost of waste fuel used for transporting the
waste. Calculation of percentage of fuel cost function of the cost of transporting waste to determine the amount
of the percentage of the cost of fuel needed in the services, waste transportation.

II. LITERATURE
2. 1 Garbage Collection Pattern

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According to SNI 19-2454-2002 (Indonesia Standart) pattern of garbage collection in Indonesia
consists of: individual patterns of direct, indirect individual pattern, the pattern of communal direct, indirect
communal pattern, and the pattern of street sweeping. Determination of the pattern of collection of each area is
determined by the condition of each region.

Landfill

Direct Individual Indirect Direct Indirect Street Sweeping

Individual Communal Communal

Sour
ce: SNI 19-2454-2002
Figure 1. Garbage Collection Pattern

2. 2 Waste Transportation System

Based on the mode of operation and equipment used, known 2 system is the system of transporting waste
container lift / hauled container system (HCS) and container system fixed / stationary container system (SCS).

2. 3 Hauled Container System (HCS)

Hauled Container System (HCS) is a system of waste collection by way of container with its contents
transported to the landfill, emptied and then returned to its original location (garage) or to a location of the next
waste collection (SNI T-13-1990-F).

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HCS is suitable for transferring waste from a source with a high level of waste containers used for
relatively large size. The use of large containers reduce the handling time so that no unsightly and unhealthy
conditions associated with the use of a number of small containers can be prevented. Another advantage of the
HCS is their flexibility: containers with different sizes and shapes can be provided for the collection of all types
of waste.

Figure 3. Hauled Container System

Caption:
a. Empty containers taken from the garage to the disposal 1.
b. Containers that have been filled from Disposal 1, was taken to the landfill to be emptied.
c. Containers that have been brought in to replace the empty container in TPS 2.
d. Filled containers of Disposal 2, was taken to the landfill to be emptied, and so on.
e. Truck back to the garage.

2. 4 Stationary Container System (SCS)

Stationery Container System is the waste collection system in a way, the container is left at the point of decision
(a). Waste that is transferred into the trucks manually or assisted by mechanical equipment on the trucks (b), and
then transported to the landfill.

Collection system at SCS has two main types:

a) Where compaction charging system (self-toading compactor) is used.
b) Where the vehicle charging system manual (manually loaded) is used

2. 5 Vehicle Operation Cost (VOC)

Vehicle operating cost is defined as the cost of all the factors associated with the operation of the
vehicle under normal conditions for a particular purpose. Based on economic considerations, the necessary
compatibility between the tariff (revenue) (Rahman, 2012). Several methods were attempted to calculate the

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VOC component is Transport and Research Laboratory (TRRL) based on research in Kenya, for the calculation
of VOC in the road outside the city (rural road) countries - Developing countries, Method Road User Cost
Manual, (1992) (RUCM), Methods the Highway Design and Maintenance Standards Model - Vehicle Speeds
and Operating Costs, (1987) (HDM-III VOC), Pacific Consultants Internasiona method (PCI) (1990), a method
developed by LAPI-ITB (1997) and many more.
Calculation of vehicle operation cost (VOC) are costs that occur with the economical operation of a
vehicle under normal conditions for a specific purpose (G Hamidi, 2013). In Indonesia there are two ways
commonly used in the calculation of vehicle operating cost (VOC) that are PCI and LAPI-ITB. In the
calculation of vehicle operating cost (VOC) is a factor that affects the speed of the vehicle (Levinsion, 2005).
VOC component consists of fixed costs, variable costs and other expenses. Fixed costs include: depreciation
expenses, administrative expenses and allowances bus crew salaries, capital interest, vehicle insurance, vehicle
crews and employees than management. Variable costs include: the cost of fuel, engine oil costs, tire costs,
maintenance costs and the cost of mechanics. VOC component calculation method of PCI is still in units per
1000 km so as to obtain the unit value per km required distance from the road traversed, for speed (running
speed) in km / h (Burhamtoro, 2013).
Model PCI (Musashi, 1990), which is used to calculate the VOC is a regression equation with speed as
the independent variable. The equation is as follow:

Table 1. Calculation Vehicle Operation Cost (truck)

Parameter
No. Equations Informations
Cost
Fuel Cost
1 Fuel Cost (0,06427V2 - 7,0613V + 318,3326) x Fuel cost
(liter/1000km)
Oil Cost
2 Oil cost (0,00048V2 - 0,05608V + 3,07383) x Oil Cost
(liter/1000km)
Tire Cost
3 Tire cost (0,0011553V - 0,0059333) x Tire cost x n Tire
(1 Tire/1000km)
Spare part cost
4 Spare part cost (0,0000191V + 0,00154) x Vehicle price
(Spare part/1000km)
Service Cost
5 Service cost (0,01511V + 1,212) x Mechanic wages per hour
(Mechanic/1000km)
Depreciation cost
6 Depreciation (1/(6,129V + 245)) x Vehicle price
(Depreciation/1000km)
Interest rate
7 Interest rate ((0,12 x 1000)/(1750V)) x Vehicle price
(interest rate/1000km)
8 Insurance ((0,06x1000x0,5)/(1750V)) x Vehicle price Insurance (Insurance/1000km)

9 Drive wages (1000/V) x Driver wages Driver Wages (Wage/1000km)

10 Overhead Total Cost x 10%

Information: V = Speed (km/hour)
Source: Yanagiya, 1990

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Stages of research begins with getting the data needed for the analysis of vehicle operating cost (VOC),
including fuel prices, oil prices, tire prices, the price of the vehicle as well as the costs required. The data was
obtained through field surveys or primary data. Prices are used as the data is generally accepted price in 2012 in
the city of Malang.
The study was conducted on waste transport serving the transport in the city of Malang, in this
peneletian research object in dump trucks or vehicles transporting the SCS system. SCS Transportation systems
serve 16 temporary shelters (disposal) and spread over 4 districts. The type of vehicle used consisted of four
types of brands, that is Cold Diesel, Toyota Dyna By 43 Long, "Toyota Dyna BU 343R" and Toyota New WU
342 R.

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Once the data has been obtained, the next step is to conduct an analysis to determine the vehicle
operating cost and transportation cost of each vehicle. Next calculate the percentage of each component of the
variable costs and freight costs.

Start

- Vehicle Price
- Fuel Price
Type of Vehicles Data Collection - Oil Price
- etc.

Calculation Waste volumes are

VOC transported

Calculation
Transportation

Percentage of
each component

Figure 5. Flow Chart of Research

IV. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4. 1 Dump Truck vehicle transporting waste
Transporting waste type "Stationery Container System (SCS) in Malang, served 15 fleet serving four
districts, that is Lowokwaru, Blimbing, Klojen and Sukun. District Kedungkandang services using system
hauled Container System (HCS) with Arm Roll Truck. Initial analysis performed on the movement of the fleet
to get the speed of each vehicle. Velocity data obtained by the data in the distance and the travel time for the
vehicles transporting. Data distance, time and speed can be seen in Table 2.

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Once known the type and brand of vehicle used, the next is to find the price of fuel, engine oil, tires, vehicle,
mechanic wages, salaries and fixed costs of vehicles. Price and cost are used based on the market price in the
city of Malang, and the data taken in 2012.

4. 2 Calculation VOC
The next analysis is to calculate vehicle operating costs (VOC).
Calculation of vehicle operating cost (VOC) can be seen in the following table:

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Continuation...

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Results of calculation vehicle operating costs, can be described as follows;

Figure 6. Percentage of the variable cost component of VOC

VOC component percentage is calculated based on the value of the variable cost component of each 1000 km
are used as cost per km multiplied by the distance traveled. So as to know the percentage of each component of
the variable cost incurred from each vehicle.
On Figure 6, it can be seen that the percentage of fuel (BBM) has the greatest percentage of 28.90% while the
smallest percentage was 1.08% for mechanical components. The order of the percentage of each component can
be seen as follows;

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Figure 7. Percentage of the cost of transporting the components VOC

Percentage component of the cost of transporting waste VOC is calculated based on the value of each
component of 1000 km which is used as the cost per km to the distance traveled multiplied and divided by the
volume of waste transported. So as to know the percentage of each component of the cost of transporting waste.
In the calculation of the percentage of components VOC biay waste transportation, it can be seen that the
percentage of the cost of fuel oil (BBM) is also the largest that is 27.45%, while the smallest percentage of the
mechanical componentsthat is 1.03%. The order of the percentage of each component can be seen as follows;

Based on the analysis of the two can be seen that the fuel component has the largest percentage. Percentage of
fuel oil to the calculation of transport costs approximately 27% - 29% of the total cost of transportation.

V. CONCLUSION
Based on the research conducted, it found several conclusions that can be drawn, among others:
1. Percentage of the cost of each component of the cost of transporting waste is the largest component of the
fuel, while the smallest percentage of the cost of mechanical components
2. Percentage of the cost of fuel for 28.90% of the variable costs per kilometer.
3. Percentage of the cost of fuel for 27.45% of the total cost of transporting waste on his m3 each.

VI. REFERENCES
[1] Bina Marga. Biaya Operasional Kendaraan untuk Jalan Perkotaan di Indonesia. Departemen Pekerjaan
Umum. 1995.

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[2] Burhamtoro. Optimizing of Transportation Municipal Solid Waste at Malang City. Interdisciplinay
Research in Natural Resources and Environmental Management, Post Graduate Progam University of
Brawijaya. 2012, pp.77-78.
[3] Burhamtoro. Model of Municipal Solid Wastes Transportation Costs Type Dump Truck (Case Study at
The Malang City, Indonesia). International Journal of Engineering & Technology IJET-IJENS Vol: 13
No: 03. 2013.
[4] Departemen Pekerjaan Umum. SNI 19-2454-2002 tentang Tata Cara Teknik Operasional Pengelolaan
Sampah Perkotaan. 2002.
[5] Hamidi Gede Wajib. Analisis Biaya Perjalanan Akibat Tundaan Lalu Lintas. Jurnal Ilmiah Elektronik
Infrastruktur Teknik Sipil, Volume 2, No. 1. 2013.
[6] LAPI. Metode Pacific Consultants Internasional (PCI). Institut Teknologi Bandung, 1997.
[7] Lavinson, D. Operating Costs for Trucks. Twin Cities: Department of Civil Engineering University of
Minnesota. 2005.
[8] Rahman, Rahmatang. Analisa Biaya Operasi Kendaraan (BOK) Angkutan Umum Antar Kota Dalam
Propinsi Rute Palu – Poso. Jurnal Rekayasa dan Manajemen Transportasi Volume II No. 1. 2012. pp 8 –
21.
[9] Sofyan, M. Saleh, Ade Sjafruddin, Ofyar Z. Tamin and Ruzz Bona Frazila, Pengaruh Muatan Truk
Berlebihan Terhadap Biaya Pemeliharaan Jalan, Jurnal Transportasi, Volume 9 (1). 2009. pp 85-96.
[10] Sugiyanto, Gito. Permodelan Biaya Kemacetan Pengguna Mobil Pribadi Dengan Variasi Nilai Kecepatan
Aktual Kendaraan. Jurnal Transportasi Vol. 12 No. 2. 2012. pp 123-132.
[11] Yanagiya, Kensuke. Feasibility Study on The Cikampek-Cirebon Toolway Project. Japan International
Coorporation Agency. 1990.
[12] Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum No.21/PRT/M/2006 tentang Kebijakan dan Strategi Nasional
Pengembangan Sistem Pengelolaan Sampah (KNSP-SPP).

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-128-135
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Prioritization of sub-watersheds in semi arid region, Western

Maharashtra, India using Geographical Information System
Abhijit M.Zende, R. Nagarajan, K. R. Atal
*Research scholar, @Associate Professor, #Lecturer (SG)
*Center for Studies in Resource Engineering,
Indian Institute Of Technology, Bombay
#
Pune Institute of Computer Technology, Pune

Abstract: - The study area is one of the sub-river basin of Krishna river, covering an area of 3035 km² and lies
in west part of Maharashtra state bounded by Latitude 160 55’ to 170 28’ N and Longitude 740 20’ to 740 40’ E.
Poor soil cover, sparse vegetation, erratic rainfall and lack of soil moisture characterize the study area for most
part of the year. Due to unavailability/poor managed of surface water storage structures, more than 50% area
depends upon groundwater for their daily needs. Recurring drought coupled with increase in ground water
exploitation results in decline in the ground water level. So the entire study area has been further divided into 9
sub-watersheds named SWS1 to SWS9, ranging in geographical area from 76 km² to 492 km² and has been
taken up for prioritization based on morphometric analysis using Geographical information system (GIS) and
remote sensing techniques. The drainage density of sub-watersheds varies between 2.07 to 3.26 km/km² and low
drainage density values of sub-watershed SWS5 indicates that it has highly resistant, impermeable subsoil
material with dense vegetative cover and low relief. The elongation ratio varies from 0.2 to 0.35 which indicates
low relief and gentle ground slope. The high value of circularity ratio for SWS 8 sub-watershed 0.6 indicates the
late maturity stage of topography. This anomaly is due to diversity of slope, relief and structural conditions
prevailing in this sub-watershed. The compound parameter values are calculated and the sub-watershed with the
lowest compound parameter is given the highest priority. The sub-watershed SWS3 has a minimum compound
parameter value of 1.68 and SWS 8 has a maximum compound parameter 3.08. Hence it should be provided
with immediate soil conservation measures because sedimentation is the major problem for surface water
storage structures.

Keywords: - Morphometric analysis, GIS, prioritization, remote sensing, sub-watersheds, soil conservation,
compound parameters

I. INTRODUCTION
The available surface and ground water resources are inadequate to meet the growing water demands
due to rapid urbanization and increasing population. The demand for water has increased over the years, due to
which the assessment of quantity and quality of water for its optimal utilization has become essential.
Identification and outlining of various ground features such as geological structures, geomorphic
features and their hydraulic characteristics may serve as direct or indirect indicators of the presence of ground
and surface water. The geomorphic conditions are essential pre-requisites in understanding the water bearing
characteristics of hard rocks. The role of rocks types and geologic structure in the development of stream
networks can be better understood by studying the nature and type of drainage pattern and by a quantitative
morphometric analysis. The morphometric parameters of a watershed are reflective of its hydrological response
to a considerable extent and can be helpful in synthesizing its hydrological behaviour. A quantitative
morphometric characterization of a drainage basin is considered to be the most satisfactory method for the
proper planning of watershed management because it enables us to understand the relationship among different
aspects of the drainage pattern of the basin, and also to make a comparative evaluation of different drainage
basins developed in various geologic and climatic regimes.

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Krishna basin is located at 730 E to 780 E and 150 N to 190 N of Maharashtra covering total area about 90,000
sq km. In Maharashtra it covers an area of 15116sq km in the district of Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur. It is the fourth
largest river basin in India. It has an average rainfalls ranging between 600 mm to 1900 mm per annum. The
origin of the river is located at Mahabaleshwar having the height of 4500 ft above MSL. The Krishna basin
running across Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and has an area of 2, 58,948 sq km i.e.7.9 % of India’s
surface area. The length of the Krishna River within Maharashtra is 304 kms. The term morphometry is the
measurement and mathematical analysis of configuration of earth’s surface, shape and dimension of its landform
(Clark 1966). In the present study, Geographic Information System technique has been used to assessing various
terrain and morphometric parameter of drainage basins and watershed. Linear, relief and aerial morphometric
parameters are evaluated for development planning of sub watershed in Krishna Basin. Linear parameter
analyzed includes stream order (u), stream length (Lu), mean stream length (Lsm) and bifurcation ratio (Rb).
Relief parameter analyzed includes Basin Relief (Bh) and Ruggedness number (Rn). Relief aspect of
watersheds plays an important role for computing, surface and subsurface water flow, permeability, landform
development, Drainage density (Dd), stream frequency (Fs), Texture ratio(T), Form factor (Rf), circulatory
ratio(Rc) and Constant Channel Maintenance (C) which helps for drainage development. Drainage density is
one of the important indicators of the landform element. It provides a numerical measurement of landscape
dissection and runoff potential. The drainage pattern differs a lot in linear, relief and areal morphometric
parameters due to difference in geological structure, land form configuration, slope, vegetation and rainfall
distribution.

II. STUDY AREA

The study area lies in west part of Maharashtra state bounded by Latitude 16 0 55’ to 170 28’ N and
Longitude 740 20’ to 740 40’ E. falling in part survey of India topographical sheet no 47 K – 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12
and 47 L - 9 on the scale 1:50,000 it covers total area of 3035 km2 includes two districts (Satara and Sangli) in
Maharashtra.
The average annual rainfall increases from 1200 mm in the western side to 300 mm in the east side.
Geology of the area is dominantly covered by basaltic rock. The area has suffered a lot by tectonic movement in
the past as evidenced by varying fold, fault and lineament association with hills located in the western side of
study area (Figure 1).

Fig. 1 Index map of Yerala river basin

III. METHODOLOGY
In the present study, the parameters considered for prioritization of sub-watersheds are from the natural
resources thematic data, including drainage density, groundwater prospects, irrigated area, forest cover and
wastelands derived from satellite imagery and socioeconomic data. The thematic maps are derived from SOI

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topographic maps on 1:50000 scale. For better accuracy of the thematic map, ground truth check is done for
verification and necessary modifications are made in thematic maps during post interpretation.
The digitization of sub-dendritic drainage pattern was carried out in GIS environment (Figure 2). The
stream ordering is carried out using Horton’s law. The fundamental parameters namely: stream length, area,
perimeter, number of streams and basin length are derived from the drainage layer. The morphometric
parameters for the delineated watershed area are calculated based on the formula suggested by (Horton, 1945),
(Strahler, 1964), (Schumm, 1956), (Nookaratnam et al., 2005) and (Miller, 1953) given in table 1.
Morphometric parameters like stream order, stream length, bifurcation ratio, drainage density, drainage
frequency, relief ratio, elongation ratio, circularity ratio and compactness constant are calculated. Prioritization
rating of all the nine sub-watersheds of Yerala watershed is carried out by calculating the compound parameter
values. The sub-watershed with the lowest compound parameter value is given the highest priority.

Figure 2 Driange network of Yerala river basin

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Drainage pattern is characterized by irregular branching of tributaries in many directions with an angle less than
90º. The watershed is divided into nine sub-watersheds with codes SWS1 to SWS9.

4.1. Linear Aspect

The linear aspects of the channel system are stream order (U), stream length (Lu) and stream frequency (Fs).
Stream order (U): The Yerala River is a 7th order stream covering an area of 3035 km². The sub-watershed
SWS9 (Sonhira Odha) is having 4th order streams covering an area of 99 km². The sub-watersheds SWS1,
SWS3, SWS4, SWS5 and SWS8 (Dargoba Odha, Darjai Odha, Kapur Nala, Krishnabai Odha and Ner Doha) is
having 5th order streams covering an area of 175 km², 76 km², 242 km², 86 km² and 157 km² respectively. The
variation in order and size of the sub-watersheds is largely due to physiographic and structural conditions of the
region.

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Table - 1 Formulae adopted for computation of morphometric parameters
SN Morphometric Formula Reference
Parameters
1 Stream order (u) Hierarchical rank Strahler (1964)
2 Stream length (Lu) Length of the stream Horton (1945)
Lsm = Lu / Nu Where,
Lsm = Mean stream length
3 Mean stream length (Lsm) Strahler (1964)
Lu = Total stream length of order 'u'
Nu = Total no. of stream segments of order 'u'
RL = Lu / Lu – 1 Where,
RL = Stream length ratio
4 Stream length ratio (RL) Horton (1945)
Lu = Total stream length of the order 'u'
Lu – 1 = Total stream length of next lower order
Rb = Nu / Nu + 1 Where,
Rb = Bifurcation ratio
5 Bifurcation ratio (Rb) Schumn (1956)
Nu = Total no. of stream segments of order 'u'
Nu+1 = No. of segments of the next higher order
6 Mean bifurcation ratio Rbm = Average of bifurcation ratios of all orders Strahler (1957)
(Rbm) Rh = H / Lb Where,
Rh = Relief ratio
7 Relief ratio (Rh) H = Total relief (Relative relief) of the basin Schumm (1956)
(km)
Lb = Basin length
Dd = Lu / A Where,
Dd = Drainage density
8 Drainage density (Dd) Horton (1932)
Lu = Total stream length of all orders
A = Area of the basin (km2)
Fs = Nu / A Where,
Fs = Stream frequency
9 Stream frequency (Fs) Horton (1932)
Nu = Total no. of streams of all orders
A = Area of the basin (km2)
Rt = Nu / P Where,
Rt = Drainage texture
10 Drainage texture (Rt) Horton (1945)
Nu = Total no. of streams of all orders
P = Perimeter (km)
Rf = A / Lb² Where,
Rf = Form factor
11 Form factor (Rf) Horton (1932)
A = Area of the basin (km2)
Lb² = Square of basin length
Rc = 4 * Pi * A / P² Where,
Rc = Circularity ratio
12 Circularity ratio (Rc) Pi = 'Pi' value i.e., 3.14 Miller (1953)
A = Area of the basin (km2)
P² = Square of the perimeter (km)
Re = 2 / Lb Where,
Re = Elongation ratio
13 Elongation ratio (Re) A = Area of the basin (km2) Schumn (1956)
Pi = 'Pi' value i.e., 3.14
Lb = Basin length
Lg = 1 / D * 2 Where,
Length of overland flow
14 Lg = Length of overland flow Horton (1945)
(Lg)
D = Drainage density

Stream length (Lu): The stream length was computed on the basis of the law proposed by (Horton, 1945), for
all the 9 sub-watersheds. Generally, the total length of stream segments decrease as the stream order increase. In
9 sub-watersheds the stream length followed Horton’s law (Table 2).

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Table 2 Stream Analysis

Stream Length ratio (Rl): Horton’s law of stream length states that mean stream length segments of each of the
successive orders of a basin tends to approximate a direct geometric series with stream length increasing
towards higher order of streams. The stream length ratio between different sub-watersheds showed an increasing
and decreasing trend in the length ratio from lower order to higher order and in the sub-watersheds SWS1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 7, 9 there was a change from one order to another order indicating the late youth stage of geomorphic
development of streams in the inter basin area.

Stream frequency (Fs): The stream frequencies of all the sub-watersheds are mentioned in Table 3. Generally if
the sub watersheds having large area under dense forest have low drainage frequency and the area having more
agricultural land have high drainage frequency. High value of drainage frequency in SWS 8 and SWS 2
produces more runoff in comparison to others.

4.2. Dimensionless factors

Form factor (Rf):
The form factor for all sub-watersheds varies from 0.10 – 0.31 (Table3). This observation shows that
the sub-watersheds are more or less elongated. The elongated watershed with low value of Rf indicates that the
basin will have a flatter peak flow for longer duration. Flood flows of such elongated basins are easier to
manage than from the circular basin.

Elongation Ratio (Re):

The elongation ratio for all sub-watersheds varies from 0.2 – 0.35 which indicates normal relief and gentle
ground slope (Table3). The sub-watersheds SWS 2 and SWS 5 has ratio 0.2 and 0.35 respectively.

Circularity Ratio (Rc):

It is influenced by the length and frequency of streams, geological structures, land use/ land cover,
climate, relief and slope of the watershed. In the present study (Table 3), the Rc value for all sub-watersheds
varies from 0.35 to 0.60 which shows that the sub-watersheds are almost elongated. The high value of
circularity ratio for SWS 8 indicates the late maturity stage of topography. This anomaly is due to diversity of
slope, relief and structural conditions prevailing in this sub-watershed.

4.3. Measurement of intensity of dissection

Drainage density (Dd):
(Horton, 1932) has introduced drainage density (Dd) as an expression to indicate the closeness of
spacing of channels. Drainage density in all the sub-watersheds varies from 2.07 to 3.26 respectively (Table 4).
In general it has been observed over a wide range of geologic and climatic types, that low drainage density is
more likely to occur in regions of highly permeable subsoil material under dense vegetative cover, and where
relief is low. In contrast, high Dd is favored in regions of weak or impermeable subsurface materials, sparse
vegetation and mountainous relief (Nag, 1998). Hence in this study in order to find out the correlation of Dd

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with land use/cover, spatial distribution of land use/cover was studied. Low Dd value for sub-watershed SWS 5
indicates that it has highly resistant, impermeable subsoil material with dense vegetative cover and low relief.

Table 3 Morphometric Parameters of Yerala River

Table 4 Values of drainage density, texture and bifurcation ratios for Yerala River Sub- watershed

The compound parameter values of all nine sub-watersheds of Yerala watershed are calculated and
prioritization rating is shown in Table 5. The sub-watershed SWS 3 with a compound parameter value of 1.68
receives the highest priority followed by SWS 5 and SWS 4. Highest priority indicates the greater degree of
erosion in the particular micro-watershed and it becomes potential candidate for applying soil conservation
measures. Thus soil conservation measures can first be applied to sub-watershed SWS3 and then to the other
sub-watersheds depending upon their priority. The final prioritized map of the study area and prioritization
ranks of sub-watersheds is shown in Figure 3.

Table 5 Prioritization Results of Morphometric Analysis

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Figure 3 Prioritized sub-watershed map of Yerala watershed

V. CONCLUSION
Watershed prioritization is one of the most important aspects of planning for implementation of its
development and management programmes. The present study demonstrates the usefulness of GIS for
morphometric analysis and prioritization of the sub-watersheds of Yerala watershed of Western Maharashtra,
India. The morphometric characteristics of different sub-watersheds show their relative characteristics with
respect to hydrologic response of the watershed. Morphometric parameters coupled with integrated thematic
map of drainage density land use can help in decision making process for water resources management. Results
of prioritization of sub-watersheds show that sub-watersheds SWS 3 and SWS 5 are more susceptible to soil
erosion. Therefore, immediate attention towards soil conservation measures is required in these sub-watersheds
to preserve the land from further erosion and to alleviate natural hazards.

REFERENCES
[1] Biswas, S., Sudhakar, S. and Desai, V. R., 1999, Prioritisation of sub-watersheds based on morphometric
analysis of drainage basin: A Remote Sensing and GIS approach, Journal of Indian Society of Remote
Sensing, 27(3), pp 155166.
[2] CEE, Prioritization of micro watersheds for management in Bijapur district of Karnataka, Centre for
Environment Education, Bangalore, 20, p. 89.
[3] Chopra, R., Dhiman, R., and Sharma, P. K., 2005, Morphometric analysis of sub-watersheds in
Gurdaspur District, Punjab using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques, Journal of Indian Society of
Remote Sensing, 33(4), pp 531539.
[4] Horton, R. E., 1945, Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins; Hydrological approach
to quantitative morphology, Geological Society of American Bulletin, 56, pp 275370.

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[5] Khan, M.A., Gupta, V.P. and Moharana, P.C., 2001, Watershed prioritization using remote sensing and
geographical information system: a case study from Guhiya, India, Journal of Arid Environments, 49, pp
465475.
[6] Miller, V. C., 1953, A quantitative geomorphic study of drainage basin characteristics in the clinch
mountain area, Technical report3, Department of Geology, Columbia University.
[7] Nag, S. K., 1998, Morphometric analysis using remote sensing techniques in the Chaka subbasin, Purulia
district, West Bengal, Journal of Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 26, 12, pp 6976.
[8] Nookaratnam, K., Srivastava, Y. K., Venkateswarao, V., Amminedu, E. and Murthy, K.S.R., 2005,
Check dam positioning by prioritization of micro-watersheds using SYI model and morphometric
analysis – Remote sensing and GIS perspective, Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 33(1),
pp 2528.
[9] Sangita Mishra., R. Nagarajan 2010, Morphometric analysis and prioritization of using GIS and Remote
Sensing: a case study of Odisha, India, International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences Vol – 1, No.2
pp 501-510.
[10] Schumm, S. A., 1956, Evolution of drainage systems and slopes in Badlands at Perth Amboy, New
Jersey, Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 67, pp 597646.
[11] Shrimali, S.S., Aggarwal, S. P. and Samra, J. S.,2001, Prioritizing erosion-prone areas in hills using
remote sensing and GIS – a case study of the Sukhna Lake catchment, Northern India, JAG, 3(1), pp
5460.
[12] Srinivasa, V. S., Govindaonah, S. and Home Gowda, H., 2004, Morphometric analysis of sub-watersheds
in the Pawagada area of Tumkur district South India using remote sensing and GIS techniques, Journal of
Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 32(4) pp 351362.
[13] Strahler, A. N. (1964), Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basins and channel networks, section 4II,
In: Handbook of Applied Hydrology, edited by V.T. Chow, McGraw-Hill, pp 439.
[14] Thakkar, A. K. and Dhiman S. D., 2007, Morphometric analysis and prioritization on mini-watersheds in
Mohr watershed, Gujarat using remote sensing and GIS techniques, Journal of Indian Society of Remote
Sensing, 35(4) pp 313321.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-136-145
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

VLSI Architecture for Fast Computation of 2D-Discrete Wavelet

Transform and Low Power Feed Forward Neural Network
Architecture for Image Compression
1 2
Mr. Murali Mohan. S, Dr. P.Satyanarayana
1
(Associate Professor, Dept. of ECE, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering & Technology, Chittoor, A.P.,
INDIA,
2
(Professor, Dept. of ECE, College of Engineering, S.V.University, Tirupati, A.P.,INDIA,

Abstract: - Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is significantly used in signal and image processing techniques
for pattern recognition and template matching. Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) is combined with neural
network to achieve higher compression if 2D data such as image. Image compression using neural network and
DWT have shown superior results over classical techniques, with 70% higher compression and 20%
improvement in Mean Square Error (MSE). Hardware complexity and power dissipation are the major
challenges that have been addressed in this work for VLSI implementation. In this work VLSI architecture for
neural network and DWT is designed to operate at frequency of 250 MHz and low power techniques are
adopted to reduce power dissipation to less than 100mW. Daubechies wavelet filter and Haar wavelet filters are
used for DWT, input layer with one hidden layer and output layer consisting of tansig and purelin function used
for compression. Low power techniques and low power library in 65nm technology is used for VLSI
implementation.

Key words: - DWT, Neural Network, Image Compression, VLSI Implementation, High Speed, Low Power

I. INTRODUCTION
Image compression is one of the most promising subjects in image processing. Images captured need to
be stored or transmitted over long distances. Raw image occupies memory and hence need to be compressed.
With the demand for high quality video on mobile platforms there is a need to compress raw images and
reproduce the images without any degradation. Several standards such as JPEG200, MPEG-2/4 recommend use
of Discrete Wavelet Transforms (DWT) for image transformation [1] which leads to compression, when
encoded. Wavelets are a mathematical tool for hierarchically decomposing functions in multiple hierarchical sub
bands with time scale resolutions. Image compression using Wavelet Transforms is a powerful method that is
preferred by scientists to get the compressed images at higher compression ratios with higher PSNR values [2].
It is a popular transform used for some of the image compression standards in lossy compression methods.
Unlike the discrete cosine transform, the wavelet transform is not Fourier-based and therefore wavelets do a
better job of handling discontinuities in data.
On the other hand, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) for image compression applications has
marginally increased in recent years. Neural networks are inherent adaptive systems [3][4][5][6]; they are
suitable for handling nonstationaries in image data. Artificial neural network can be employed with success to
image compression. Image Compression using Neural Networks by Ivan Vilovic [7] reveals a direct solution
method for image compression using the neural networks. An experience of using multilayer perceptron for
image compression is also presented. The multilayer perceptron is used for transform coding of the image.
Image compression with neural networks by J. Jiang [8] presents an extensive survey on the development of
neural networks for image compression which covers three categories: direct image compression by neural
networks; neural network implementation of existing techniques, and neural network based technology which
provide improvement over traditional algorithms. Neural Networks-based Image Compression System by H.
Nait Charif and Fathi. M. Salam [9] describes a practical and effective image compression system based on

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multilayer neural networks. The system consists of two multilayer neural networks that compress the image in
two stages. The algorithms and architectures reported in these papers sub divided the images into sub blocks and
the sub blocks are reorganized for processing. Reordering of sub blocks leads to blocking artifacts. Hence it is
required to avoid reorganization of sub blocks. One of the methods was to combine neural networks with
wavelets for image compression. Image compression using wavelet transform and a neural network was
suggested previously [10]. Wavelet networks (WNs) were introduced by Zhang and Benveniste [11], [12] in
1992 as a combination of artificial neural networks and wavelet decomposition. Since then, however, WNs have
received only little attention. In the wavelet networks, the basis radial functions in some RBF-networks are
replaced by wavelets. Szu et al. [13], [14] have shown usage of WNs for signals representation and
classification. They have explained how a set of WN, "a super wavelet", can be produced and the original ideas
presented can be used for the assortment of model. Besides, they have mentioned the big compression of data
achieved by such a representation of WN’s. Zhang [15] has proved that the WN’s can manipulate the non-linear
regression of the moderately big dimension of entry with the data of training. Ramanaiah and Cyril [16] in their
paper have reported the use of neural networks and wavelets for image compression. Murali and Dr.
Satyanarayana [17] reports use of neural networks with DWT improves compression ratio by 70% and MSE by
20%. The complexities of hardware implementation on VLSI platform are not discussed in this paper. Murali
andDr. Satyanarayana [18] reports the use of FPGA for implementation of neural network and DWT
architecture, the design operates are 127 MHz and consumes 0.45 mW on Virtex-5 FPGAs. ASIC
implementation of the algorithm proposed is reported as scope for future work. In this paper ASIC
implementation of 2D-DWT architecture with ANN architecture is designed and implemented on ASIC
platform using 65nm CMOS technology optimizing area, timing and power. Section II presents theoretical
background on neural networks and DWT. Section III discusses the image compression architecture using DWT
and ANN technique, section IV presents ASIC implementation of DWT-ANN, section V presents results and
discussions and followed with conclusion in section VI.

II. NEURAL NETWORKS AND DWT

In this section, neural network architecture for image compression is discussed. Feed forward neural
network architecture and back propagation algorithm for training is presented. DWT based image
transformation and compression is also presented in this section. Compression is one of the major subject of
research, the need for compression is discussed as follows [17]: Uncompressed video of size 640 x 480
resolution, with each pixel of 8 bit (1 bytes), with 24 fps occupies 307.2 Kbytes per image (frame) or 7.37
Mbytes per second or 442 Mbytes per minute or 26.5 Gbytes per hour. If the frame rate is increased from 24 fps
to 30 fps, then for 640 x 480 resolution, 24 bit (3 bytes) colour, 30 fps occupies 921.6 Kbytes per image (frame)
or 27.6 Mbytes per second or 1.66 Gbytes per minute or 99.5 Gbytes per hour. Given a 100 Gigabyte disk can
store about 1-4 hours of high quality video, with channel data rate of 64Kbits/sec – 40 – 438 secs/per frame
transmission. For HDTV with 720 x 1280 pixels/frame, progressive scanning at 60 frames/s: 1.3Gb/s – with
20Mb/s available – 70% compression required – 0.35bpp. In this work we propose a novel architecture based on
neural network and DWT [18].

2.1 Feed Forward Neural Network Architecture for Image Compression

An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information- processing paradigm that is inspired by the
way biological nervous systems, such as the Brian, process information [16]. The key element of this paradigm
is the novel structure of the information processing system. The basic architecture for image compression using
neural network is shown in figure 1. The network has input layer, hidden layer and output layer. Inputs from the
image are fed into the network, which are passed through the multi layered neural network. The input to the
network is the original image and the output obtained is the reconstructed image. The output obtained at the
hidden layer is the compressed image. The network is used for image compression by breaking it in two parts as
shown in the Figure 1. The transmitter encodes and then transmits the output of the hidden layer (only 16 values
as compared to the 64 values of the original image). The receiver receives and decodes the 16 hidden outputs
and generates the 64 outputs. Since the network is implementing an identity map, the output at the receiver is an
exact reconstruction of the original image.

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Figure 1: Feed forward multilayered neural network architecture

Three layers, one input layer, one output layer and one hidden layer, are designed. The input layer and
output layer are fully connected to the hidden layer. Compression is achieved by designing the network such
that the number of neurons at the hidden layer is less than that of neurons at both input and the output layers.
The input image is split up into blocks or vectors of 8 X8, 4 X 4 or 16 X 16 pixels. Back-propagation is one of
the neural networks which are directly applied to image compression coding [20][21][22]. In the previous
sections theory on the basic structure of the neuron was considered. The essence of the neural networks lies in
the way the weights are updated. The updating of the weights is through a definite algorithm. In this paper Back
Propagation (BP) algorithm is studied and implemented.

2.2 DWT architecture for image compression

The DWT represents the signal in dynamic sub-band decomposition. Generation of the DWT in a
wavelet packet allows sub-band analysis without the constraint of dynamic decomposition. The discrete wavelet
packet transform (DWPT) performs an adaptive decomposition of frequency axis. The specific decomposition
will be selected according to an optimization criterion. The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), based on time-
scale representation, provides efficient multi-resolution sub-band decomposition of signals. It has become a
powerful tool for signal processing and finds numerous applications in various fields such as audio compression,
pattern recognition, texture discrimination, computer graphics [24][25][26] etc. Specifically the 2-D DWT and
its counterpart 2-D Inverse DWT (IDWT) play a significant role in many image/video coding applications.
Figure 2 shows the DWT architecture, the input image is decomposed into high pass and low pass components
using HPF and LPF filters giving rise to the first level of hierarchy. The process is continued until multiple
hierarchies are obtained. A1 and D1 are the approximation and detail filters.

Figure 2: DWT decomposition

Figure 3 shows the decomposition results. The barbera image is first decomposed into four sub bands
of LL, LH, HL and HH. Further the LL sub band is decomposed into four more sub bands as shown in the
figure. The LL component has the maximum information content as shown in figure 3, the other higher order
sub bands contain the edges in the vertical, horizontal and diagonal directions. An image of size N X N is
decomposed to N/2 X N/2 of four sub bands. Choosing the LL sub band and rejecting the other sub bands at the
first level compresses the image by 75%. Thus DWT assists in compression. Furhter encoding increases
compression ratio.

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Figure 3 DWT decomposition of barbera image into hierarchical sub bands

III. ANN WITH DWT FOR IMAGE COMPRESSION

Basic architecture for image compression using neural network is shown in the above figure 4. The
input image of size 64 x 1 is multiplied by 4 x 64 weight matrixes to obtain the compressed output of 4 x 1, at
the receiver 4 x 1 is decompressed to 64 x 1 by multiplying the compressed matrix by 64 x 4. The table in figure
4 shows the compression ratio that can be achieved by choosing the sizes of hidden layer.

Figure 4: Neural network based image compression

Prior to use of NN for compression it is required to perform training of the network, in this work we
have used back propagation training algorithm for obtaining the optimum weights and biases for the NN
architecture. Based on the training, barbera image is compressed and decompressed; Figure 5 shows the input
image, compressed image and decompressed image.

Figure 5: NN based image compression and decompression

Figure 5 also shows the input image and the decompressed image of coins image using neural network
architecture. From the decompressed results shown, we find the checker blocks error, which exists on the
decompressed image. As the input image is sub divided into 8 x 8 blocks and rearranged to 64 x 1 input
matrixes, the checker block arises. This is one of the limitations of NN based compression. Another major
limitation is the maximum compression ration which is less than 100%, in order to achieve compression more

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than 100% and to eliminate checker box errors or blocking artifacts we proposed DWT combined with NN
architecture for image compression.

3.1 Image Compression using DWT-ANN

Most of the image compression techniques use either neural networks for compression or DWT
(Discrete wavelet Transform) based transformation for compression. In order to overcome the limitations of NN
architecture in this work, DWT is used for image decomposition and an N X N image is decomposed using
DWT into hierarchical blocks the decomposition is carried out until the sub block is of size 8 x 8. For a image of
size 64 x 64, first level decomposition gives rise to 32 x 32 (four sub bands) of sub blocks, further
decomposition leads to 16 x 16 (sixteen sub bands), which can further decamped to 8 x 8 at the third hierarchy.
The third level of hierarchy there are 64 sub blocks each of size 8 x 8. Figure 6 shows the decomposition levels
of input image of size 64 x 64.

Figure 6: Decomposition of image into sub blocks using DWT

Sub blocks of 8 x 8 are rearranged to 64 x 1 block are combined together into a rearranged matrix size
as shown in figure 6. The rearranged matrix is used to train the NN architecture based on back propagation
algorithm. In order to train the NN architecture and to obtain optimum weights it is required to select
appropriate images [17][18]. The training vectors play a vital role in NN architecture for image compression.
The NN architecture consisting of input layer, hidden layer and output layer. The network functions such as
tansig and purelin are used to realize feed forward neural network architecture [18]. In this work, hybrid neural
network architecture is realized using DWT combined with ANN. The hybrid architecture is discussed in the
research paper [Ramanaiah and Cyril]. The NN based compression using analog VLSI is presented in the
research paper [Cyril and Pinjare]. Based on the two different papers neural network architecture is developed
and is trained to compress and decompress multiple images. The DWT based image compression algorithm is
combined with neural network architecture. There are several wavelet filters and neural network functions. It is
required to choose appropriate wavelets and appropriate neural network functions. In this work an experimental
setup is modeled using Matlab to choose appropriate wavelet and appropriate neural network function. Based
on the above parameters chosen the Hybrid Compression Algorithm is developed and is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Proposed hybrid algorithms for image compression

Several images are considered for training the network, the input image is resized to 256 x 256, the
resized image is transformed using DWT, 2D DWT function is used for the transformation. There is several
wavelet functions, in this work Haar and dB4 wavelet functions are used. The input image is decomposed to
obtain the sub band components using several stages of DWT. The DWT process is stopped until the sub band

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size is 8 x 8. The decomposed sub band components are rearranged to column vectors; the rearranged vectors
are concatenated to matrix and are set at the input to the neural network. The hidden layer is realized using 4
neurons and tansig function. The weights are biases obtained after training are used to compress the input to the
required size and is further processed using weights and biases in the output layer to decompress. The
decompressed is further converted from vector to blocks of sub bands. The sub band components are grouped
together and are transformed using inverse DWT. The transformation is done using multiple hierarchies and the
original image is reconstructed. The input image and the output image is used to compute MSE, PSNR. The
selection of network parameters and performances are discussed in the next section.

IV. ASIC IMPLEMENTATION OF DWT-ANN ARCHITECTURE

Synthesis is a complex task consisting of many phases and requires various inputs in order to produce a
functionally correct netlist. Synthesis includes the following main tasks: reading in the design, setting
constraints, optimizing the design, analyzing the results and saving the design database. The first task in
synthesis is to read the design into Design Compiler memory. Reading in an HDL design description consists of
two tasks: analyzing and elaborating the description. The next task is to set the design constraints. Constraints
are the instructions that the designer gives to Design Compiler. They define, the synthesis tool can or cannot do
with the design or how the tool behaves. Usually this information can be derived from the design specifications
(e.g. from timing specification). There are basically two types of design constraints: Design Rule Constraints
and Optimization Constraints. Optimization constraints are explicit constraints (set by the designer). They
describe the design goals (area, timing, power and so on) the designer has set for the design and work as
instructions to perform synthesis. The top level model is constrained with the following parameters: clock
master_clock (rise edge) of 4.00ns, library setup of -0.05ns, data required time of 3.95ns, data arrival time of -
3.95 ns, the slack is found to be 0.00 indicating that the design is able to meet timing constraints. The area report
obtained using 65nm low power library from TSMC indicates that the number of ports is 2, number of nets is
714, number of cells is 16, number of references is16, Combinational area occupied by the design is
870596.656057 um2, Non-combinational area occupied by the design is 329587.191422 um 2 and the total design
area occupied is 1200183.847480 um2. The power report obtained after synthesis indicates that the total
dynamic power is 86.8380 mW, cell internal power is 85.6360 mW, net switching power is 1.2021 mW and cell
leakage power is 362.3151 uW at load capacitance of 1pF and operating voltage of 1.08V. The synthesized
netlist for the compressor unit is shown in Figure 8 (below).

Figure 8: Synthesized netlist for compressor unit

Figure 9 (below) shows the synthesized netlist for the decompressor unit.

Figure 9: Synthesized netlist of decompressor unit

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Figure 10 (below) shows the synthesized netlist of adder circuits used in the design to realize the compressor
and decompressor unit.

Figure 10: Synthesized netlist of 14-bit Carry Save Adder

Figure 11 (below) shows the synthesized netlist of Wallace tree multiplier used for design of compressor and
decompressor unit.

Figure 11: Synthesized netlist of Wallace tree multiplier

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 12 shows the results of image compression and decompression using the proposed hybrid
architecture model. The input image is transformed into four sub bands in the first level decomposition, further
is decomposed to second level of hierarchy and is shown in figure 12. The decomposed image is rearranged into
column matrix, and is shown in figure 12. The compressed data using NN architecture is decompressed using
output layer. The output obtained is further rearranged to sub blocks and is inverse transformed using inverse
DWT. The output obtained is shown in figure 13, along with the reconstructed image.

Figure 12: Results of hybrid Neural Network Architecture

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Figure 13: Input Image and Reconstructed Image

The following table summarizes the MSE results for various test images using the hybrid architecture.
The results compare the performances of NN architecture, reference design and the present work. With the
choice of appropriate wavelet filters (Haar, db4), choice of decomposition levels, number of hidden layers and
network function the proposed architecture is superior compared with all the other architectures.

Sl. No. Test Image Image MSE Reference Image MSE

(With NN only) (With NN and DWT)
1 Camera man 321 301 262
2 Board 1590 1289 958
3 Cell 39 34 26
4 Circuit 24 21 14
5 Lena 201 190 100
6 Sun 278 149 115
7 Girl 67 51 42
8 Blue hills 38 31 22
9 Sunset 51 47 39
10 Water lilies 56 42 31
11 Winter 89 52 47
12 Drawing 260 232 170
13 College 180 126 97
14 Garden 163 145 87
15 My photo 320 234 197
16 Holi 289 256 175
17 Bhagavad geetha 98 78 65
18 Devine couple 143 101 80
19 Krishna 29 19 7
20 Goddess 76 53 45
Table 1: MSE results for various test images and comparison

From the results presented in table for all the 20 images considered proposed network achieves less
MSE compared with the reference design. The input image is decomposed using DWT and is compressed using
NN architecture, this introduces delay and hence high speed architectures are required to implement for real
time applications.

VI. CONCLUSION
Use of NN for image compression has superior advantage compared with classical techniques; however
the NN architecture requires image to be decomposed to several blocks of each 8 x 8, and hence introduces
blocking artifact errors and checker box errors in the reconstructed image. In order to overcome the checker
errors in this work, we have used DWT for image decomposition prior to image compression using NN

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architecture. In this work, we proposed a hybrid architecture that combines NN with DWT and the input image
is used to train the network. The network architecture is used to compress and decompress several images and it
is proven to achieve better MSE compared with reference design. The hybrid technique uses hidden layer
consisting of tansig function and output layer with purelin function to achieve better MSE. The proposed
architecture is suitable for real time application of image compression and decompression.
VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Cyril Prasanna Raj P. for his valuable support during this work. The
authors also acknowledge Sundaramoorthy G from NXG Semiconductor Technologies for his support.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-146-153
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Design, Load Analysis and Optimization of Compound Epicyclic

Gear Trains
Syed Ibrahim Dilawer1, Md. Abdul Raheem Junaidi2, Dr.S.Nawazish Mehdi3
1
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Muffakham jah college of engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, 500034.
2
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Muffakham jah college of engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, 500034.
3
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Muffakham jah college of engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, 500034.

Abstract: - Gears in the Epicyclic gear trains are one of the most critical components in the mechanical power
transmission system in which failure of one gear will affect the whole transmission system, thus it is very
necessary to determine the causes of failure in an attempt to reduce them. The different modes of failure of gears
and their possible remedies to avoid the failure are mentioned in J.R. Davis (2005) [17], Khurmi & Gupta
(2006) [19], P. Kannaiah (2006) [18] [20] as bending failure (load failure), Pitting (contact stresses), scoring and
abrasive wear, in any case it is related to the loads acting on the gear and this research deals with the
Optimization of the gear design leading to the reduction in the load failure of the gears. Further, table.1 explains
the different areas of research carried out by different authors on Epicyclic gear trains. This study carried out in
this research shows the optimization analysis of the epicyclic gear train in INDIA to reduce load failure. The
analysis is restricted to the optimization of gear train through load analysis of the gears, pinions and annulus
including the sun and plant gears, and finding out the optimal load conditions for the gear train to perform
effectively without leading to load failure. Epicyclic Gear Trains have been used in Industry for their many
advantages which includes high torque capacity, comparatively smaller size, lower weight, improved efficiency
and highly compact package, however there has not been a comprehensive study of its load bearing performance
with respect to different parameters such as module, material, and power of the epicyclic gear trains [16] [17].
This research paper provides an attempt in filling that gap in aiming to get the epicyclic gear trains load
performance on different parameters. This process helps in finding the optimized design for the epicyclic gear
trains in which it has the best performance without any failure and with minimum Loads acting on the gears.
The main aim of this research investigation is to optimize the epicyclic gear train through load analysis, to
prevent load failure from happening in the future.

Keywords: - Optimization, Planetary Gear Trains, Tangential Tooth load, Wear tooth load, Dynamic tooth
load, Static tooth load

I. INTRODUCTION
A Planetary or Epicyclic Gear Trains comprises of one or more planet gears revolving around a sun
gear. Usually, an epicyclical gearing systems are employed to achieve high reduction ratio in a small and power
dense package. It is examined that load sharing capability is not equal in the planetary gear train. These Gear
Trains are extensively used for the transmission and are the most critical component in a mechanical power
transmission system. They play a very vital role in all the industrial areas, any failure in the gear train leads
to a total system failure, thus identifying the causes and optimizing to get the best performance is very
necessary. The advantages of epicyclic gear trains are higher torque capacity, lower weight, small size and
improved efficiency of the planetary design. As the weigh is 60%, and half the size of a conventional gear
box, it is very likely to have a misconception that it is not as strong. Thus the loads have to be minimum to
reduce the stresses in the gear train. The epicyclic gear train model is taken from BHEL, and some of its
parameters have been modified to optimize its performance. The gear train consists of five external gears and 4
internal annulus gears, including sun and planet gears forming an epicyclic gear train. The present work on
epicyclic gear trains carries out the design of all the gears, Shafts, keys and the loads are calculated for
individual gears in the epicyclic gear train system. The analysis is divided into three parts, in which the first

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
part, the power of 10HP is taken for the whole epicyclic gear train with four different modules (3, 4, 5, 6) for
four different loads Tangential Tooth Load (Wt), Dynamic Tooth Load (Wd), Static Tooth Load (Ws) and Wear
Tooth Load (Ww) with Cast Iron as the base material. The same process was conducted for the Power 15 HP
and 20 HP while keeping the other parameters (material/module-3, 4, 5, 6) as constant. As the condition was
stated that for preventing Gear failure the Static Tooth Load (Ws) and the dynamic Tooth Load (Wd) should be
greater than the Wear Tooth Load (Ww) [15] [19], This condition is analyzed for the entire gear train and
optimized for to get the least loads on the gears. As these Gear trains are subjected to high loads during their
operation they are subjected to high stresses in the process which may cause failure, thus calculating the loads
for different modules and for different power levels will show us the best optimized design of the gear train.
This paper shows the optimization of gear trains with varying the modules and power of the entire gear train.

Table.1 shows the prominent authors who contributed to the analysis of Gears
Author Description of the work carried out
S. Avinash [ 1 ] Load Sharing behavior in epicyclic gear trains
P. Sunyoung [ 17 ] Failure analysis of a planetary gear train
A. kiril [ 12 ] Alternative method for analysis of complex compound planetary gear train
C. Yuksel [ 7 ] Dynamis tooth load of planetary gear sets
M. Rameshkumar [ 16 ] Load Sharing analysis of High-Contract-Ratio in Spur Gear
B. Gupta [ 15 ] Contact stress analysis of spur gear
A.R. Hassan [14 ] Contact stress analysis of spur gear teeth pair

II. COMPUTATIONAL METHODOLOGY

The Compound Epicyclic Gear train in Fig.1 is taken from BHEL and the parameters are altered for the
optimization purposes. The Gears, arms, keys and annulus are designed in Solidworks which is shown in Fig.1
(a). Fig.1 (b) shows the general diagram showing all the positions of gears, annulus, shafts and arms. This model
of the epicyclic gear train failed due to the high loads acting on the gears. As we know that the gear is one of the
most critical components of the power transmission system, failure in the gear will affect the whole transmission
system and thus it is necessary to optimize the gear for low load operation and its effective delivery of power
transmission.
Loads in an epicyclic gear train are divided into four parts: Tangential Tooth Load (Wt), Static Tooth Load
(Ws), Dynamic Tooth Load (Wd) and Wear Tooth Load (Ww).

N
L K

Fig.1(a) Fig.1(b)
Fig.1 Figure shows the positions of all the internal and external gears including Sun and Plant Gears,
(a) Figure shows the Design made in Solidworks software after theoretical calculations, (b) Shows
the 2D representation of the Epicyclic gear trains showing all the Gears, Pinion, Annulus including
sun and planet gears

Module:-It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter (in millimeters) to the number of teeth. It is usually
denoted by m, where m = D / T D=Pitch Circle Diameter, T= Number of Teeth
The recommended series of modules in Indian Standard are 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25,

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
32, 40 and 50. The modules 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, 36 and 45 are of
second choice, from which modules 3, 4, 5 and 6 were selected for the design optimization of gears [18] [20].
Systems of Gear Teeth:-The following four systems of gear teeth are commonly used in practice. 14 ½°
Composite systems, 14 ½° Full depth involute systems, 20° Full depth involute system and 20° Stub involute
system. The tooth profile of the 20° full depth involute system may be cut by hobs. The increase of the pressure
angle from 14 ½° to 20° results in a stronger tooth, because the tooth acting as a beam is wider at the base. The
20° stub involute system has a strong tooth to take heavy loads, thus was selected [16] [15] [18].
Gear Material:-The materials which are used for the gears depend upon the service factor and strength
like wear or noise conditions etc, and they come in metallic and non-metallic form. For industrial purposes
metallic gears are used, commercially can be obtained in steel, cast iron and bronze. Among these Cast iron is
widely used because of its excellent wearing properties, in which Cast Iron with UTS 480 Mpa, Elongation 6-
16% was selected because of its long service life, high wear resistance, low production cost, high stability and
surface finish [17][13]

III. DESIGN AND LOAD OPTIMIZATION OF GEARS

The following are the sample design and load calculations for analysis of Gear-Z having module 4 and
power 10 HP, from the Epicyclic Gear train, in which the calculations of the four loads acting on the gears (
Tangential Tooth Load (Wt), Static Tooth Load (Ws), Dynamic Tooth Load (Wd) and Wear Tooth Load (Ww) )
are calculated, for the module-(4). The parameters for the gears are mentioned in Tables 2, 3 and 4. As the
below calculations are performed, similarly the calculations are done for the rest of the eight gears for modules
3, 4, 5 and 6. Now this process is repeated for Power 10HP, 15 HP, 20 HP. All the results are tabulated for
Table.6 to Table.14, and the Graphs are plotted from Graph.1 to Graph.9, showing the Load variance on the
different modules at different power levels.

DESIGN OF Z -GEAR (pinion):

Teeth of Gear Z(TZ )=30; Diameter of Gear Z (DZ )=120 mm = 0.12 m; Speed of Gear Z (NZ)=1500 r.p.m
𝜋𝐷 𝑍 𝑁𝑍
Pitch Line Velocity 𝑉 = 60 = (π x 0.12 x 1500) / 60 = 9.4247 m/s
Tangential Load( WT):- Tangential tooth load is also called the beam strength of the tooth. It is the load acting
perpendicular to the radial tooth load (Wr) and normal tooth load (Wn) [16] [18] as shown in the fig.3

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Fig.2 Shows the tangential tooth load direction on the gear tooth profile

𝑃 7500
𝑊𝑇 = 𝑉 × 𝐶𝑆 = (9.4247 ) x 1.5 = 1193.671 N

Where WT = Permissible tangential tooth load in N, P = Power transmitted in watts, v = Pitch line velocity in
𝜋𝐷𝑁
m/s; 60 , D = Pitch circle diameter in m, N = Speed in r.p.m., and CS = Service factor ( Cs is taken from the
Table.5 )

Table.5 Shows Service Factor (Cs) for different loads

Applying Lewis Equation [15] [16] [18]

WT = σW × b× Pc ×.y Where σW=Permissible working stress, b=Gear tooth face width,
Pc=Circular Pitch = π × m (module), y=Lewis form factor
σW = σO x CV Where σO=Allowable Static Stress, Cv= Velocity Factor, σO = 90 N/mm2 as material was
nodular Cast iron)
CV = (4.58) / (4.58+V) = 0.327 Where V= Pitch Line Velocity (9.4247 m/s)
y = 0.154 - (0.912 / TZ) = 0.1236 Where Tz = Teeth of Gear Z
PC = π x m = π x 4
Substituting the values in the equation
 1193.671 = 90 x 0.327 x b x 𝜋 x 4 x 0.1236
 b = 26.11 mm

Dynamic Tooth Load (WD):- The dynamic tooth loads act due to inaccuracies in tooth spacing, tooth profiles
and deflection of tooth under loads [18]. The formulae for (WD) is given below as
WD = WT + WI Where WD=Total Dynamic Tooth Load, WT =Steady Load due to transmitted torque,
WI=Increment Load due to dynamic action.
WT = (P / V) = (7500 / 9.4247) = 795.781 N Where P=Power, V= Pitch line velocity
𝐾 ×𝑉(𝑏 ×𝐶+𝑊𝑇 )
WI = 3
𝐾3 ×𝑉+(𝑏×𝐶+𝑊𝑇 )
Where (K3 = 20.67), V=Pitch line velocity, b=face width (mm), C=Deformation factor (n/mm) [18]
𝑒
𝐶= 1 1 Where e=Tooth error (mm), K1= Factor of Gear Teeth for 20 0 full involute system,
𝐾1 [ + ]
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑔
Ep=Module of elasticity of Pinion, Eg= Module of elasticity of Gear, (K1=9; EP= EG=164000 N/mm2) [18]
C = 0.127 / 9 (1/ 164000) + (1/ 164000) C = 115.711 N/ mm Subtituting all the results in WI
20.67x 9.4247 (26.11 x 115 .711 + 795.781 )
WI = 20.67x 9.4247 + (26.11 x 115 .711 + 795.781 ) = 2897.939 N Substituting WT, WI in WD
 WD = 795.781 + 2897.939 = 3693.72 N
Static Tooth Load ( WS ):- The static tooth load (beam strength or endurance strength of the tooth) is derived
from lewis formula with the substitution of elastic limit stress (e) instead of Permissible working stress (w). It
is said that for preventing tooth breakage (Ws) should be greater than Dynamic tooth load (Wd).
WS = e× b× PC.× y Where e = Elastic limit stress (e = 175 N/mm2), b= Face width, PC= Circular pitch (π x 4
) y=Lewis form factor [18]

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
WS = 175 x 26.11 x (π x 4) x 0.1236 = 7096.974 N
Wear Tooth Load (WW):- It is maximum load that a gear tooth can carry without premature wear. It depends
upon the curvature of tooth profile, elasticity and surface fatigue limit of the gear material. It uses Buckingham
equation [18] [16].
WW = DZ. b .Q .K Where DZ = Pitch circle diameter of Gear Z, b= Face width, Q = Ratio factor for external or
internal gears, K = Load stress factor or material combination factor TG= Teeth of Gear, TP = Teeth of pinion
Q = (2TG) / (TG + TP) = (2 x 45) / (45 + 30) = 1.2
K = 2es x sin / 1.4 (1/EP) + (1/EG) Where  = Surface endurance limit, =Pressure angle, EP= Young
modulus of elasticity of Pinion, EG= Young modulus of elasticity of Gear
K = 6302 x sin 20 / 1.4(1/164000) + (1/164000) = 1.1824 N/mm2 Substituting the values in WW
 WW = 120 x 26.11 x 1.2 x 1.1824 = 4445.634 N
The results of the four loads derived for the Gear–Z can be seen in Table.6 and Graph.1, in power 10HP for
module4. Similarly the loads for rest of the eight gears for module 3, 4, 5 and 6 for the power 10 HP, 15 HP and
20 HP respectively can be inferred from Tables 6 to 14 and Graphs 1 to 9.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

As the resulting loads are calculated for the Gear-Z of Epicyclic Gear Train having module 4, similarly
the four loads WT, WD, WS, WW are calculated for all the rest of the eight Gears and Annulus including sun and
planet gears. This process is repeated for different modules (3, 4, 5, 6) with all the 9 Gears in the Epicyclic Gear
Train. Now this whole procedure is conducted for three different power levels (10 HP, 15 HP, 20 HP). All the
results are tabulated and graphs are plotted accordingly from Table.6 to Table.14 and from Graph.1 to Graph.9.
Where the condition is that’’ For safety against tooth breakage, the Static Tooth Load (Ws) should always be
greater than Dynamic tooth load (Wd), also the Dynamic tooth load (Wd) should not be more than the wear
tooth load (Ww) otherwise the gear will fail [18], also the least loads are observed for all the Gears to get the
optimized design in the Epicyclic Gear Train. Below are the graphs plotted for the loads where
P=Power (HP); M=Module; Loads (N) Wt = Tangential Tooth Load; Wd = Dynamic Tooth Load; Ws = Static
Tooth Load; Ww = Wear tooth Load

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

As all the loads (Wt, Wd, Ws and Ww) were calculated for the gears it was seen that static tooth load (Ws) and
wear tooth load (Ww) were greater than dynamic tooth load (Wd) for all the gears and thus the design of the
Gear train is safe. It is observed that in the Sun Gears (Z, X, Y), the least loads can be seen at the module 6, but
of the plant gears and annuluses the least loads were observed at module 3.

V. CONCLUSION
The purpose of this research paper is to determine the optimal design of the gear train with the load
analysis carried out in the gear trains by varying the module (3, 4, 5, 6) for all the gears for three different power
levels 10 HP, 15 HP and 20HP. On further examination of the loads for the gears which were plotted from Table
6 to 14 and Graphs 1 to 9, we can notice that the Wear tooth load (Ww) for all the gears in the gear train is
higher than the Dynamic tooth load (Wd), and the Dynamic Tooth load (Wd) is less than Static tooth load (Ws)
for all the gears in the system. As this condition has to be true for safety against tooth failure, thus we can state
that the design is safe. We can observe in Graphs Z, Y and X that the loads are decreasing as the module is
increasing and the least load is observed on module 6, as those are the sun gears in the gear train. Also it is
observed that the rest of the gears and annulus in graphs K, R, L, Q, N and P that the loads are increasing as the
module increases and the lease load is observed on module 3. This was seen consistent with the power level
10HP, 15 HP and 20 HP. Furthermore it is also observed that in Graphs Q, P and R, the wear tooth load is
greater than the static tooth load which is why the teeth of the annuls should be of a higher wear resistant

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
material like cast iron as was suggested in section II of this research paper. Thus as the design satisfy the
condition that Static Tooth Load (Ws ) should always be greater than the Dynamic Tooth Load ( Wd ) also the
Wear tooth load ( Ww ) should not be less than the Dynamic tooth load ( Wd ), the proposed design is safe and
the least load conditions being at the least module (3, in this condition) is preferred for the annulus design and
the planet gears where as a higher module (6, in this condition) is preferred for the sun gears design for all
power levels.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are thankful to BHEL for their constant support and encouragement in carrying out this research on
Epicyclic Gear Trains.

VII. FUTURE SCOPE

The Research could be further extended through further optimization by varying different materials,
also taking into consideration the working conditions and different gears (helical, worm etc.). The loads with
different materials could be further analyzed and compared with the practical loads and stresses derived on the
site.

REFERENCES
[1] S. Avinash, Load sharing behavior in epicyclic gears: Physical explanation and generalized formulation, Mechanism
and Machine Theory, 45(3), 2010, 511-530.
[2] G. Cockerham, D. Waite, Computer- aided Design of Spur or Helical Gear Trains, Computer-Aided Design, 8(2),
1976, 84-88.
[3] Chinwal Lee, Fred B. Oswald, Dennis P. Townsend and Hsiang His Lin, Influence of Linear Profile Modification and
Loading Conditions on The Dynamic Tooth Load and Stress of High-Contact-Ratio Spur Gears, Journal Of
Mechanical Design, 133(4), 1990, 473-480.
[4] V. Daniele, Tooth contact analysis of misaligned isostatic planetary gear train, Mechanism and Machine Theory,
41(6), 2006, 617-631.
[5] Y. Hong-Sen, L. Ta-Shi, Geometry design of an elementary planetary gear train with cylindrical tooth profiles,
Mechanisma and Machine Theory, 37(8), 2002, 757-767.
[6] D. Mundo, Geometric Design of a planetary gear train with non-circular gears, Mechanism and Machine Theory,
41(4), 2006, 456-472.
[7] C. Yuksel, A. Kahraman, Dynamic tooth loads of planetary gear sets having tooth profile wear, Mechanism and
Machine Theory, 39(7), 2004, 697-715.
[8] B. Cheon-Jae, P. G. Robert, Analytical investigation of tooth profile modification effects on planetary gear dynamics,
Mechanism and Machine Theory, 70(1), 2013, 298-319.
[9] M. Roland, R. Yves, Kinematic and Dynamic simulation of epicyclic gear trains, Mechanisa and Machine Theory,
44(2), 209, 412-424.
[10] S. Avinash, Epicyclic Load Sharing Map – Development and Validation, Mechanism and Machine Theory, 46(5),
2011, 632-646.
[11] L. Jinming, P.Huei, A Systamatic Design Approach for two planetary gear split hybrid vehicles, International journal
of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility, 48(1), 2010, 1395-1412.
[12] A. Kiril, K. Dimitar, Alternative Method for analysis of complex compound planetary gear trains: Essence and
possibilities, Mechanisms and Machine Science, 13(1), 2013, 3-20.
[13] G. Madhusudhan, C.R. Vijayasimha, Approach to spur gear design, Computer-Aided Design, 19(10), 1987, 555-559.
[14] A. Hassan, Contact stress analysis of spur gear teeth pair, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology,
58(1), 2009, 611-616.
[15] B. Gupta, A. Choubey, V. Gautam, Contract Stress analysis of Spur gear, International Journal of Engineering
Research & Technology, 1(4), 2012, 2278-0181.
[16] M. RameshKumar, P. Sivakumar, S. Sundaresh, K. Gopinath, Load sharing Analysis of High-Contact-Ratio spur
Gear in Military Tracked Vehicle Applications, Gear Technology, 1(3), 2010, 43-50.
[17] P. Sunyoung, J. Lee, U. Moon, D. Kim, Failure analysis of planetary gear carrier of 1200 HP transmission,
Engineering Failure Analysis, 17(1), 2010, 521-529.
[18] M.M. Gitin, Handbook of Gear Design (Tata Mc Graw-Hill Education, 1994)
[19] M.W. Herbert, Epicyclic Drive trains: Analysis, Synthesis, and Applications ( Wayne State University Press, 1982)
[20] R. August, Dynamics of early planetary gear trains ( National Aeronautics and Space Administration-NASA, 2010)
[21] J.R. Davis, Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture (ASM International, 2005)
[22] P. Kannaiah, Design of Machine Elements (Scitech Publications Pvt Ltd, 2006)
[23] R.S Khurmi, J.K. Gupta, Machine Design ( Eurasia Plublications Pvt Ltd, 2006)
[24] P. Kannaiah, N. Sidheswar, V.V.S. Sastry, Machine Drawing (Tata McGraw-Hill, 2009)
[25] J.A. Collins, H.R. Busby, G.H. Staab, Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines (John Wiley & Sons,
2010)

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-154-159
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Inrush Current Limitation in Wind Generators by SCR Based

Soft-starter during grid connection
Sanjay Mishra1, Prof. S Debdas2 ,Prof. Y Kashyap3
1
(M.Tech-EEE, DIMAT Raipur/CSVTU Bhilai, ,India)
2
(HOD & Prof.-EEE, DIMAT Raipur/CSVTU Bhilai, ,India)
3
(Prof.-EEE, DIMAT Raipur/CSVTU Bhilai, ,India)

Abstract: -High Inrush current & harmonics is a generic problem wind generators during grid connection.
The designed SCR based soft-starter successfully limits the high inrush current during the connection of the
wind-turbine system to the grid. The proposed SCR based soft starter using will be simulating in PSCAD on a
three-phase induction generator. Expected results will show a significant reduction in high inrush current and
smooth connection of the three phase induction generator to the grid with small impact on the power quality. A
small-scale wind turbine coupled three phase induction generator is an attractive choice for an isolated grid
hybrid power system in remote areas because of its low cost, compactness, ruggedness, high reliability, low
inertia and ease in control. In this work, a SCR based soft starter for limiting the high inrush current during the
connection of the small-scale wind turbine coupled three phase induction generator to an isolated weak grid has
been proposed. Soft-starter is designed to reduce inrush current or surge in current while achieving a proper
synchronism between the generator and the grid.

Keywords: - Control system, Grid, PSCAD, SCR, Soft starter, Wind Turbine.

I. INTRODUCTION
The vast majority of the wind turbines in the world are equipped with grid-connected induction generators.
Single phase or three-phase squirrel cage rotor type induction generators are preferred rather than synchronous
generators because of their cost-effectiveness, robustness, compactness, ruggedness, low inertia and the need of
little maintenance [1]. For large scale distributed power supply three-phase induction generators are extensively
used. Directly connected induction generator based wind turbines of more than 800 KW are normally equipped
with soft-starter to limit massive inrush current to the supply and to connect the system smoothly to the grid
without massive mechanical shocks or vibrations that could damage the gear box, bearings and the couplings
[2]. In paper [1-5, 7] a few techniques for the soft starter of induction generator has proposed and implemented.
Soft-starters based on semiconductor devices such as thyristors, triacs, IGBTs and power resistors have been
described in paper [2-5]. All of the soft-connection strategies are done for either three phase large induction
machines or for single phase motors. Past research indicates that soft-starters are widely used during the start up
of induction motors/AC motors in industrial drives applications [8], [9], [10], [11], [12] to reduce mechanical
stresses on the drive system and electrical stresses on the electrical supply. In wind power applications, directly
connected squirrel cage induction generator needs to be equipped with soft-starter to minimize the effect on
wind turbine generation system during the process of connecting of the wind turbine system to the grid [13],
[14], [15], [16]. As the self-excited induction generator of a fixed-speed wind turbine is directly connected to the
grid, a soft-starter is used to reduce the inrush current during connection. There are few techniques have been
found in the literature which are extensively used as a soft-starter in wind power generation system. A 20 kW
Gazelle wind turbine [21] has been commercialized by Gazelle Wind Turbines Ltd which uses SCR based soft-
starter to reduce the inrush current during synchronism. The above recommended soft-connection strategies
have been used for 15kW or more rated wind energy conversion system. However further research and
development is needed to be extended on soft-connection strategy for 3kW or less rated wind turbine system to
provide the quality power to the grid and also to reduce the electrical and mechanical stresses on the entire

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
system. Direct connection of the induction generator to the grid results in high inrush currents, which are
undesirable particularly in the case of weak grids and can also cause severe torque pulsations and probably
damage to the gearbox, High inrush current during grid connection with induction generator,Massive
mechanical shocks or vibrations during interfacing of induction generator Development of transient &
Harmonics. Connection and disconnection of electrical equipment in general and induction generators/motors
especially, gives rise to so called transients, that is short duration very high inrush currents causing both
disturbances to the grid and high torque spikes in the drive train of a WT with a directly connected induction
generator. Its disturbances to the grid during switching operations and exerted Load on the gearbox. The voltage
changes due to the inrush current of a switching and the flicker effect of the switching.

II. SOFT STARTING TECHNIQUE

Design of Soft Starter
A soft-starter is a device used with AC electric motors/generators to temporarily reduce the load and torque in
the power train of the machine during start up. It decreases the mechanical stress on the motor and the shaft, as
well as the electro dynamic stresses on the attached power cables and electrical distribution network. Thus it
helps in extending the life span of the system. In figure, a typical connection circuit of a small scale variable
speed wind turbine with three phase induction generator to an isolated grid is presented. The main purpose of
the soft-starter is to create electrical isolation between the wind turbine system and the grid for a very short time
to limit the starting high inrush current of the induction generator during the transient period. After that transient
period, the wind turbine system is directly connected to the grid through the bypass switch.
2

BRK_SW
T
2

FP3
FP2
2

BRK_SW
T
2

FP5
FP4
2

BRK_SW
T
2

FP6
BRK
ILa
A Ea

ILb
N1 B Eb N2

ILc
C Ec

Fig.1 SCR Based soft starter-Model in PSCAD.

The soft starter has a limited thermal capacity and is short circuited by a contactor able to carry the full
load current when connection to the grid has been completed. In addition to reducing the impact on the grid, the
soft starter also effectively dampens the torque peaks in the air gap of the generator associated with the peak
currents and hence reduces the loads on the gearbox.

Developing the model in PSCAD simulating tool

Induction Generator
2.5 MVA Machine

W
0.0 Vrm s
IM BRK 0.0001 [H]
S
0 A
Motor V
T
Twind
Grid

Wind Source Wind Turbine

Mean MOD 2 Type
ES Vw Vw Tm
ES Vw
W P

Actual hub s peed

of m achine Beta

Fig.2 Wind mill with grid-Model in PSCAD.

Wind Turbine & soft starter model in PSCAD simulating tool

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

Vin
W
0.0
IM Breaker 0.0001 [H]
S
0 A
Motor V
Twind -1 T
*
2.5 MVA Machine 3 MVA network

Fig.3 Wind mill & soft Starter with grid-Model in PSCAD.

Inrush current without soft starter

Current Graph
Ia Ib Ic
2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50
Current (kA)

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50

-2.00
Time 4.90 5.00 5.10 5.20 5.30 5.40 5.50 5.60 5.70 5.80 ...
...
...

Fig.4 Inrush Current without soft starter

Control of firing angle of SCR in soft starter

Gate Pulses of SCRs in soft starter

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Gate Pulses
FP1 FP2
1.75
F iring pulse

-0.50
FP3 FP4
F iring pulse

0.0

FP5 FP6
1.75
F iring pulse

-0.20
Time S 0.975 1.000 1.025 1.050 1.075 1.100 1.125 1.150 1.175 1.200 1.225 ...
...
...

Fig.5 Gate Pulses of SCRs in soft starter

Voltage Graph with soft starter

Main : Graphs
Vin
20.0

15.0

10.0
Voltage (KV)

5.0

0.0

-5.0

-10.0

-15.0
Time 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 ...
...
...
Fig. 6 Voltage Graph with soft starter

Inrush Current with soft starter

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Three phase current
Instantaneous current
100

75

50
25
Current(KA)

-25

-50
-75

-100

-125

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 ...

...
...

Fig.7 Inrush Current limited with SCR soft starter

Real Power, Reactive Power & Speed – Toruqe Characteristics of Wind Poly phase Generator

Main : Graphs
REAL POWER GEN REACTIVE POWER GEN
2.5k
2.0k
Pow er (MW ,MVAR )

1.5k
1.0k
0.5k
0.0
-0.5k
OMEGA MECH. TORQUE
1.20
Speed and T orque (pu)

1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
-0.20

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 ...

...
...
Fig. 8 Real Power, Reactive Power, Speed & Torque Graphs in PSCAD.

III. CONCLUSIONS
This paper describes the design, selection strategy, operation and some test results of a SCR based soft
starter for a polyphase induction-generator based grid connected wind turbine with graphical representation of
Voltage, Current Power & Speed & Torque of Poly phase induction generator, The Modelling has been done in
PSCAD simulation tool. The data has been collected from wind farms & Tech. Specifications of Suzlons. The
soft-starter setup is much cheaper which is a good technical benefit for small induction generator based wind
turbines.

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IV. AKNOWLEDGEMENT
I hereby declare this research paper is totally genuine & is being done by me under supervision & kind support
by Prof.. S Debdas, Prof. Yashwant Kashyap & Prof. Shankar Warathe and my parents.

REFERENCES
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Thiringer, T. Author Affiliation: Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg. Sweden
[4] Florin Iov, Frede Blaabjerg, Zhe Chen Aalborg University, Institute of Energy Technology
Pontoppidanstraede 101, DK-9220 Aalborg East, Denmark
[5] Adel Gastli, Senior Member, IEEE, and Mohamed Magdy Ahmed, Member, IEEE
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470
[7] G Torbjorn Thiringer, “Grid-friendly connecting of constant speed wind turbines using external
resistors”, IEEE transactions on energy conversion,Vol. 17, No. 4, December 2002..
[8] F. Iov, Hansen, F. Blaabjerg, Remus Teodorescu, “Modeling of softstarters for wind turbine
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[10] Gastli and M.M. Ahmed, “ANN-based soft starting of voltage controlled fed IM drive system”, IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 497-503, Sept. 2005. T. Ahmed, K. Ogura, K. Soshin, E.
Hiraki and M. Nakaoka, “Smallscale wind turbine coupled single-phase self-excited induction generator
with svc for isolated renewable energy utilization”, PEDS 2003, vol. 1, pp 781-786
[11] A. Gastli and M.M. Ahmed, “ANN-based soft starting of voltage controlled fed IM drive system”, IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 497-503, Sept. 2005.
[12] T. Ahmed, K. Ogura, K. Soshin, E. Hiraki and M. Nakaoka, “Smallscale wind turbine coupled single-
phase self-excited induction generator with svc for isolated renewable energy utilization”, PEDS 2003,
vol. 1, pp 781-786
[13] Wei Gu, Jianxin Chu, Shihong Gan, “Starting Performance Research of a High-power Middle-voltage
Induction Motor Soft Starter Based on the On-off Transformer”, IEEE ISIE 2006, July 9-12,
2006,Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
[14] M. Ayyub, “ANFIS based soft-starting and speed control of AC voltage controller fed Induction motor”,
IEEE Power India Conference, 10-12 April, 2006.
[15] J. Wu, R. Zhao, Z. Shang, “The design of soft starter for AC motors based on single neuron PI
regulator”, Intelligent Control and Automation, WCICA 2006, Vol. 1, pp. 3009-3013, 21-23 June,2006.
[16] A. Gastli and M.M. Ahmed, “ANN-based soft starting of voltage controlled fed IM drive system”, IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 497-503, Sept. 2005..
[17] D. Gritter, D. Wang and Habetler, “Soft starter inside delta motor modeling and its control”, IEEE
Industry Applications Conference, vol. 2, pp. 1137 - 1141, 8-12 Oct. 2000.
[18] B. Lemstrm, J. Rkklinen, and E. Peltola, “A wind farm’s impact on the quality of electricity in a weak
network”, In Proc. Eur. Wind Energy Conf., Nice, France, Mar. 1-5, 1999, pp. 747-749.
[19] G. Gerdes, F. Santjer, and R. Klosse, “Overview and development of procedures on power quality
measurements of wind turbines”, in Proc. Eur. Wind Energy Conf., , Dublin, Ireland, Oct. 1997, pp. 716-
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[20] A. Larsson, “Guidelines for grid connection of wind turbines”, in Proc. 15th Int. Conf. Electricity Dist.,
Nice, France, June 1-4, 1999.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-160-172
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Multi performance characteristic optimization of shot peening

process for AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel using grey relational
analysis with principal component analysis and Taguchi method
Dr. Lakhwinder Singh1, Dr. RA Khan2 and Dr. ML Aggarwal3
1
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, YMCA University of Science & Technology,
Faridabad -121006, Haryana , India.
2
Retd. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-110025
3
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, YMCA University of Science & Technology, Faridabad -
121006, Haryana , India.

Abstract: - Shot peening is a cold working process. It impact on thin surface layer of the material and is used to
enhance the mechanical and surface properties. The manufacturer is in demand to reduce the cost and improve
the process productivity. He is always in search of an optimization technique which involves multiple
performance characteristics. From this work, an optimal combination of shot peening parameters is generated by
using a Grey relational analysis (GRA) with Principal component analysis (PCA) and Taguchi method. The
present study shows that there are many factors that affect the properties of the AISI 304 austenitic stainless
steel. Mechanisms to compensate for surface tractions and further enhancement of mechanical properties are
described. The shot peening is discussed to enhance the mechanical and surface properties of AISI 304
austenitic stainless steel. The optimization of shot pening process is done by including multi performance
characteristics i.e. tensile strength, surface hardness an fatigue strengths. The analysis includes pressure, shot
size, exposure time, nozzle distance and nozzle angle as process parameters. The complete analysis will be
helpful to the manufacturer in deciding the shot peening parameters for required performance characteristics.

Keywords: - ANOVA, Austenitic stainless steel, Gray relational analysis (GRA), optimization, shot peening.

I. INTRODUCTION
The austenitic stainless steel is used in verity of applications due to its corrosion resistance, ductility,
good weldability and resistance to high and low operating temperatures [1].The main constituents for austenitic
stainless steel are chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and aluminium. Chromium makes the surface passive by
forming a surface oxide film [2, 3], which protects the underlying metal from corrosion. This is because when
the metal is scratched; the oxide layer re-forms quickly, hence protecting it from corrosion. However, chromium
is a ferrite stabilizer. To counteract this, nickel is added as an austenite stabilizer, so that the microstructure at
ambient temperature remains as austenitic [4].The heat treatment processes make austenitic stainless steel
soften. Further the addition of carbon results in sensitization. Austenitic stainless steel is usually cold worked to
enhance the mechanical properties [5, 6, 7]. Kirk and Payne [5] concluded in their work that martensite
formation was easily induced by plastic deformation in austenitic stainless steel.
Many researchers found that shot peening can improve the mechanical properties the material [6, 7].
Shot peening is one of the most versatile tool to strengthen the metal parts against tensile strength, impact
strength, surface hardness, compressive residual stress, damping, surface roughness, fatigue failure and
corrosion. The induction of compressive residual stress in the thin skin layer of the surface results in the
improvement of mechanical and surface properties. Shot peening is used now days in hundreds of different
components of automobiles, aircraft and marine industries like railway and automobile leaf spring, helical
spring, gears, axle bearing, crankshafts, milling cutters, connecting rod, cylinder block, valve springs, washers
etc.

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The controlled shot peening parameters helps in enhancing the surface and mechanical properties of the
material. T. Dorr et. al. and M. Obata et. al. discussed the increase in surface hardness and surface roughness
with increase in shot size and the peening intensity [8, 9]. K.B. Prakash et. al. have made study on shot peening
for precision-machined steels with high strength to weight ratio [10]. As per the guidelines given by Champaine
[11], the exposure time is an important factor to achieve desired peening coverage for the material. Sharma and
Mubeen [12] investigated the effect of shot size on peening intensity. They guided the selection of correct size
for shots to obtain desired intensity of shot peening. Sharma et. al. [13] presented a detailed discussion on
development of various methods of controlling shot peening parameters. Schulze [14] discussed the
characteristics of surface layer produced by shot peening.
Only a few authors have used the design of experiment (DoE) technique with a specialized single-ball
controlled shot peening machine. The Taguchi method [15, 16] is a systematic tool for designing and analyzing
the experiments for improving product quality. However, it is found that with Taguchi Method only a single
performance characteristic is optimized. Phadke et. al. [17] suggested that the optimization of multi performance
characteristics became difficult by Taguchi method. Deng [18, 19] proposed that grey relational analysis (GRA)
is a part of grey system theory for the optimization of multi performance characteristics. Jeyapaul et al.
suggested several modifications to the original Taguchi method for multi performance characteristic’s
optimization such as principal component analysis (PCA), data envelopment analysis (DEA) and GRA [20]. In
recent years, GRA has become a powerful tool to analyze the processes with multiple performance
characteristics. Chen et. al. [21], Bin et. al. [22] and Hsiao et. al. [23] are making use of GRA in many
applications. Hence in view of all, it is necessary to perform a comprehensive investigations using GRA so as to
evaluate the effect of shot peening parameters on surface integrity aspects such as tensile strength, surface
hardness and fatigue strength of the material.
This paper proposes a novel design concept evaluation method based on GRA including Taguchi
analysis and PCA to optimize the shot peening process for AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel. Effects of process
parameters such as pressure, shot size, exposure time, nozzle distance and nozzle angle on tensile strength,
surface hardness and fatigue strength were investigated and then process is optimized by using the approach.
The performance characteristics considered for material are as tensile strength, surface hardness, and fatigue
strength. The investigation is helpful to the manufacturers for reduction of cost, performance variation and scrap
to increase productivity.

II. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

The material AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel was used for various tests. The composition of the
material is shown in Table 1. A flat plate having thickness of 10mm was used for making the specimens for
various tests. The mechanical properties of the material were: tensile strength 617MPa, fatigue strength 228MPa
and surface hardness 271VHN.

Table 1: Chemical composition (wt %) of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel.

Austenitic
C Si Mn P S Ni Cr Mo V
stainless steel
AISI 304 0.08 0.57 1.6 0.021 0.02 9.83 18.78 0.25 0.07

Fig. 1: Specimen for tensile test (all dimensions in mm).

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L
R
R

W
T
T = 5mm W = 2.6T L = 3.23W R= 117 mm
Fig. 2: ASTM flat specimen for fatigue strength.

The dimension of specimen for tensile strength test is shown in Fig. 1. These specimens were required
to perform the tensile test at different process parameter levels. Tensile testing was carried out at room
temperature using a universal testing machine of type HEICO HL 590.15 having capacity 400kN with 5mm/min
cross-head speed.
Vickers hardness test was carried on the surface of specimens. The hardness measurements were
performed on specimens of 20mm by 60mm by 10mm thickness using WOLPERT universal hardness testing
machine dia tester – 2, model 2RC. The average values of three readings of surface hardness were taken for
different peening parameters.
The fatigue life of the shot peened specimens was tested by an axial fatigue-testing machine. Stress
ratio (R) equal to 0.1 was used during fatigue testing. The dimension of specimen for plotting S-N curve is
shown in Fig. 2. The dimensions of the specimens were according to the ASTM standards. Fifteen specimens
were tested in order to plot an S/N curve. Only the average points were presented for each level. The specimens
were testing in axial fatigue testing machine MTS model 810, at a frequency 30Hz, at room temperature. The
other specifications of the machine are:
Type : Servo hydraulic system
Force Capacity : + 285 kN
Column space : 460 mm
Test space : 978 mm

III. ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

In modern industry the goal of an engineer is to manufacture low cost, high quality products in short
duration of time. It is always necessary to produce a component with higher stress to weight ratio. Shot peening
is a low cost cold working process used to enhance the mechanical and surface properties of AISI 304 austenitic
stainless steel. Moreover, in order to produce any product with desired performance characteristics by shot
peening process, the shot peening parameters should be selected properly.

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Fig. 3: Flow chart for analyzing process parameters of shot peening process for multi performance characteristics.

The present analysis proposes a novel design method based on GRA with PCA and Taguchi method to
select the best combination of shot peening parameters to optimize the performance characteristics of AISI 304
austenitic stainless steel. The optimization of process parameters such as pressure, shot size, exposure time,
nozzle distance and nozzle angle for performance characteristics are investigated by using the approach. The
flow chart for analyzing and modeling of performance characteristics is shown in Fig. 3. The results of this
analysis can be used by the engineers who are willing to search for an optimal solution of shot peening process
of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel.

IV. SELECTION OF SHOT PEENING PARAMETERS

It is viewed that the parameters like coverage, shot velocity, shot intensity etc. are controlled by the air
pressure, type of nozzle, exposure time, nozzle distance and feed rate. Therefore with reference to literature
[24] and basic experimental results the present investigation involves pressure, shot size, exposure time, nozzle
distance and nozzle angle the process parameters which are considerably affecting the shot peening process. In
shot peening process the parameters are divided into two categories one is controlled before the start of the
process i.e. shot size and nozzle angle and the remaining are evaluated after shot peening process i.e. intensity,
saturation, coverage etc. The desired magnitude of intensity, saturation, velocity and coverage are controlled by
the air pressure, shot mass flow rate, nozzle type, feed rate of the nozzle along the work piece, nozzle distance
from the work piece, and the work piece table speed. Therefore in the present investigation pressure, shot size,
exposure time, nozzle distance and nozzle angle are the controllable influential process parameters under
consideration. These shot peening parameters along with their levels are shown in Table 2.

An air-blast shot peening machine was used for shot peening of the specimens. Spherical cast steel shots were
used as a shot peening media. The hardness of shots was 56HRC to 60HRC.

Design of experiments (DoE)

The design of experiment was based on full factorial design considering five factors each at three
levels. An orthogonal array is a fractional factorial matrix that ensures a balanced comparison of levels of any
parameter. In the present analysis a L27 orthogonal array is used. For three levels of each five factors there are
27 runs. The experimental results for tensile strength (TS), surface hardness (VHN) and fatigue strength (FS) are
depicted in Table 3 for different 27 runs.

Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio

Taguchi method is used to determine signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. It is used to represent a performance
characteristic and the largest value of S/N ratio is always desired. In this method, there are three types of S/N
ratios i.e. the lower-the-better, the higher-the-better, and the nominal-the-better.
In the present analysis S/N ratio with a higher-the-better characteristic is used, that can be expressed as:

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 
1 r 1 
(S/N)HB = -10 Log  2  (1)
r i 1 yi
 
 
where:
yi = value of the performance characteristic in observation i
r = number of repetitions in a trial
The results of S/N ratios for different performance characteristics are shown in Table 4.

Grey relational analysis (GRA) with Principal component analysis (PCA)

7.1 Grey relational coefficients
The GRA is employed to analyze the complicated inter-relationships between the S/N ratios of
performance characteristics. A linear normalization of the S/N ratio is performed in the range between zero and
unity. The normalized S/N ratio yij for the ith performance characteristic in the jth experiment can be expressed
by equation (2). The normalized matrix is represented in Table 5.

Table 3: Experimental results for different shot peening parameters.

Exp. No. P S T D E TS VHN FS
1 1 1 1 1 1 760.8 361.2 270.5
2 1 1 1 1 2 778.4 381.4 281.3
3 1 1 1 1 3 793.5 390.6 295.6
4 1 2 2 2 1 790.4 370.1 292.4
5 1 2 2 2 2 802.5 382.7 301.8
6 1 2 2 2 3 815.6 395.4 315.2
7 1 3 3 3 1 799.1 360.4 282.6
8 1 3 3 3 2 825.1 381.1 291.3
9 1 3 3 3 3 840.7 395.7 305.1
10 2 1 2 3 1 722.5 370.5 267.3
11 2 1 2 3 2 738.3 386.4 278.2
12 2 1 2 3 3 750.4 397.6 289.6
13 2 2 3 1 1 805.7 391.2 295.6
14 2 2 3 1 2 815.8 403.1 318.2
15 2 2 3 1 3 826.9 415.2 310.3
16 2 3 1 2 1 685.8 355.9 245.7
17 2 3 1 2 2 698.3 375.8 258.4
18 2 3 1 2 3 720.6 381.3 264.6
19 3 1 3 2 1 788.6 390.8 280.8
20 3 1 3 2 2 800.1 412.3 320.5
21 3 1 3 2 3 835.7 419.8 308.2
22 3 2 1 3 1 670.5 362.4 239.1
23 3 2 1 3 2 681.4 377.2 252.4
24 3 2 1 3 3 695.3 389.7 261.3
25 3 3 2 1 1 740.8 399.1 258.1
26 3 3 2 1 2 750.3 416.2 272.6
27 3 3 2 1 3 758.8 426.8 283.8

yij  min j yij

Larger-the-better x' i ( j )  (2)
max j yij  min j yij

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Now from the normalized matrix a reference value is determined as the largest value of normalized value for
each criterion.

x' 0 ( j )  max i
n
1 x'i ( j ) (3)

The next step is to construct the difference matrix by taking the difference between the normalized entity and
reference value.

 oi ( j ) | x' o ( j )  x'i ( j ) | (4)

Afterwards the grey relational coefficients are determined by using equation (5) and they are presented in Table
6. It represents the relationship between the desired and actual experimental results.

min in1 min mj1  oi ( j )    max in1 max mj1  oi ( j )

 oi ( j )  (5)
 oi ( j )    max in1 max mj1  oi ( j )

where δ ( 0 ≤ δ ≤ 1) is the distinguishing coefficient or the index for distinguishability and δ takes the value of
0.5 because this value usually provides moderate distinguishing effects and good stability.

Table 4: Data for S/N ratios of performance characteristics.

Exp. No. S/NTS S/NVHV S/NFS
1 57.6254 51.1550 48.6433
2 57.8241 51.6276 48.9834
3 57.9909 51.8346 49.4141
4 57.9569 51.3664 49.3195
5 58.0889 51.6572 49.5944
6 58.2295 51.9407 49.9717
7 58.0520 51.1357 49.0234
8 58.3301 51.6208 49.2868
9 58.4928 51.9473 49.6888
10 57.1768 51.3758 48.5400
11 57.3647 51.7407 48.8871
12 57.5059 51.9889 49.2360
13 58.1235 51.8480 49.4141
14 58.2317 52.1083 50.0540
15 58.3491 52.3651 49.8356
16 56.7239 51.0266 47.8081
17 56.8808 51.4991 48.2459
18 57.1539 51.6253 48.4518
19 57.9371 51.8391 48.9679
20 58.0629 52.3043 50.1166
21 58.4410 52.4608 49.7767
22 56.5280 51.1838 47.5716
23 56.6680 51.5314 48.0418
24 56.8434 51.8146 48.3428
25 57.3940 52.0216 48.2358
26 57.5047 52.3860 48.7105
27 57.6025 52.6045 49.0602

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7.2 Principal component analysis (PCA)
In the next stage a weightage method is used to analyze the weightage of each performance
characteristic. The weightage assigned to the performance characteristics is either decided by the manufacturer
or determined by using PCA.
The elements of Table 6 represent the grey relational coefficients for the multi performance characteristics of
shot peened AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel. This data is used to evaluate the correlation coefficient matrix
and further it is used to evaluate the corresponding eigenvalues and eigenvectors from the following equation:

[(CC)jk – βlIm] Eil = 0 (6)

n
where βl represents the eigenvalues; 
l 1
l  n , l = 1, 2, 3,……..n; and
Eil = [ali al2 al3 ……..aln]T is the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue βl.

The eigenvalues are shown in Table 7 and the eigenvector corresponding to each eigenvalue is listed in
Table 8. The results are obtained by using statistical software MINITAB 14. Hence, for this study, the squares
of corresponding eigenvector of first principal component is selected as the weighting values of the related
performance characteristic, represented by ωTS, ωVHN and ωFS in Table 9.

Table 5: Normalized matrix elements.

Exp. No. TS VHN FS
1 0.5585 0.0814 0.4211
2 0.6597 0.3809 0.5547
3 0.7446 0.5121 0.7240
4 0.7272 0.2153 0.6868
5 0.7944 0.3996 0.7948
6 0.8660 0.5793 0.9431
7 0.7757 0.0691 0.5705
8 0.9172 0.3766 0.6739
9 1.0000 0.5835 0.8319
10 0.3302 0.2213 0.3805
11 0.4258 0.4526 0.5169
12 0.4977 0.6099 0.6540
13 0.8120 0.5206 0.7240
14 0.8671 0.6855 0.9754
15 0.9269 0.8483 0.8896
16 0.0997 0.0000 0.0929
17 0.1796 0.2994 0.2650
18 0.3186 0.3794 0.3459
19 0.7172 0.5149 0.5486
20 0.7812 0.8097 1.0000
21 0.9736 0.9089 0.8664
22 0.0000 0.0996 0.0000
23 0.0713 0.3199 0.1848
24 0.1605 0.4994 0.3030
25 0.4408 0.6306 0.2610
26 0.4971 0.8615 0.4475
27 0.5469 1.0000 0.5849

7.3 Grey relational grade

In the next step grey relational grades are calculated based on equation (7) from data listed in Table 6.
Thus, the optimization design is performed with respect to a single grey relational grade rather than complicated
performance characteristics. This grey relational grade is a single numerical value which represents the
optimization of multi performance characteristics. The grey relational grade is determined from following
equation:

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m
 oi    oi ( j )i (7)
i 1
The grey relational grade is calculated by using equation (7). In this equation m is the number of
performance characteristics,  oi ( j ) are the grey relational coefficients and ω i is the weightage assigned to the
performance characteristics. The results of grey relational grade are represented in Table 10. Table 10 and Fig. 4
shows the shot peening parameters setting of experiment no. 21 has the highest grey relational grade (0.8590).
Thus, the experiment no. 21 gives the best combination of process parameters among the twenty seven
experiments for shot peened AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel.

V. ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Further ANOVA and Taguchi method are performed on grey relational grade by using statistical
software MINITAB 14 to determine the significant process parameter. They help in predicting the best
combination of process parameters for optimal performance characteristics.

8.1 Taguchi analysis

Taguchi analysis is performed to generate the response table i.e. the average grey relational grade for
each factor level, by using statistical software MINITAB 14. It helps to determine the significant process
parameter. The procedure was to group the grey relational grades firstly by factor level for each column in the
orthogonal array,

Table 6: Grey relational coefficients for performance characteristics.

Exp. No. δoi (TS) δoi (VHN) δoi (FS)
1 0.5311 0.3525 0.4634
2 0.5950 0.4468 0.5290
3 0.6619 0.5061 0.6443
4 0.6470 0.3892 0.6149
5 0.7086 0.4544 0.7090
6 0.7886 0.5431 0.8978
7 0.6903 0.3494 0.5379
8 0.8579 0.4451 0.6053
9 1.0000 0.5456 0.7484
10 0.4274 0.3910 0.4466
11 0.4655 0.4774 0.5086
12 0.4989 0.5617 0.5910
13 0.7268 0.5105 0.6443
14 0.7900 0.6139 0.9531
15 0.8724 0.7672 0.8191
16 0.3571 0.3333 0.3553
17 0.3787 0.4165 0.4048
18 0.4232 0.4462 0.4332
19 0.6387 0.5076 0.5256
20 0.6956 0.7244 1.0000
21 0.9499 0.8459 0.7892
22 0.3333 0.3570 0.3333
23 0.3500 0.4237 0.3802
24 0.3733 0.4997 0.4177
25 0.4720 0.5751 0.4035
26 0.4986 0.7831 0.4751
27 0.5246 1.0000 0.5464

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Table 7: The eigenvalues and proportions for principal components.
Principal Component Eigenvalue Proportion (%)
First 2.1202 70.7
Second 0.7004 23.3
Third 0.1794 06.0

Table 8: The Eigenvectors for principal components.

Performance First principal Second principal Third principal
characteristics component component component
TS -0.613 0.419 0.670
VHN -0.465 -0.877 0.123
FS -0.639 0.236 -0.732

Table 9: The weightage of each performance characteristic.

Performance Characteristics Weightage
ωTS 0.3758
ωVHN 0.2162
ωIS 0.4083

Table 10: Grey relational grade.

Exp. No. Grey relational grade
1 0.4637
2 0.5346
3 0.6194
4 0.5769
5 0.6524
6 0.7784
7 0.5533
8 0.6642
9 0.7974
10 0.4261
11 0.4841
12 0.5482
13 0.6447
14 0.8166
15 0.8254
16 0.3501
17 0.3961
18 0.4308
19 0.5625
20 0.8237
21 0.8590
22 0.3373
23 0.3768
24 0.4171
25 0.4644
26 0.5478
27 0.6328

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1.0

Grey Relational Grade

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Experiment No.

Fig. 4: Graph of grey relational grade.

Table 11: Response table for the grey relational grade.

Level P S T D E
1 0.6267 0.5913 0.4362 0.6166 0.4866
2 0.5469 0.6028 0.5679 0.6033 0.5885
3 0.5579 0.5374 0.7274 0.5116 0.6565
Delta 0.0798 0.0654 0.2912 0.1050 0.1699
Rank 4 5 1 3 2
and then to average them. For example, the grey relational grades for factors P at level 1 and 2 can be calculated
as follows:
P1 = 1 0.4637  0.5346  0.6194  0.5769  0.6542  0.7784  0.5533  0.6642  0.7974
9
= 0.6267
P2 = 1 0.4261  0.4841  0.5482  0.6447  0.8166  0.8254  0.3501  0.3961  0.4308
9
= 0.5469
The generated response tables are shown in Table 11 for each factor level. The grey relational grades
represent the level of correlation between the reference and the comparability sequences. Larger value of grey
relational grade shows that the comparability sequence exhibits a stronger correlation with the reference
sequence. On the bases of this statement this analysis helps to select the level of process parameters that
provides the largest performance characteristics. In Table 11, P1, S2, T3, D1 and E3 have largest value of
average grey relational grade for factors P, S, T, D and E respectively. Hence P1S2T3D1E3 is the best
combination of shot peening parameters for optimal performance characteristics of AISI 304 austenitic stainless
steel. It is restated that for AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel the best combination of shot peening process are
as: pressure 0.196 MPa, shot size 1mm, exposure time 160 sec, nozzle distance 80 mm and nozzle angle is 900.
The impact of each shot peening parameter can be presented clearly by means of the response graphs. These
graphs shows the change in the response, when the parameters changes their level from 1 to level 3. The
response graphs for shot peening parameters are presented in Fig. 5. In these figures, the higher value of
response gives the high value of performance characteristics.

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Main Effects Plot (data means) for Means

P S T

0.7

0.6

0.5
Mean of Means

0.4
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
D E

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
1 2 3 1 2 3

Fig. 5: Response graphs of shot peening parameters.

The order of importance is also observed from Table 11 i.e. by calculating the difference between the
maximum and minimum value of the average grey relational grade for each factor. The last row of response
tables indicates that the exposure time has stronger effect on the multi-performance characteristics than other
parameters.

8.2 ANOVA
The purpose of the ANOVA is to investigate which parameters of shot peening process affect
significantly the performance characteristics. This is achieved by separating the total variability of the grey
relational grades. To evaluate the impact of each process parameters on performance characteristics, the total
sum of the squared deviations can be utilized. Table 12 gives the results of the ANOVA for performance
characteristic using the calculated values of grey relational grade in Table 10. According to Table 12, the
exposure time with 57.88% of contribution, is the most significant controlled parameters. It is also found that
the p-value of all the factors is less than 0.05 that represents significant effect on the performance
characteristics.

VI. CONFIRMING EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

After identifying the most of influential parameters, the final phase is to verify the performance
characteristics by conducting the confirmation experiments. The GRA with PCA and Taguchi method gives the
optimal parameters combination as P1S2T3D1E3 for shot peening process of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel.
Hence this combination of shot peening parameters is used for confirmation tests. With these optimal settings
for AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel, the specimens give the tensile strength of 832.8 MPa, surface hardness of
403.8 VHN and fatigue strength of 318.6 MPa. The optimal grey relational grade (γ opt) is predicted by using the
following equation:

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
n
 opt   m   ( i   m )
i 1 (8)
Where γm is the average of grey relational grade, γ i is the average of grey relational grade at optimum
level and n is the number of significantly affecting process parameters. Pressure, shot size, exposure time,
nozzle distance and nozzle angle are all the significant parameters used for predicting the optimal grey relational
grade. The predicted value of optimal grey relational grade is expressed as:
5
 opt   m   ( i   m )
i 1
The predicted value of optimal grey relational grade is calculated as:
= 0.5772+(0.7274-0.5772)+(0.6565-0.5772)+(0.6166-0.5772)+(0.6267-0.5772)+(0.6028-0.5772) = 0.9212

Table 13: Experimental and predicted values of grey relational grade.

Performance characteristics Predicted value Experimental value
Optimal parameters P1S2T3D1E3 P1S2T3D1E3
Tensile Strength 832.8 MPa
Surface Hardness 403.8 VHN
Fatigue Strength 318.6 MPa
Grey relational grade 0.9212 0.8713

It is found that calculated grey relational grade for these optimal values of performance characteristics is higher
from the grey relational grade among the 27 experiments as shown in Table 13. This table also represents that
the grey relational grade for optimal parameters is near to the predicted value of optimal grey relational grade.
Hence using the present approach, shot peening of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel is successfully optimized.

VII. CONCLUSION
The response table and ANOVA presented in Table 11 and 12 shows that pressure, shot size, exposure
time, nozzle distance and nozzle angle are the process parameters which significantly affecting the performance
characteristics. All parameters affecting the performance characteristics are at 95% confidence level. The GRA
with PCA and Taguchi analysis gives the optimal process parameters as P1S2T3D1E3. At this optimal condition
the process parameters are set as: pressure 0.196 MPa, shot size 1.00 mm, exposure time 160 sec, nozzle
distance 80 mm and nozzle angle 900. At this condition of process parameters the confirmatory experiments are
performed and the average value of tensile strength, surface hardness and fatigue strength are as 832.8 MPa,
403.8 VHN and 318.6MPa respectively. Hence these are the proposed process parameter levels for the optimal
performance characteristics of shot peened AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel.
The maximum grey relational grade for the material is 0.8590 among the 27 experiments. The
conformation experiments at optimal process parameters give a grey relation grade of 0.8713. It is higher than
the grey relational grade among 27 experiments and near to the predicted value of optimal grey relational grade
i.e. 0.9212. Hence it optimizes the shot peening process for AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel. It seems that
GRA with PCA and Taguchi analysis is a straight forwarded method for optimizing multi performance
characteristic problems in shot peening.

REFERENCES
[1] A. Kyröläinen, M. Vilpas and H. Hänninen, Use of stainless steels in bus coach structures, Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance. Vol. 9(6), 2000, 669-677.
[2] R.W.K. Honeycombe and H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Steels - Microstructure and Properties, (Second Edition,
Edward Arnold, 1995).
[3] P.J. Cunat, A New Structural Material for Passenger Cars: Stainless Steel, Auto Technology, 2002, 40-42.
[4] T. Oshima, Y. Habarai and K. Kuroda, Efforts to save nickel in austenitic stainless steels, ISIJ
International. Vol. 47, No. 3, 2007, 359-364.
[5] D. Kirk and N.J. Payne, Transformation induced in austenitic stainless steels by shot peening, ICSP-7,
Warsaw, Poland, 1999, 15-22.
[6] M. Milad, N. Zreiba, F. Elhalouani and C. Baradai, The effect of cold work on structure and properties of
AISI 304 stainless steel, Journal of Materials Processing Technolog,. 203, 2008, 80-85.
[7] A. Hedayati, A. Najafizadeh, A. Kermanpur and F. Forouzan, The effect of cold rolling regime on
microstructure and mechanical properties of AISI 304L stainless steel, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 210, 2010, 1017-1022.

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[8] T. Dorr, M. Hilpert, P. Beckmerhagan, A. Kiefer and L. Wagner, Influence of shot peening on fatigue
performance of high-strength aluminum-and magnesium alloys, Proceedings of the ICSP-7 conference,
Warsaw, Poland, 1999.
[9] M. Obata and A. Sudo, Effect of shot peening on residual stress and stress corrosion cracking for cold
worked austenitic stainless steel, Proceedings of the ICSP-5 conference, Oxford, UK, 1993.
[10] K.B. Prakash, B.M. Sunil and Y.S. Chandrakant, Shot peening: state of-the-art, Proceedings of the
ICAMMP Conference, IIT Kharagpur, 2006, pp 296–303.
[11] J. Champaigne, Controlled shot peening, (2nd ed., The Shot Peener, Mishawaka, USA, 1989).
[12] M.C. Sharma and A. Mubeen, Effect of shot size on peening intensity for local peening, Journal of
Mechanical Working Technology, 8, 1983, 155-160.
[13] M.C. Sharma, H. Deo, S.C. Modi and R.G. Bosshard, Virtues & limitations of Almen round shot peening,
(Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KgaA, 2006).
[14] V. Schulze, Characteristics of surface layers produced by shot peening, ICSP-8, Garmisch-
Partenkirchen, Germany, 2002, 145-160.
[15] P.J. Ross, Taguchi Techniques for Quality Engineering, (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988).
[16] R.K. Roy, Design of Experiments using the Taguchi approach: 16 steps to Product and Process,
Improvement, Wiley-Inter science, New York, 2001, 179-186.
[17] S.M. Phadke, Quality Engineering Using Robust Design, (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989).
[18] J.L. Deng, Basic methods of Grey System, (1st edition Press of Huazhong University of Science and
Technology, Wuhan, China, 1987).
[19] J.L. Deng, Introduction to grey system theory, Journal of Grey Syst., 1, 1989, 1-24.
[20] R. Jeyapaul, P. Shahabudeen and K. Krishnaiah, Quality management research by considering multi-
response problems in the Taguchi method-a review, International Journal of Advance Manufacturing
Technology, 26, 2005, 1331–1337.
[21] F.S. Chen, T.C. Chang and H.H. Liao, The application of grey relation analysis on teacher appraisa, IE
Times New Roman EE International conference on Systems Man and Cybernetics, 5, 2000, 6-10.
[22] S. Bin, Y. Ping, L. Yunbai and W. Xishan, Study on the fault diagnosis of transformer based on the grey
relation analysis, International Conference Power System Technology, China, 4, 2002, 2231-2234.
[23] Y.F. Hsiao, Y.S. Tarng and W.J. Huang, Optimization of plasma arc welding parameters by using the
Taguchi method with grey relational analysis, Material and Manufacturing Processes, 23,2008, 51-58.
[24] Lakhwinder Singh, R.A. Khan and M.L. Aggarwal, Empirical modeling of shot peening parameters for
welded austenitic stainless steel using grey relational analysis, Journal of Mechanical Science and
Technology, 26(6), 2012, 1731-1739.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-173-179
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Design of Automobile Driveshaft using Carbon/Epoxy and

Kevlar/Epoxy Composites
R. Srinivasa Moorthy, Yonas Mitiku & K. Sridhar
School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, IoT, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.

Abstract: - Use of advanced composites has resulted in remarkable achievements in many fields including
aviation, marine and automobile engineering, medicine, prosthetics and sports, in terms of improved fatigue and
corrosion resistances, high specific strength and specific modulus and reduction in energy requirements owing
to reduction in weight. The aim of this work is to replace the conventional steel driveshaft of automobiles with
an appropriate composite driveshaft. The conventional driveshafts are made in two pieces for reducing the
bending natural frequency, whereas the composite shafts can be made as single-piece shafts, thus reducing the
overall weight. Carbon/Epoxy and Kevlar/Epoxy composites were designed and analysed for their
appropriateness in terms of torsional strength, bending natural frequency and torsional buckling by comparing
them with the conventional steel driveshaft under the same grounds of design constraints and the best-suited
composite was recommended. Light has been thrown upon the aspects like mass saving, number of plies and ply
distribution.

Keywords: - Carbon/Epoxy, Composite driveshaft, Kevlar/Epoxy, ply distribution.

I. INTRODUCTION
A composite is a structural material consisting of two or more combined constituents that are combined
at a macroscopic level, not soluble in each other. One constituent called reinforcing phase in the form of fibres,
flakes or particles, is embedded in a continuous matrix phase. The inability of monolithic metals and their alloys
to meet the complex functional requirements of advanced technologies lead to the use of composites more and
more [1]. Generally composite materials have very high specific strength and specific modulus. The strength of
graphite epoxy may be the same, but its specific strength is thrice as that of steel. This translates into reduced
material and energy costs. Though the material cost is 10-15 times that of steel, manufacturing techniques such
as SMC (Sheet Moulding Compound) and SRIM (Structural Reinforcement Injection Moulding) are
substantially lowering the cost and production time in manufacturing automobile parts. Unlike metals,
composite materials are not isotropic - their properties are not the same in all directions, thus necessitating more
material parameters. Nine stiffness and strength constants are needed to conduct mechanical analysis for a single
layer of a composite as against four stiffness and strength constants in the case of monolithic materials like steel.
Such complexities render structural analysis computationally and experimentally more complicated and highly
intensive.
An automotive driveshaft is a rotating shaft that transmits power from the engine to the differential
gear of rear wheel drive (RWD) vehicles. Conventional steel driveshafts are usually manufactured in two pieces
to increase the fundamental bending natural frequency because the bending natural frequency of a shaft is
inversely proportional to the square of the span length. But the two-piece steel driveshaft involves three
universal joints, an intermediary thrust bearing and a supporting bracket in its assemblage, which increases the
total weight of the vehicle [2].
Since one-piece composite driveshaft will suffice in the place of a two-piece steel driveshaft, it
substantially reduces the inertial mass. Moreover, a composite driveshaft can be perfectly designed to
effectively meet the strength and stiffness requirements. Since composite materials generally have a lower
elasticity modulus, during torque peaks in the driveline, the driveshaft can act as a shock absorber. Moreover,
the breakage of composite a driveshaft (particularly in SUV’s) is less-risky, since it results in splitting up of the
fine fibres as compared to the scattering of broken steel parts in various directions [3].

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
II. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
The following specifications were assumed suitably, based on the literature and available standards of
automobile driveshafts:
1. The torque transmission capacity of the driveshaft (𝐓) = 2000 N-m.
2. The shaft needs to withstand torsional buckling (𝐓𝐛 ) such that Tb > T.
3. The minimum bending natural frequency of the shaft (fnb (min ) ) = 80 Hz.
4. Outside radius of the driveshaft (ro)= 60 mm.
5. Length of the driveshaft = 1.8 m.

III. DESIGN OF CONVENTIONAL STEEL DRIVESHAFT

First, the conventional steel shaft was designed to facilitate comparison in terms of mass savings. Be it the
conventional driveshaft or the composite one, the design should be based on the following criteria:
 Torsional strength
 Torsional buckling and
 Bending natural frequency.
SM45C steel was selected, since it is widely being used for the design of conventional steel shaft. The properties
of SM45C steel are:
Young’s modulus (E) = 207 GPa
Shear modulus (G) = 80 GPa
Poisson’s ratio (ν) = 0.3
Density of steel (ρ) = 7600 kg/m3
Yield strength (σy) = 370 MPa.

3.1 Torsional strength

Since the primary load on a driveshaft is torsion, the maximum shear stress (𝛕𝐦𝐚𝐱 ) at the outer radius (𝐫𝐨) of the
shaft is given by:
𝛕𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐓𝐫
𝐅.𝐒.
= 𝐉𝐨 (1)
Substituting for 𝐉:
𝛕𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝟑𝟐𝐓𝐫𝐨
= (2)
𝐅.𝐒. 𝛑 𝐝𝟎 𝟒 − 𝐝𝐢 𝟒
where,
𝐓 is the maximum torque applied in N-m
𝐉 is the polar area moment of inertia in m4 and
𝐝𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐢 are outer and inner diameters of the shaft in m.
Assuming τmax = 80 MPa and a factor of safety (𝐅. 𝐒.) of 3,
𝑑𝑖 = 0.112735 𝑚.
Hence, the inner radius is, 𝑟𝑖 = 0.056368 𝑚.
Thus the wall thickness of the hollow steel shaft:
𝐭 = 𝐫𝟎 − 𝐫𝐢 (3)
= 3.6325 x 10−3 m.
3.2 Torsional buckling
A shaft is considered as a long shaft, if [4]:
𝟏 𝐋𝟐 𝐭
𝟐𝐫 𝟑
> 5. 𝟓 (4)
𝟏−𝛝𝟐

where, 𝐫 is the mean radius, such that:

𝐫𝐢+𝐫𝐨
𝐫= 𝟐
(5)
= 0.058184 𝑚.
Substituting,
1 (1.8)2 (0.0036325 )
2×0.058184 3
= 7.8294 (> 5.5)
1−0.3 2
For a long shaft, the torsional buckling capacity:
𝐓𝐛 = 𝛕𝐜𝐫 𝟐𝛑𝐫 𝟐 𝐭 (6)
where, the critical stress (𝛕𝐜𝐫 ) is given by,
𝟑
𝐄 𝐭 𝟐
𝛕𝐜𝐫 = 𝟑 𝐫 (7)
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏−𝛝𝟐 𝟒

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Substituting,
τcr = 81.6875 × 107 N/m2 and
Tb = 63.11735 × 103 N − m.
Thus,
Tb > T .
3.3 Bending Natural Frequency
According to Bernoulli-Euler beam theory, by neglecting shear deformation and rotational inertia effects, the
bending natural frequency of a rotating shaft is given by:
𝛑𝐩𝟐 𝐄𝐈 𝐱
𝐟𝐧𝐛 = 𝟐𝐋𝟐 𝐦′
(8)
where,
𝐦′ is mass per unit length in kg/m
𝐈𝐱 is area moment of inertia in x-direction (longitudinal) in m4.
𝛑
𝐈𝐱 = 𝟔𝟒 𝐝𝟒𝟎 − 𝐝𝟒𝐢 (9)
= 2.25 x 10−6 m4 .
𝐦 = 𝛒 𝛑 𝟒 𝐝𝟐𝟎 − 𝐝𝟐𝐢
′
(10)
= 10.0925 𝑘𝑔/𝑚.
Substituting these values,
fnb = 104.148 Hz.
Thus,
fnb > fnb (min ) .
Thus the designed SMC45 steel driveshaft meets all the requirements.
The total mass of the shaft is:
𝐦 = 𝐦′𝐋 (11)
Thus,
m = 18.1665 kg.

IV. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE DRIVESHAFTS

Only 0°, ±45° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 90° were considered for the composite ply orientations, owing to their specific advantages.

4.1 Design of Carbon/Epoxy Driveshaft

60% fibre volume fraction Carbon/Epoxy shaft (Vf = 60%) with standard ply thickness of 0.13 mm was
selected.
4.1.1 Torsional strength
𝛕𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐓
= 𝟐𝛑𝐫𝟐𝐭 (12)
𝐅.𝐒.
where,
𝐫 is the mean radius of the shaft.
Since the nature of loading is pure shear, 70% of the plies can be set at ±45° and the remaining 30% at 0º and
90º orientations.
From Fig. 1,
τmax = 293 MPa
For a factor of safety (𝐅. 𝐒.) of 6,
r 2 t = 6.5183 × 10−6 m3 .
Thus,
t ≥ 1.8106 × 10−3 m.
Since the thickness of each ply is 0.13 mm,
n = 1.8106 × 10−3 /0.13 × 10−3
= 13.93 ≅ 14.
Hence the corrected values are:
t = 1.82 x 10−3 m
ri = 0.05818 m and
r = 0.05909 m.
4.1.2 Torsional buckling
Considering the hollow composite shaft as an isotropic cylindrical shell, the buckling torque is given by:
𝟏 𝟑
𝟒 𝐭 𝟐
𝐓𝐛 = 𝟐𝛑𝐫 𝟐 𝐭 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟐 𝐄𝐱 𝐄𝟑𝐲 (13)
𝐫
where,

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
𝐄𝐱 and 𝐄𝐲 are the Young’s modulii in ‘x’ and ‘y’ directions respectively.
From Fig. 2,
Ex = 38709.5 MPa.
By permuting (interchanging the percentages of 0° and 90° plies),
Ey = 38709.5 MPa.
Upon substitution,
Tb = 2272.49 N − m. (> T)
4.1.3 Bending natural frequency
𝛑 𝐄𝐱𝐈 𝐱
𝐟𝐧𝐛 = (14)
𝟐𝐋𝟐 𝐦′
3
From TABLE I, the density of Carbon/Epoxy laminate (ρ) = 1530 kg/m .
Hence,
Ix = 1.179957 × 10−6 m4 and
𝑚′ = 1.03385 𝑘𝑔/𝑚.
Upon substitution,
fnb = 101.903 Hz (> 80 Hz).
The total mass of Carbon/Epoxy composite shaft is,
m = 1.86093 kg.
The ply distribution for the Carbon/Epoxy driveshaft is shown in Fig. 3.
Accordingly, the ply orientation is,
[0°/±45°2 /90°/±45°/90°/±45°2 /0°] .
4.2 Design of Kevlar/Epoxy Driveshaft
Setting 70% of the plies in ±45° and the remaining 30% in 0º and 90º, similar to the previous approach, from
the respective figures [5],
τmax = 95 MPa
Ex = 23900 MPa and
Ey = 23900 MPa.

Using a factor of safety (F. S.) of 6, for Vf = 60% and ply thickness = 0.13 mm,
t ≥ 5.5844 × 10−3 m.
n = 42.96 ≅ 44.
The corrected values are:
t = 0.00572 m
ri = 0.05428 m and
r = 0.05714 m.
The calculated values of buckling torque, bending natural frequency and the total mass are:
Tb = 24161 N − m
fnb = 101.903 Hz and
m = 4.99 kg.
The ply distribution for the Kevlar/Epoxy driveshaft is shown in Fig. 4.
Accordingly, the ply orientation with mid-plane symmetry is,
[0°2 /90°2 /±45°6 /90°2 /0°2 /−45° /+45° ]s .

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the detailed analysis, the key results of wall thickness, torsional buckling capacity, bending
natural frequency, number of plies and total mass for SM45C steel (as applicable), Carbon/Epoxy and
Kevlar/Epoxy driveshafts were extracted and summarized in TABLE II.
TABLE II reveals that use of Carbon/Epoxy results in a mass saving of 89.756% when compared to the
conventional SM45C steel driveshaft, whereas Kevlar/Epoxy results in 72.53%. Obviously, the number of plies
needed for Carbon/Epoxy is 14 with 1.82 mm wall thickness as compared to 44 plies with 5.72 mm wall
thickness in the case of Kevlar/Epoxy. Moreover, the torsional buckling capacity and bending natural frequency
are adequate enough to meet the design requirements in the case of Carbon/Epoxy driveshaft.

VI. CONCLUSION
Precisely, for the specifications chosen, using Carbon/Epoxy driveshaft in the place of conventional
driveshaft will lead to an appreciable mass saving of 89.756% with barely half of the wall thickness of
conventional steel shaft. Though the mass saving is substantial in both the composites considered, making either

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
of the composites a better choice for the conventional high quality SM45C steel, using Carbon/Epoxy for
making automotive driveshaft has multiple advantages as mentioned above.
This work relies purely upon analytical calculations and use of ply distribution tables/graphs pertaining
to 60% volume fraction and 0.13 mm ply thickness. The approach can be extended to other widely used
composites like Glass/Epoxy and Boron/Epoxy to check their suitability. This approach throws light upon ply
distribution in standard orientations of 0º, 90º, +45º and -45º for the composite considered. The effect of varying
ply staking sequence on the performance of composites can be found by using computational softwares.
Moreover, considering the material and manufacturing cost will give better grounds to compare the overall
efficacy, thus resulting in an appropriate selection of the best fibre/matrix combination for making automotive
driveshafts.

REFERENCES
[1] Autar K. Kaw, Mechanics of Composite Materias (Second edn., CRC Press, 2006).
[2] R.P.Kumar Rompicharla and Co., Design and Optimization of Driveshaft with Composite Materials,
International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, Vol. 1, Issue 7, September 2012, ISSN:
2278-0181.
[3] Mohammad Reza Khoshravan et al., Design and Modal Analysis of Composite Driveshaft for
Automotive Application, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 4,
April 2011, ISSN : 0975-5462.
[4] Gummadi Sanjay & Co., Optimum Design and Analysis of a Composite Driveshaft for an Automobile,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Karlskrona, Sweden, 2007,
ISRN: BTH-AMT-EX--2007/D-09--SE.
[5] Daniel Gay, et al, Composite Materials – Design and Applications (CRC Press, 2003).

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1: Maximum shear stress (τmax) as a function of ply percentages for Carbon/Epoxy Laminate (Vf = 60%;
Ply thickness = 0.13 mm) [5]

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Figure 2: Young’s Modulus (Ex in MPa), Poisson’s ratio (υxy) and Co-efficient of thermal expansion (α) as
functions of ply percentages for Carbon / Epoxy Laminate (Vf = 60%; Ply thickness = 0.13 mm) [5]

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TABLE I: Properties of Fibre/Epoxy Laminates (Vf = 60%)
Property Carbon Kevlar
Specific mass (kg/m3) 1530 1350
Longitudinal tensile fracture strength (MPa) 1270 1410
Longitudinal compressive fracture strength (MPa) 1130 280
Transverse tensile fracture strength (MPa) 42 28
Transverse compressive fracture strength (MPa) 141 141
Poisson’s ratio 0.25 0.34

TABLE II: Comparison of SM45C steel, Carbon/Epoxy and Kevlar/Epoxy driveshafts

S. No. Material t (mm) Tb (N-m) fnb (Hz) n m (kg)
1 SM45C steel 3.63 63117.35 104.148 - 18.1665
2 Carbon/Epoxy 1.82 2272.49 101.903 14 1.86093
3 Kevlar/Epoxy 5.72 24161 267.370 44 4.99

AUTHORS’ BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Srinivasa Moorthy obtained his Masters degree in Mechanical Engineering Design
from Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Tamilnadu, India; has 17 + years of
teaching experience; worked in Erode Sengunthar Engineering College, Erode, Tamilnadu,
India, for 10 + years; worked in Eritrea Institute of Technology, Eritrea, North-East Africa,
for 4 years; currently working as a Lecturer in School of Mechanical and Industrial
Engineering, Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.

Yonas Mitiku Degu received his B.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering from Bahir Dar
University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia in 2005; pursued M.Sc. in Applied Mechanics
(Mechanical Design) in Addis Ababa U n i v e r s i t y , A d d i s A b a b a , Ethiopia in
2008; currently working as A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r a n d Director of School of
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University,
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.

K. Sridhar received his B.E. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Anna University,
Chennai, India and M.E. from Anna University, Coimbatore, India; w o r k e d a s a
L e c t u r e r / S e n i or L e c t u r e r i n S . S . M . C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g ,
K o m a r a p a l a ya m , T a m i l n a d u , I n d i a f o r 4 y e a r s ; currently working as a
Lecturer in School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Institute of Technology,
Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, from October 2011.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-180-190
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Enhancing E-Voting Systems By Leveraging Biometric Key

Generation (Bkg)
*V. C. Ossai1, I.C. Okoro, E.O. Alagbu, A.O. Agbonghae and I.N. Okafor
1
Electronics Development Institute, Awka. National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure.

Abstract: - The adoption of e-voting methods in electioneering processes will effectively reduce cost as well as
enhance election activities. What makes an e-voting model reliable and acceptable is its ability to properly
authenticate voters and provide a secure means through which a voter can express his/her franchise. This paper
therefore proposes a design of an e-voting system that leverages a Biometric Encryption scheme known as
Biometric key Generation (BKG) which is a secured strategy that entails using of biometrics to generate secure
cryptographic keys. The main objective of this research is to improve on the already existing E-voting systems
adopting a secured bio-cryptographic technique vis Biometric key Generation (BKG) as well as using a secure
transmission channel for confidential datasets of a voting process. This work develops a simulation model of an
E-voting system which adopts relevant algorithms with emphasis on biometric key generation schemes. The
simulation of a prototype model of the electronic voting system is developed using Proteus 7.6 application
software. The prototype model would consist of electronic kiosk polling booths that are all networked to the
state electoral collection center and collection centers that are networked to the national electoral collection
center via a VPN backbone. The proposed e-voting system uses a Virtual Private Network (VPN) as the means
of communication between the various polling booths and collection points. The results of validation show that
the proposed model facilitates the adoption of E-governance in the developing countries.

Keywords: - Biometric Key Generation, Cryptography, E-voting Booths, Privacy, Security.

I. INTRODUCTION
Election is a process by which members of an organization or a society select people to hold positions of
authority [1].
The term ―e-voting‖ encompasses all voting techniques involving the use of electronic voting
equipment including voting over the internet, using booths in polling stations (e-booths) and sometimes even
from remote sites (e.g. via SMS). According to [2] e-voting is any voting method where the voter‘s intention is
expressed or collected by electronic means. The following e-voting approaches have being identified by this
literature viz;
- Kiosk voting (e-booths)
- Remote electronic voting
- Internet voting (I-voting)
Basically, this work uses the term e-voting with the specific emphasis on kiosk voting (e-booth) over the
internet (through a secured public network infrastructure). An Electronic Voting System has as its main
components [2]:
i. The Electronic Voters Register.
ii. Authentication- which is done prior to balloting.
iii. Voting, Collation and Transmission.
Owing to the fact that there are a lot of vulnerabilities in the current voting schemes currently used in e-
voting systems, there is a need to develop a secure, reliable and trusted means of voting so as to reduce the
vulnerabilities associated with voting, increase flexibility and security as well as reducing the cost of elections.
In this work, the use of some of Direct Recording Balloting Machines (DREs) connected over a VPN (secure
internet facility) is adopted and characterized. This will completely eliminate the cost associated with the
printing of several million ballot papers.

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This work leverages Biometric Key Generation (BKG) technique and a secured communication channel to
transmit voting results which is being characterized in this simulation model. This would help reduce to the
barest minimum the fraud and irregularities associated with elections. Worthy of note is that BKG has not yet
been adopted in E-voting systems.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Related Works
The work in [3] presented e-voting Schemes and explained that e-voting is a promising application of
cryptography, which can have positive impact on democratic process. The work discussed cryptographic aspects
of constructing e-voting schemes and tried to generate a preliminary framework on the notion of choice. The
author added that on the internet, implementing cryptographic protocols like digital encryption and signature has
been widely accepted.
The authors in [4] described the theory behind a practical voting scheme based on homomorphic
encryption which entails the application of arithmetic operation like addition to encrypted numbers without
previously decrypting them. The resulting encrypted sum can then be revealed with a private decryption key.
The homomorphic encryption scheme ensures that individual numbers cannot be decrypted with the private
decryption key alone. The major drawback is that homomorphic approaches do not allow complex multi-
candidate elections. Most of them are restricted to simple yes/no votes which are easy to count. The work
presented the most important goals for electronic voting schemes viz: Privacy, Robustness, Universal
verifiability and freeness.
Other Fundamental approaches to electronic voting are known in the literature include the use of blind
signatures and anonymous channels [5]
In Anonymous channels on the other hand messages to be sent anonymously, i.e. such that a recipient cannot
trace the received messages back to the senders. The most prominent technique for building anonymous
channels is mix nets and onions [6], [7]. They are comprised of a collection of anonymization servers whose
task is to shuffle a given input sequence of encrypted messages. To ensure that mix-servers or onion routers do
not drop or substitute messages, it is necessary that the servers provide proofs of correct operation. The resulting
anonymous channel is then called verifiable. Although most existing verifiable anonymous channels are
relatively inefficient, progress has been reported recently.
The authors in [8] propose a secure electronic voting protocol that is suitable for large scale voting over
the Internet. In their work, the protocol allows a voter to cast his or her ballot anonymously by exchanging
untraceable yet authentic messages. The protocol ensures that (i) only eligible voters are able to cast votes, (ii) a
voter is able to cast only one vote, (iii) a voter is able to verify that his or her vote is counted in the final tally,
(iv) nobody, other than the voter, is able to link a cast vote with a voter, and (v) if a voter decides not to cast a
vote, nobody is able to cast a fraudulent vote in place of the voter. The following assumptions were made in the
context of this protocol viz [8]:
i. Hard-to-invert permutations
ii. Blind Signature on messages
iii. Secure Transit
In their final analysis, the work concludes that the protocol is suitable for large scale voting over the Internet and
that satisfies the core properties of secure voting systems – namely accuracy, democracy, privacy and
verifiability.
The idea of blind signatures is to apply a blinding function to a message before sending it to a signing
party. Based on a simple RSA-like scheme, this can be done such that the blinding function can be inverted on
the blinded signature to finally obtain a regular RSA-based digital signature. At the end of this process, in which
the content of the message has been entirely disguised from the signer, the signature is ordinarily verifiable
using the signer‘s public key [4]. The idea in such a scheme is that a voter prepares a ballot in clear text, i.e. a
message stating for whom he votes [4]. He then interacts with an authority that can verify that he is eligible to
vote and has not already voted. If this is the case, the authority issues a blind signature on the ballot. Informally,
this means that the voter obtains the authority's digital signature on the ballot, without the authority learning any
information about the contents of the ballot. On the other hand, a voter cannot obtain such a signature without
interacting with the authority, and is therefore prevented from voting several times [4]. A major drawback of the
protocol is that voters need to be active in at least two phases to ensure verifiability and fairness, which restricts
its usability intrinsically.
The work in [9] presents an evaluation of e-Voting systems equipped with voter-Verified Paper
Records. The work stated that owing to the need to increase public confidence, various states are increasingly
considering electronic voting systems that provide voter verified paper records. In the work, an analysis and
evaluation of New Jersey‘s criteria against several different e-voting machine types revealed potential threats
and possible solutions on privacy, security, and performance issues.

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The authors in [10], observed that the traditional methods of electioneering is characterized by long
period of preparation, fake voting, faulty voting, mistakes made in counting the votes, long period of counting
and high cost of voting process, in order to avoid these limitations; the system applied biometric fingerprint
authentication. In the work, a biometric based e-voting system is designed for providing a secure election on
electronic environment for the electors. Technologies such as XSL language which is compatible with Asp.Net,
Framework 2.0, Java Script, Xml is used but can be deployed in Microsoft Windows operating system [10].
Again, the, biometric based software libraries are also used for integrating the fingerprint control to the system.
In this regard, the elector identification system is programmed with C# language and equipped with an optical
fingerprint scanner SDK (Suprema Inc®) to accept a scan, recognize the elector, and open the correct elector
record in the database and verify system (Suprema, 2010). This module uses a dynamic link library (DLL) that
can be displayed in a web application. Attacks are indispensible in biometric based systems, hence besides
privacy issues, the major identified limitations of the works discussed above is presented. Applying texture-
based feature extraction techniques to fingerprint authentication is very vulnerable. In this case, its security
properties considering biometric integration is very vulnerable as attackers, Trojan horses, etc. Biometric
technologies may add a new level of authentication and identification to applications, but are not, however,
without their risks and challenges. There are important technological challenges such as accuracy, reliability,
data security, user acceptance, cost, and interoperability, as well as challenges associated with ensuring effective
privacy protections. Some common security vulnerabilities of biometric systems include: spoofing; replay
attacks; substitution attacks; tampering; masquerade attacks, trojan horse attacks and overriding Yes/No
response [11]. All feature extraction e-voting models are weak. A traditional biometric system will store the
original templates in a database, for use in authentication/identification comparisons. If an attacker can gain
access to the database (despite its security measures) then all template data (X) can be compromised [11].

III. DESIGN METHODOLOGY

In this research, an acceptability Index score was obtained from primary data sources (from local
electoral regulatory bodies). Consequently PROTEUS ISIS version 7.6 was used to develop a real time
simulation that characterizes the voting scenario using program description language which later was coded with
Assembly language. The implementation was characterized with various components to realize the expected
simulation behaviour. Also, the control program of the chips was encrypted. The algorithm was captured in the
codes and simulated modules/classes include: the Fingerprints Processing Unit (FPU), the Remote Polling
Booths (RPB), State Collection Centers (SCC) and the National Collection Center (NCC), all linked via a VPN
communication backbone. The methodology used here has embedded in it a certain degree of gate level oriented
design in the sense that gate level components are logically connected together and used to characterize various
components in this system and programmable VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) techniques (due to the fact
that very complex designs where embedded on chips throughout this design). Also programmable
microcontroller chips were embedded in this design to serve as the CPUs of the various blocks in the model,
hence conceptualized as HYBRID MODELING AND SIMULATION METHODOLOGY. All the logical
components characterized or modeled to describe the real life scenarios. After the configurations, the model was
run in a simulation environment depicting a contextual voting scenario.

3.1 Multi-Protocol Label Switch -Open Virtual Private Network

This work identifies MPLS-VPN as an important solution to security threats surrounding the use of
public networks. It offers a secure network connection between a sender and a receiver over a public non- secure
network. A VPN transforms the characteristics of a public network into those of a private secure network and
provides the means to securely transmit data between two networked devices over an insecure transport medium
[12]. A VPN creates a secure virtual links between their co-operate headquarters and remote sites via the
internet. When compared to other solutions e.g. leased lines, VPNs are relatively inexpensive.
In the characterization of the proposed e-voting system, the polling booths at the various wards would be
characterized as the remote INEC offices, the state INEC collection centers would be characterized as the
branch offices while the INEC headquarters is characterized as the co-operate office.
VPN makes use of many security mechanisms e.g. encryption, the use of digital signature to ensure that data
cannot be modified without detection. It uses tunneling process to transport the encrypted data over the internet.
Tunneling is mechanism for encapsulating one protocol in another protocol [12]. The VPN architecture consists
of the VPN client, Network Access Server (NAS), A Tunnel terminating device (VPN sever), and a VPN
protocol.

3.1.1 Open VPN Solution

OpenVPN is a VPN solution adopted in this work. Characterization of tunneling, encapsulation and
transfer of data is also enshrined in the simulation of this work. The OpenVPN makes use of VNI (Virtual

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Network Interface) for capturing in coming traffic before encryption and sending outgoing traffic after
decryption. The VNI appears as the actual network interface to all applications and users.
Essentially, an OpenVPN performs the following viz:
1) Receives packets of data (votes) from the polling booths using after receiving the packets, it compresses the
packets.
2) After compression, it encrypts the packets.
3) It tunnels the packet to the receiving end.
4) On receiving the encrypted traffic, the OpenVPN performs the reverse of cryptographic operations to verify
its integrity and authenticity.
5) It then decompresses the packets.
6) The decompressed data is passed by the VNI to the user interface.

State
collection
center in
Abia
INEC
HQS
VPN
MPLS
INTERNE
State T
collection
center in
Anambra

WARD 2

WARD 1

Figure 1: The Communication link diagram of MPLS

-VPN backbone for the proposed E-voting system

Fig 1 shows the flow diagram of information between the various polling booths in different wards, the state and
national collection centers as characterized in this work

3.2 Biometric Encryption (BE) Adopted in the Proposed Model

The concept of Biometric Encryption (BE) was first introduced in the mid-‗90s by [13] and is adopted
in this proposed E-voting model. BE is a process that securely binds a key to, or extracts a key from, a
biometric, such that neither the key nor the biometric can be retrieved from the ―helper data‖ (also called a
―private template‖) created by this process and stored by the application, except upon presentation of the correct
live biometric sample for verification. In essence, the key is ―encrypted‖ with the biometric — a ‗fuzzy‘ process
due to the natural variability of biometric samples. It securely binds a digital key to a biometric or generates a
digital key from the biometric, so that no biometric image or template is stored. What is stored is the BE
template otherwise known as a ‗‗bio-metrically encrypted key‘‘ or ‗‗helper data‘‘. Neither the digital key nor the
biometric can be retrieved from the stored BE template which stored [14].

3.2.1 Adopted BE Operational Models

A system and method for generating an encryption key using physical characteristics of a biometric
sample is adopted. In this method for generating key using biometric features, the biometric feature from a
sample is analyzed to generate a feature vector. After discretizing the features, the resultant feature vector is
translated into a bit vector. The bit vector is the secure biometric key that results from the biometrics. The secure
biometric key is used to generate at least one cryptographic key. A similar process is used to access the
cryptographic key secured by the secure biometric key [15]. If the access biometric key matches the secure
biometric key, the cryptographic key is revealed and access is allowed providing a method and apparatus for
generating cryptographic keys using biometric data [15]. This technique adopted by the proposed E-Voting

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system provides a method for generating a cryptographic key using biometric data. The method includes
segmenting an image of a biometric into at least two quadrants, detecting at least one biometric feature
associated with the biometric, determining which of the at least two quadrants the feature is located in,
generating a subkey value from a quadrant location value derived from the quadrant the at least one feature is
located in and a biometric feature type, and generating a cryptographic biometric key by concatenating the
subkey value with a predetermined number of other subkey values derived from other quadrant location values
and other feature types associated with other biometric features of the biometric [15]. These steps are
characterized in the Simulation for the proposed E-Voting system.

3.2.2 Proposed E-Voting Model

An innovative technique for securing a key using a biometrics i.e. biometric key generator is adopted in
this E-Voting system. The digital cryptographic key is generated from a biometric trait during enrollment, and
this key is later regenerated using the same biometric trait during verification.
A fingerprint images are received from the user. The fingerprints are protected with a time and date
stamp which is included in the encrypted fingerprint to assure that the fingerprint was not generated previously
and resent. If the fingerprint is encrypted it is decrypted a digital fingerprint image is generated. The features of
the fingerprint are then extracted. These features may include one or more of the following: minutiae, including
location and orientation; spatial frequency; curvature; ridge count; ridge distance/curvature between points;
relation to global features; code words generated by vector quantization to encode subunit spatial characteristics;
etc.
A template is created for the user. A template includes at least some of the features extracted from the
fingerprint. After the features are extracted, they may be jiggled slightly, to generate different hashes. That is,
the features may be moved incrementally, to compensate for a user not placing his or her finger in exactly the
same location as when generating the original cryptographic key (Error Correction Codes). The initial features
extracted are an initial condition for the cryptographic key. The hash generated from the initial features is used
to search the local key space.
The template is hashed. This hash is the cryptographic key. This cryptographic key is identified with
the specific fingerprint, and thus with a specific user. For this public key encryption, a private key is generated
based on the hash. A public key is generated to correspond to the cryptographic key. Methods of generating a
public key which corresponds to a private key include Standard Hashing Algorithms (SHA). Public key/private
key pairs are used to authenticate documents, encrypt documents, etc.
The cryptographic key is used. The cryptographic key is generated in order to do something specific.
The template is stored. The cryptographic key itself is not stored anywhere on the system. The template is stored
with the file for which it was used. The initial use of the key is now complete. A file may have been encrypted.
Such a file may be stored on the system, sent, or otherwise disposed of by the user. If the user wishes to decrypt
an encrypted document, or otherwise use the cryptographic key again.
The fingerprint is received from the user. The features of the fingerprint are extracted.
The fingerprint features, newly extracted, are compared to the template. The template includes some or all of the
features previously extracted from the fingerprint. The comparison tests whether the fingerprint received
belongs to the same user as the template.
A comparison is done to see if the features match the template. If the features do not match the
template, it jumps back to obtain a new set of fingerprints. The template is again hashed to create a
cryptographic key. Since the template was used to generate the first cryptographic key, the same key is
generated. The key can then be used in the above described manner. . It is this cryptographic key obtained that
now allows the verified voter, access to the e-voting system.
After the voter cast his vote for the party of his choice, the votes is split into packets of data, which is
encapsulated another packet with headers and then tunneled over a secured network facility (a VPN for this
model). At the receiving end (collection centers), the encapsulated packets is de-encapsulated (the encapsulation
and de-encapsulation is done via AES 128 encryption standards). The votes are now tallied at the respective
collection centers and the final tally is done at the INEC national headquarters in Abuja.

Fig 2 which shows an analytical representation of the Biometric Key Generation (BKG) technique adopted and
characterized in the proposed E-Voting system.

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Figure 2 an analytical model for enrollment and verification in a biometrically encrypted E-voting system vis
BKG.

3.3 Modeling Assumptions

In this research, the proposed E-voting system is assumed to fit into the Nigerian environment which
has 36 states as independent remote blocks. The BKG algorithm, we assume that multiple fingerprint samples F0
are collected during the enrollment exercise and processed. The fingerprint samples collected from the
individuals during the enrollment or registration process are processed and from the processed fingerprints,
cryptographic keys Nk which are going to be used to encrypt the votes would be generated. Nk would be
regenerated on representation of the same fingerprint sample F1 of which F1 ≈ F0’.
In this security and privacy based algorithm for the proposed E-voting system, the communication link
used between the various polling modules {pm1, pm2,……., pmn} and collection points {cp1,cp2,…Σcp} in this
model is the Open VPN backbone given as OVPNx where encrypted data (individual votes) En is tunneled via a
secure and private network VPNx that is built on top of existing physical network in context of VPN Multi-
Protocol Label Switching(MPLS).
It is assumed that VPNx maintains data privacy through the use of a tunneling protocol, AES 128 encryption
protocol and other security procedures.
This work assumes the use of two most common types of VPN setups; Remote access VPN and site-to-
site VPN. The Remote Access VPN configuration is used to allow the individual polling booths located at
remote sites to be able to communicate in a secure manner with the state collection centers while the site-to-site
VPN allows for creation of dedicated, secure connections between the various INEC state collection centers and
the national collection center across the open Internet or public connection.
Fig 3 gives a block diagram representation of the flow of information from the Remote Polling booth units
(RPBU) to the INEC State Collection Centers (SCC) and the INEC National Collection Center (NCC) i.e. the
end to end flow of information in the proposed E-voting system.

Each polling booth has these modules:

 Function keypad buttons
 Visual Display Unit
 The finger print module
 Secure Crypto-processor:
 Virtual Network Interface.

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Finger Print Function Visual

Module Keypad display
unit

Secure crypto-processor Polling Booth

at Wards

Virtual Network Interface

at
Statewards
(INEC)
Virtual Network Interface Collection Center

Finger Print
Module

Displayed Results
Secure at state level
Control Crypto -
keys Processor at
wards
Finger Print Module
Summation
of Results Virtual
Secure Crypto-
displayed Network
Processor
Interface

National Collection center

Figure 3: Flow diagram for the proposed E-voting

Each states collection centers and theLogical Interfaces

national fromcenter
collection End towill
End.have the following:
 Control keypad
 The finger print module
 Secure Crypto-processor
 Virtual Network Interface

IV. IMPLEMENTATION& EVALUATION

4.1 Simulation Design with Proteus 7.6
In the proposed the proposed E-voting system, Proteus 7.6 ISIS was used to characterize the individual
E-polling booths and collection centers. It provides the platform through which the various voting processes
were characterized. Typical applications of Proteus 7.6 ISIS include standard-based electronic and logical
component feature characterization. The Proteus 7.6 ISIS environment is organized into; probe/simulation
environment, component editor, sub circuit editor with a comprehensive collection of work tools that were used
to characterize the proposed E-voting system The Proteus 7.6 ISIS environment provides several modules for
the simulation comprising a vast enterprise of digital and analog tools which with friendly graphical user
interface that can be manipulated to achieve desired results.

3.3 Program Description Language (PDL) for the proposed E-voting system that leverages BKG
A) Polling booths PDL IF Hashed Finger Print = 1 THEN
START DO UNTIL Keypad = 1
Generate Hashed Key from Finger Print Display Chosen Party

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Transmit Vote IF Hashed Finger Print = 1 THEN
END DO
ELSE DO UNTIL Control Keypad = 1
Display ―Voter not allowed‖ Select Polling booth
END IF Tally Votes
END END DO
ELSE
B) Collection Centers PDL Do not grant access
START END IF
Generate Hashed Key from Finger Print END

The PDL shown above is a summary of the lengthy code used in the characterization of the proposed E-Voting
system that leverages BKG.

Figure 4: Proteus snapshots of the proposed E-Voting system that leverages BKG during Voting and Collection of total
results

Fig 4 presents a Proteus simulation snapshot of proposed E-voting system with the administrators of
the state and national collection centers having access to election results as the coming from the various polling
booths. It also shows two voters at different polling booths. An MPLS-VPN backbone for the proposed E-
Voting system that leverages BKG was characterized based on the parameters in Table 1.
OPNET modeler generates Trace files which are event scripts generated by the OPNET engine after a
successful compilation. The OPNET modeler has object palettes with block sets that are configurable with real
time or production values. It is these values fed into the OPNET engine that was used to characterize and
configure the VPN communication link and it is on that basis that the graphs in fig 7 a-d where generated

4.3 Results and Analysis

The results obtained from the simulation model test bed are presented. The tallied election results are
illustrated in pictorial capture on Proteus in the figure 5. The results were obtained from the proposed E-voting
system. OPNET was used to evaluate the communication metrics; latency, throughput, stability margin and
resource utilization.

Figure 5 Proteus snapshot capture of proposed E-Voting system that leverages BKG at the national collection
center displaying total results on Proteus 7.6

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4.4 Validation of Model’s Communication Link
For the purpose of validation of the proposed E-voting system communication link, OPNET modeler
was used to validate the traffic engineering in the system. OPNET was used to evaluate the end to end latency
between the polling modules and the collection centers, its throughput and its network resource utilization. It is
seen from the graphs that the VPNMPLS communication backbone for the proposed E-voting system would
have low end to end latency, high throughput and efficient resource utilization considering the design layout for
deployment of the proposed E-voting system

Figure 6: Snapshots capture of the OPNET modeler, showing how tunnels are created from end to end links in the MPLS
VPN communication channel.

4.5 Discussion of Results

OPNET was be used to evaluate the end to end latency between the polling modules and the collection
centers, its throughput and its network resource utilization. This formed the basis for validation of the proposed
E-Voting model that leverages BKG.
It is seen from the graphs in fig 7a, 7b, 7c; the MPLSVPN communication backbone for the proposed
E-voting system had high throughput, low end to end latency, and efficient resource utilization considering the
design layout for deployment of the proposed E-voting system.

Fig 7a Average Network Throughput Response

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Fig 7b Average Network Delay Response

Fig 7c Average Resource Utilization

V. CONCLUSIONS
A simulation model of an e-voting system leveraging on Biometric Encryption viz Biometric Key
Generation (BKG) technique for the proposed E-Voting system has been adopted and characterized. An MPLS
VPN backbone as its communication link has been successfully adopted and characterized. The communication
link has also been validated using metrics like end to end latency, Throughput, Network Stability and Tunnel
resource utilization. Worthy of mention is the fact that Biometric Key Generation (BKG) technique has not yet
been adopted in any E-voting system.

VI. REFERENCES
[1] Shane, P. (2004) Democracy Online: The Prospects for Political Renewal through the Internet. New
York: Routledge
[2] Cramer, R. Franklin M. Schoenmakers B. and Yung M. (2006) Multi-authority secret ballot elections
with linear work. In: Advances in Cryptology,EUROCRYPT'96, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
pp.72-83.
[3] Oleg Murk,Electronic Voting Schemes, M.Sc term paper,2000
[4] Ivan Damgard, Jens Groth and Gorm Salomonsen, The Theory and Implementation of an
Electronic,Voting System, July 31, 2002. Fujioka, T. Okamoto & K. Otha: A practical secret voting
scheme for large scale elections, Advances in Cryptology - AusCrypt '92, pp.244-251.
[5] Ohkubo and Abe: A Length-Invariant Hybrid Mix Proceedings of Asia Crypt 00, Springer Verlag LNCS.
[6] Abe: Universally verifiable MIX net with verification work independent of the number of MIX centers;
proceedings of Euro Crypt 98, Springer Verlag LNCS.
[7] Indrajit Ray, Indrakshi Ray, Natarajan Narasimhamurthi, ―An Anonymous Electronic Voting Protocol
for Voting Over The Internet‖.
[8] www.computer.org/security: Evaluating Electronic Voting Systems Equipped with Voter-Verified Paper
Records. IEEE Security & Privacy, 2008.
[9] Adem Alpaslan ALTUN and Metin BĐLGĐN, ― Web based secure e-voting system with fingerprint
Authentication‖ In Scientific Research and Essays Vol. 6(12), pp. 2494-2500, 18 June, 2011
[10] Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/SRE.

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[11] J.L, Wayman, ―fundamentals of biometric authentication technologies‖ Int. Image graphics, vol.1, no.1,
pp. 93-113, 2001.
[12] Cranor L. and Cytron R. (2007) Sensus: a security-conscious electronic polling system for the Internet.
In: Proceedings of the Thirtieth Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Vol.3, pp.561-570.
[13] G.J. Tomko, C. Soutar, and G.J. Schmidt. “Fingerprint controlled public key cryptographic system‖. U.S.
Patent 5541994, July 30, 1996 (Priority date: Sept. 7, 1994).
[14] Uludag U, Pankanti S, Prabhakar S, Jain AK: Biometric cryptosystems: issues and challenges. Proc IEEE
2004, 92(6):948 960.
[15] DIGITALPERSONA, INC., CALIFORNIA ―Cryptographic key generation using biometric data‖ U.S.
Patent 6035398 A, November 14, 1997 (Priority date: November 14, 1997).

PROFILE OF AUTHORS
Ossai Victor is an Engineer at Electronics Development Institute (ELDI), a research institute
of the National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI). He has his
research interest in Encrypted Biometrics Securities and Embedded system
designs/Simulations; he is currently pursuing his M.Eng. in Electronics / Computer
Engineering (Computer and Control option)at Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka.

Israel Okoro is a Scientific Officer at Electronics development institute, a research institute of

the national agency for science and engineering infrastructure (NASENI), He has his research
interest in power electronics and embedded systems, he is currently doing a masters degree in
physics electronics at Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka.

Alagbu Ekene is an Engineer at Electronics Development Institute (ELDI), a research institute

of the national agency for science and engineering infrastructure (NASENI). He has his
research interest in Artificial Intelligence and Neural Systems; he is currently pursuing his
M.Eng. in Electronics / Computer Engineering (Computer and Control option)at Nnamdi
Azikiwe University Awka.

Agbonghae Andrew is an Engineer at Electronics Development Institute (ELDI), a research

institute of the national agency for science and engineering infrastructure (NASENI). He has
his research interest in advanced embedded system designs /controls, Digital System
Processing and; he is currently pursuing his M.Eng. in Electronics / Computer Engineering
(Computer and Control option)at Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka.

Nneka Ifeyinwa. Okafor holds B.Eng. in Computer Engineering from Enugu State University
of Science and technology, (ESUT) while currently pursuing her M.Sc in Digital Electronics
and Computer Engineering from University of Nigeria Nsukka,(UNN). She has Oracle 10g
Expert Certification. Currently, she works as a Research Engineer in Electronics Development
Institute, Awka under National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure, Nigeria.
She is a graduate Member of Nigerian Society of Engineers, Awka Chapter and a member of
IAENG. Her research interests are on Software Graphics, Animation Modelling, Database
Management and System Analysis. Conact:

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-191-199
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Shear Reinforcements in the Reinforced Concrete Beams

Moayyad M. Al-Nasra1, Naiem M Asha2
1
(Department of Engineering Technology, West Virginia University Institute of Technology, Montgomery, West
Virginia 25136, USA)
2
(Department of Civil Engineering, University of Jordan, Amman Jordan)

Abstract: - This study focuses on the use of different types of shear reinforcement in the reinforced concrete
beams. Four different types of shear reinforcement are investigated; traditional stirrups, welded swimmer bars,
bolted swimmer bars, and u-link bolted swimmer bars. Beam shear strength as well as beam deflection are the
main two factors considered in this study. Shear failure in reinforced concrete beams is one of the most
undesirable modes of failure due to its rapid progression. This sudden type of failure made it necessary to
explore more effective ways to design these beams for shear. The reinforced concrete beams show different
behavior at the failure stage in shear compare to the bending, which is considered to be unsafe mode of failure.
The diagonal cracks that develop due to excess shear forces are considerably wider than the flexural cracks. The
cost and safety of shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams led to the study of other alternatives.
Swimmer bar system is a new type of shear reinforcement. It is a small inclined bars, with its both ends bent
horizontally for a short distance and welded or bolted to both top and bottom flexural steel reinforcement.
Regardless of the number of swimmer bars used in each inclined plane, the swimmer bars form plane-crack
interceptor system instead of bar-crack interceptor system when stirrups are used. Several reinforced concrete
beams were carefully prepared and tested in the lab. The results of these tests will be presented and discussed.
The deflection of each beam is also measured at incrementally increased applied load.

Keywords: – Concrete cracks, Deflection, Shear, Stirrups, Swimmer bars

I. INTRODUCTION
One of the main objectives of the design of reinforced concrete beams is safety. Sudden failure due to
shear low strength is not desirable mode of failure. The reinforced concrete beams are designed primarily for
flexural strength and shear strength. Beams are structural members used to carry loads primarily by internal
moments and shears. In the design of a reinforced concrete member, flexure is usually considered first, leading
to the size of the section and the arrangement of reinforcement to provide the necessary resistance for moments.
For safety reasons, limits are placed on the amounts of flexural reinforcement to ensure ductile type of failure.
Beams are then designed for shear. Since shear failure is frequently sudden with little or no advanced warning,
the design for shear must ensure that the shear strength for every member in the structure exceeds the flexural
strength. The shear failure mechanism varies depending upon the cross-sectional dimensions, the geometry, the
types of loading, and the properties of the member.
Reinforced concrete beams must have an adequate safety margin against bending and shear forces, so
that it will perform effectively during its service life. At the ultimate limit state, the combined effects of
bending and shear may exceed the resistance capacity of the beam causing tensile cracks. The shear failure is
difficult to predict accurately despite extensive experimental research. Retrofitting of reinforced concrete beams
with multiple shear cracks is not considered an option [1].
Diagonal cracks are the main mode of shear failure in reinforced concrete beams located near the
supports and caused by excess applied shear forces. Beams fail immediately upon formation of critical cracks in
the high-shear region near the beam supports. Whenever the value of actual shear stress exceeds the permissible
shear stress of the concrete used, the shear reinforcement must be provided. The purpose of shear reinforcement
is to prevent failure in shear, and to increase beam ductility and subsequently the likelihood of sudden failure
will be reduced.

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Normally, the inclined shear cracks start at the middle height of the beam near support at
approximately 450 and extend toward the compression zone. Any form of effectively anchored reinforcement
that intersects these diagonal cracks will be able to resist the shear forces to a certain extent. In practice, shear
reinforcement is provided in three forms; stirrups, inclined bent-up bars and combination system of stirrups and
bent-up bars.
In reinforced concrete building construction, stirrups are most commonly used as shear reinforcement,
for their simplicity in fabrication and installation. Stirrups are spaced closely at the high shear region.
Congestion near the support of the reinforced concrete beams due to the presence of the closely spaced stirrups
increase the cost and time required for installation.
Bent up bars are also used along with stirrups in the past to carry some of the applied shear forces. In
case where all the tensile reinforcement is not needed to resist bending moment, some of the tensile bars where
bent-up in the region of high shear to form the inclined legs of shear reinforcement. The use of bent-up bars is
not preferred nowadays. Due to difficulties in construction, bent-up bars are rarely used. In beams with small
number of bars provided, the bent-up bar system is not suitable due to insufficient amount of straight bars left to
be extended to the support as required by the code of practice.
In this study, three reinforced concrete beams were tested using the new shear reinforcement swimmer
bar system and the traditional stirrups system. Several shapes of swimmer bars are used to study the effect of
swimmer bar configuration on the shear load carrying capacity of the beams. Only three beams will be presented
in this study. The first beam, BC, is used as a reference control beam where stirrups are used as shear
reinforcement. The other two beams were reinforced by swimmer bars. Beam, BW is the beam which is
reinforced by two swimmer bars welded to the longitudinal top and bottom bars. Beam, BU is the beam which is
reinforced by U-link bars which are bolted to the top and bottom longitudinal bars along with two swimmer
bars. Extra stirrups were used to make sure that beam will fail by shear in the swimmer bars side. In this
investigation, all of the beams are supposed to fail solely in shear, so adequate amount of tension reinforcement
were provided to give sufficient bending moment strength. This study aims at investigating a new approach
of design of shear reinforcement through the use of swimmer bars provided in the high shear region. The main
advantages of this type of shear reinforcement system are: flexibility, simplicity, efficiency, and speed of
construction.
Piyamahant (2002) showed that the existing reinforced concrete structures should have stirrup
reinforcement equal to the minimum requirement specified the code. The theoretical analysis shows that the
amount of stirrup of 0.2% is appropriate. The paper concluded that small amount of web reinforcement is
sufficient to improve the shear carrying capacity. The study focused on the applicability of the superposition
method that used in predicting shear carrying capacity of reinforced concrete beam with a small amount of web
reinforcement at the shear span ratio of 3. Also the failure mechanisms were considered when small amount of
stirrup used [2].
Sneed, and Julio (2008) discussed the results of experimental research performed to test the hypothesis
that the effective depth does not influence the shear strength of reinforced concrete flexural members that do not
contain web reinforcement. The results of eight simply supported reinforced concrete beam tests without shear
and skin reinforcement were investigated. The beams were designed such that the effective depth is the variable
while the values of other traditionally-considered parameters proven to influence the shear strength (such as the
compressive strength of concrete, longitudinal reinforcement ratio, shear span-to-depth ratio, and maximum
aggregate size) were held constant. The values selected for the parameters held constant were chosen in an
attempt to minimize the concrete shear strength [3].
Noor (2005) presented several results of experimental investigation on six reinforced concrete beams in
which their structural behavior in shear was studied. The research conducted was about the use of additional
horizontal and independent bent- up bars to increase the beam resistance against shear forces. The main
objectives of that study were studying the effectiveness of adding horizontal bars on shear strength in
rectangular beams, the effectiveness of shear reinforcement, and determining the optimum amount of both types
of shear reinforcement to achieve a shear capacity similar to that of a normal links system. From experimental
investigation of the system it was found that, the use of independent horizontal and bent-up bars as shear
reinforcement were stronger than conventional shear reinforcement system [4].

II. SWIMMER BARS

A swimmer bar is a small inclined bar, with its both ends bent horizontally for a short distance, welded
or bolted at the top and the bottom of the longitudinal bars. There are three major standard shapes; single
swimmers, rectangular shape, and rectangular shape with cross bracings. Several additions to these standard
shapes can be explored, such as addition of horizontal stiffener bars in the rectangular shapes, dividing the large
rectangle horizontally into smaller rectangles. Additional swimmer bars can also be used. By adding one more

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swimmer bar to the rectangular shape, the large rectangular shape will be divided vertically into two rectangles.
Addition of two more swimmer bars will divide the large rectangle vertically into four small rectangles. A
combination of horizontal bars and additional swimmer bars may also be explored. This swimmer bar system is
integrated fully with the longitudinal steel bars. Several options of the swimmer bar systems are used in order to
improve the shear performance of the reinforced concrete beams, reduce the amount of cracks, reduce the width
and the length of cracks and reduce overall beam deflection. Different bar diameters can be used in order to add
stiffness to the steel cage, and increase shear strength of the reinforced concrete beam.

III. ACI CODE PROVISION FOR SHEAR DESIGN

According to the ACI Code [5], the design of beams for shear is to be based on the following relation:

Where: Vu is the total shear force applied at a given section of the beam due to factored loads and Vn = Vc + Vs is
the nominal shear strength, equal to the sum of the contribution of the concrete and the web steel if present.
Thus for vertical stirrups

and for inclined bars

Where: Aʋ is the area of one stirrup, α is the angle of the stirrup with the horizontal, and S is the stirrup
spacing. The nominal shear strength contribution of the concrete (including the contributions from aggregate
interlock, dowel action of the main reinforcing bars, and that of the un-cracked concrete) can be simplified as
shown in Eq. 4.

Where: bw and d are the section dimensions, and for normal weight concrete, λ = 1.0. This simplified formula is
permitted by the ACI code expressed in metric units [6].

IV. TESTED BEAMS

This study focused on investigating the shear strength of four different types of reinforced concrete
beams; beam reinforced with regular stirrups, beam reinforced with welded swimmer bars, beam with bolted
swimmer bars, and beam reinforced with U-link bolted swimmer bar. All specimens were of the same size and
reinforced with identical amount of longitudinal steel. The amount of longitudinal steel used in this study is, by
design, selected to make sure that the failure will be dictated only by shear and not by bending. The beams were
tested to fail due to two point loads by shear given the ratio of a shear span to effective depth of 2.5. The
compressive strength of concrete is measured according to ASTM C 192-57. Nine concrete samples were
prepared. The compressive strength of concrete is measured at the 28th day. The concrete compressive strength
results range between 27.4 N/mm2 to 30.2 N.mm2. The variables in these specimens are the shear reinforcement
systems.

Four reinforced concrete beams were prepared for the test, BS which the beam with regular stirrups,
BW which is the beam with welded swimmer bars, BB beam with bolted swimmer bars, and BU which is the
beam with U-link bolted swimmer bars. All of the beams are of the same dimension 2000 mm length, 200 mm
width and 250 mm depth. The effective length was also kept at constant value of 1800 mm. Summary of shear
reinforcement system for each specimen is given in Table 1. All tested beams were designed with 3ø14 top steel
and 4ø16 bottom steel reinforcement. The reference beam, BC, was designed with 10ø8 mm at 600 mm spacing

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vertical stirrup at either side without any stirrups at the high moment zone between the two concentrated loads.
New type of shear reinforcement called welded swimmer bars ‘BW’, bolted swimmer bars ‘BB’, and U-link
bolted swimmer bars ‘BU’ were used in this experiment. The swimmer bars were used as independent bent-up
bars and welded/bolted with ø10 mm steel piece. The swimmer bars used in beams BW, BB, BU are of ø10 mm
and spaced of 275 mm apart as shown in Figure 1. The weight of each steel cage is also listed in Table 1. The
weight of each steel cage is almost the same.
Figure (2) shows the steel cage used in beam BW, the welded swimmer bars, and Figure 3 shows the
steel cage used in BB, bolted swimmer bars, and Figure 4 shows the steel cage used in beam BU, the U-link
bolted swimmer bars. The weights of these two cages were intentionally designed to be very close in numbers.
The erection and assembling time of the bolted beam is relatively less than the erection and assembling time of
the welded beam.

Table 1: Summary of steel reinforcement used in the tested beams

Beam Shear Reinforcement Steel Cage
No. Vertical Bent-up Weight (N)
stirrup Bars
10ø 8 mm @ 600mm - 255
BC
at shear sides
Two welded swimmers, ø10 250
BW -
mm @ 275 mm
Two bolted swimmers, ø10 258
BB -
mm @ 275 mm
Two U-link Bolted swimmers, 255
BU -
ø10 mm @ 275 mm

Figure 1: Reinforcement details of BW, BB, and BU.

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Figure 2: Steel cage reinforcement of the beam BW, welded swimmer bars.

Figure 3: Steel cage reinforcement of beam BB bolted swimmer bars.

Figure 4: Steel cage reinforcement of the beam, BU, U-link bolted swimmer bars.

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V. TEST PROCEDURE
Prior to testing, the surface of the specimens was painted with white emulsion for the purpose of
making the cracks more visible and easy to track. At age 28 days reinforced concrete beams were prepared for
testing. Marking lines were used to show the location of the point loads, supports and the mid-span of the beam
in order to make it easier to install the beams on the testing machine. The test was carried out with the specimen
placed horizontally in a simple loading arrangement. The beams were supported by solid round steel on their
two edges that can be considered as simply supported beam member. All the beams were designed to ensure the
beams will only fail in shear rather than in flexure.
To ensure that shear cracks will occur near the support, two point loads were applied symmetrically to
the beam with av less than 2.5d. In this testing, av ≈ 550 mm, where av is shear span ( the distance from the point
of the applied load to the support), and d is the effective depth of a beam.
A loading jack was placed at the mid-span position above the beam. The load was applied by jacking
the beam against the rig base member at a constant rate until the ultimate load capacity of the beam was reached.
A universal column section was used to transfer the load to the beam at two point loads via transfer girder. A
reasonable time interval was allowed in between each 20.0 kN load increments for measuring deflections,
marking cracks, measuring the shear reinforcement strain and recording the ultimate load. Each beam took about
two hours to complete the test. The cracks were monitored at each load increment. Figure 5 shows the
experimental set up.

Figure 5: Experimental set up and crack monitoring

VI. TEST RESULTS

The beam BC showed typical mode of failure by shear at the ultimate load of 180 kN. Beam BW, BB,
and BU showed quite similar mode of failure. Several micro-cracks appeared early in the loading process. These
cracks were extended and widened as the load increases. These cracks became visible at the load of about 100
kN. As the loading was increased more cracks developed. The cracks migrate towards the top corners as the
load increases. More flexure cracks appeared at a load of 100 kN in the moment region. These cracks increased
by increasing the applied load, and new cracks developed but at relatively slower paste. Figure 6 shows the
beam BU at failure stage which identical to the mode of failure of the beams BC, and BB. Figure 7 shows the
mode of failure of the welded beam BW.

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Figure 6: Beam BU at failure stage

Figure 7: The mode of failure of the welded beam BW.

Figure 8 shows the maximum applied load the beam carried just before failure. All of the tested beams
in this study failed by shear. The beam of welded swimmer bars exhibit similar strength as the beam of U-link
bolted swimmer bars, and the bolted swimmer bars BB. This proves that welding can be avoided when dealing
with swimmer bars. The welding process is of a major concern when it comes to the quality control of the
welds.

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Figure 8: Shear strength of the three tested beams

Figure 9 shows the maximum recorded deflection just before failure. No major difference in the load deflection
relationship was observed in the tested beams. Beams deflection increased with the increase in load up to the
failure load.

Figure 9: Maximum deflection at mid-span of tested beams just before failure.

VII. CONCLUSION
This study presented four different types of shear reinforcement that can be used in reinforced concrete
beams. New type of shear reinforcement system was used, which is swimmer bars system either bolted or
welded to the longitudinal bars. There is improvement in shear strength of reinforced concrete beams by using
swimmer bars in general. The bolted swimmers bars through U-links showed similar results as the welded. The
width and length of the cracks were observed to be less using swimmer bars compared to the traditional stirrups
system. The bolted swimmers bars as well as the u-link bolted swimmer bars exhibit similar behavior under
load compared to the traditional stirrups system.

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REFERENCES
[1] Al-Nasra, M.M., and Wang, L.R.L., 1994, Parametric Study of Slab-On-Grade Problems: Due to Initial
Warping and Point Loads. ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 91 No. 2. http://www.concrete.org/PUBS/JOUR
NALS/OLJDetails.asp?Home=SJ&ID=4596
[2] Piyamahant, (2002) , Shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams with small amount of web
reinforcement, M. Eng. Dissertation, Kochi University of Technology, Japan
[3] Lesley H. Sneed and Julio A. 2008, Effect of Depth on the Shear Strength of Concrete Beams without
Shear Reinforcement, USA Portland and cement Association. http://www.cement.org/exec2/11-03-
08.htm
[4] Noor Hamid (2005). The Use of Horizontal and Inclined Bars as Shear Reinforcement , Master Thesis,
University of Technology , Malaysia, http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B26643352.
[5] ACI 318-11, 2011. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete Commentary.
http://www.concrete.org/pubs/newpubs/31811.htm
[6] Edward G.Nawy, 2009. Reinforced Concrete: A Fundamental Approach, Prentice Hall International,
US, PP 120-315, ISBN 0132417030, 9780132417037

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-200-204
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Water Quality Assessment of Ake Stream, Near College of

Advanced and Professional Studies Makurdi, Nigeria.
Dr. Aho, I.M., Gbayan, N.T. and Engr. Lagasi J.E.
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Agriculture Makurdi, Nigeria
3
Department of Agric Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi, Nigeria

Abstract: - Analysis of the physico-chemical and biological quality of Ake stream located near College of
Advanced and Professional Studies Makurdi, Benue State Nigeria was examined over duration of 7 months. The
survey was conducted in the period between April and September based on random sampling with a view to
ascertaining the impurity level of the stream. The physico-chemical analysis gave average results for
Temperature, Turbidity, Iron, Chromium and Sulphate as 28.7 0C, 200.5NTU, 2.0, 0.2 and 44.3mg/l respectively.
The Bacterial load per 100ml of water ranged between 978 – 1800 giving average value of 1389. The overall
results revealed that the stream is heavily stagnated, especially in terms of microbial load, which is an indication
of human and feacal contamination. Most of the physical and chemical perimeters were above the maximum
permissible levels, indicating that treatment is required before water from the source can be used for domestic
applications.

Keywords: - Analysis, Ake stream, Examined, Impurity, Domestic application.

I. INTRODUCTION
Water is undoubtedly one of the most precious natural (divine) resources that exist in our planet,
(Karthikeyan and others, 2007). The public health significance of water quality cannot be over emphasized since
many infectious diseases are transmitted by water through the fecal-oral route.
It is thus, important that drinking water should be safe and portable. The bacterial qualities of surface
water, pipe borne water and other natural water supplies in Nigeria have been reported to be unsatisfactory, with
coliform counts far exceeding the level recommended by the World Health Organization (Edema et al 2001).
Ake stream, which is located in Myade Asta community of Makurdi local Government area of Benue
State lies on undulating plain of River Benue, about 50m from the College of Advanced and Professional
Studies Makurdi. The stream flows to River Benue.
Makurdi the headquarter of Benue State, lies within Longitude 70 45 oE and 80 00 oE and Latitude 70
45 N and 80 15 oN. The area is located within the hot humid climate belt, with fairly high temperatures,
o

especially between April and October, with the heaviest rainfall usually between July and September. It is
however warm and humid during the rainy season with a mean temperature range of 26 0C to 300C, and mean
rainfall of 1300mm.
The geological formation of Makurdi is underlain essentially by sand stones. Though in some areas
one finds thin bed of clay, shale and limestone. The geology of the area influences the quality of water to be
obtained. Streams on steep slopes flow swiftly; they often have better water quality than streams on gentler
slopes. Streams on steep slopes also experiences more turbulence as water cascades over rocks and logs, adding
oxygen to the water by mixing with the air. Streams located on mild slopes do not have the benefit of turbulent
mixing to aerate the water. Swift-flowing streams, however, have greater energy for causing erosion.
The dwellers of this community face serious threats to the quality of life and safety with urbanization
resulting into high degree of population densities and concentration of socio-economic activities. It has become
increasingly difficult to meet the entire water requirement both in quantity and quality. The public water supply
is generally inadequate and in most cases inaccessible, the supply is intermitted and unreliable thus resulting
into high dependency on unsafe supplementary sources such as streams, and ponds which are harmful to human
health (Kakulu Osibanjo,1992; Olajire and Imeppeoria, 2001; Nnodu and llo,2002). There is therefore the need

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to determine the quality status of Ake stream which is one of the major sources of water supply in the
community.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sample Collection
Stream samples were carefully collected in very clean disinfected containers. The samplings were done
upstream, midstream and downstream at 10m apart by dipping at approximately 20-30cm below the water
surface, projecting the mouth of the container against the flow direction. Samplings were done three (3) times a
month, namely, beginning, middle and the end. A total of fifty four (54) samples were collected.

Sample Analysis
Samples were collected from April to October 2012. The laboratory analysis was done at the Benue
State water board laboratory in Makurdi. The physical, chemical and bacteriological properties of the samples
were analyzed immediately they were taken to the laboratory following standard procedures as described by
(PEPA, 1991).
The equipment used for the determination of these parameters include: Hach direct reading spectrophotometer
model DR/200 for turbidity, fluoride, suspended solids and colour. Mercury thermometer was used for
temperature measurement conductivity meter model 50150 was used for determination of electrical
conductivity. pH was obtained by colometric technique and chloride by mercuric nitrate method. Similarly,
titrimetric and pillow methods were used for total hardness and total iron respectively. Sulphate and phosphate
were determined by sulfaver 4 and phosver – 3 methods respectively. 1,5 – diphenlycarbohydrazide method was
adopted for chromium determination and MPN-multiple technique was for coliform enumeration.

3.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results from the seven months experimental analysis are as shown in figures 1 – 14. The properties and
findings are as discussed below.

Physical Parameters
Apart from total dissolved solids (TDS) with average value of 52.9mg/l, colour and turbidity values
were far above the acceptable limits specified by world Health organization. The distribution as seen in figures 1
– 4 shows maximum pollution between the rainy months of April and May. The average temperature of the
stream as indicated in figure 2 agrees with the ambient temperature range of Makurdi and its environs.

Chemical Parameters
The pH of the water changed from being slightly basic (7.5) in July to slightly acidic (6.4) in August.
This may be attributed to the geological formation of the area as shown in figure 5. The concentration of iron in
the stream especially in the months of May to August indicates maximum levels between 0.27 and 5.74mg/l
(figure 6); far above the recommended 0.05mg/l by WHO (1993). The same trend was observed for sulphate and
chromium as indicated in figures 10 and 11 respectively. And so largely, only total hardness (figure 9) was
found within acceptable limit as specified by World Health Organization (1993) of the assessed chemical
parameters.
The chemical oxygen demand of the stream varied from 147 to 207mg/l and Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
varied from 73 to 87mg/l throughout the study period (figures 12 & 13). Higher levels of COD were observed
middle stream and downstream of the discharge points. This is considered undesirable since continuous effluent
discharge is already impacting negatively on the quality of the freshwater, and capable of causing harm to the
aquatic life downstream.

Biological Parameter
The result of the coliform count was high ranging from 978 to 1800MPN/100ml of water (see figure 14). The
high limit is indicative of gross contamination which may be due to disposal of fecal waste in the stream. It may
also be due to time of the study (April – October, 2012) which are months of rainy season usually associated
with seepage due to runoff that contaminates surface waters (Isikwue and others, 2011).

III. CONCLUSION
The water quality assessment has revealed the negative impact on the physio-chemical and biological
parameters of the stream. This is likely to pose health risk to the rural Ake community that rely on it as their
main source of domestic water supply.
While measures should be put in place by relevant agencies in the state to create awareness on the dangers
associated with the use of Ake stream for domestic consumption, government of Benue State is requested to

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render assistance by providing portable water supply to the community. Meanwhile, boiling of water from the
stream before domestic application by the community is recommended

REFERENCES
[1] Edema, S.A., Ekiye, E. O. and Zejiao, L.O. (2001). “Water Quality Monitoring in Nigeria”.
Journal of American Science Vol. 6(2):22-28.
[2] Isikwue, O.O, Ahmed, K. and Tanko, A. I. (2011). Assessment of Water Quality Changes for Irrigation in
the River
[3] Hadeja Catchment. Journal of Arid Agriculture Vol. 10(2): 89 – 84.
[4] Kakulu, O. O. Anna, E. O. and Adedipe, N. O. (1992). Water Quality Monitoring and Environmental
Status in
[5] Nigeria. FEPA Monograph 6, Abuja, Nigeria pp. 239 – 242.
[6] Karthikeyan, S. T., Katsuro, A. and Hayao, S. (2007). Heavy Metal Distribution in River Waters and
Sediment a
[7] firefly Village. Analytical Science Vol. 20. Pp. 79 – 84.
[8] Nnodu, K.K. and 110, A.C. (2002). Quality Evaluation of Portable Water and Waste Water in Imo State.
[9] Unpublished Ph.D Thesis.
[10] PEPA (1991). Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution Control in Nigeria. Environmental
Standards
[11] Parts 2 and 3, Lagos Nigeria.
[12] WHO (1993). International Quality Standard for Drinking Water. World Health Organization Geneva.
[13] WHO (2002). Water and Health in Europe; WHO Regional Publication; European Series Number 93.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-205-213
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Detection of Hazardous Elements in Foundation Layers in

Carbonate Coastal plain, Port-Sudan – Suakin, Red Sea, Sudan
Al-Imam, O. A. O.; Elzien, S. M.; Mohammed A. A.; Elkrail, A.B.;
& Mustafa A.A.
Faculty of Petroleum & Minerals, Al-Neelain University, Khartoum, Sudan

Abstract: - The area between Port-Sudan and Suakin is a carbonate coastal plain affected by climatic and
environmental factors. Boreholes and trial pits were drilled to expose subsurface sediments and bore water
samples from deferent depths. The samples were obtained for geochemical analyses which show interaction as
ionic exchange in a complex process with sea water. The area has been subjected to both weathering and
deposition process due to combination of factors. Sea water interaction, rainfall, evaporation rate and material
supply by the drainage pattern.The Hydrochemical of the groundwater indicates dominance of the Cl - and SO-24,
whereas, that of cation indicates the dominance of Na + and Mg2+ ions. Consequently, four types of groundwater
can be chemically distinguished: Na-Cl -facies; Mg-Na-Cl- facies, Na-Ca- Cl-faciesCa-Mg-Na-Cl –facies and
Na-Ca-Cl - Facies. The dominance of Na+, Cl- and SO4-2 ions with very high concentrations reflect an existence
of sea water intrusion phenomenon.
The hazardous constituent of the foundation layer had been detected by weathering – deposition companion
model.

Keywords: - Port-Sudan and Suakin, carbonate coastal plain, sea water,subsurface sediments,and ionic
exchange

I. INTRODUCTION
The construction engineers are face real problems to decide the foundation layer in the Sudanese
coastal plain, due seasonal and inter-seasonal subsurface characteristics changes. The rainfall, Evaporation, Sea
water interaction with the subsurface and drainage pattern has significant influences in the foundation layers
characteristics. Weathering and depositional products subjected to chemical change during transportation as ion
exchange which were take place in pore water and subsurface sediments. The prevailing subsurface condition
(Alkaline and Acidity environment) assists in form of activities and sinkholes in suchformation (Al-Imam,
2005). Geological investigations were provided that several locations in Sudanese coastal plain characterized by
different size of cavities and sinkholes filled by loose fine sediments (Al-Imam, 2005).
Coastal reef limestone covered the area at depth (more than 60m) and mainly geologically formed of Aragonite,
Calcite, Mg-Calcite and Dolomite. These carbonate minerals mostly refer to organic origin. The nature of
carbonate distribution reflects the coral of carbonate mineralogy by the balance between the organic carbonate
(mainly coarse grained constituents composed of aragonite and high Mg-Calcite) and terrigenous carbonate
contribution (Calcite and Dolomite) (Al-Zain& Al-Imam, 2002, 2004; Al-Zain, Al-Imam and AlShafie,
2005).
Sabkha along the coast between Port-Sudan and Suakin are super tidal surface which has been
developed as result of sedimentation. Al-Amoudi (1993) reported that the Sabkha deposits appear to be
cemented and the process of cementation are selective and varies with depth. At the present, the red sea has
marks rainfall deficit (an excess of evaporation over precipitation personal communication), (Metrological
Department-Port-Sudan office). The depth of ground water level in our Sabkha isaffected by continuous water
evaporation process and chemically stable (dehydration of Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) to (CaSO4).
Previous studies and literature is very scanty even. Managed realignment is one of several “soft” engineering
options which may reduce the cost of coastal defense, providing a more natural response on the problem of

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rising sea level and at the same time deliver environmental especially natural conservation benefit (Flemming
and Delafonlaina, 2000: Watts et al., 2000 and Zheuhan et al., 2004). However, coastal geotechnical
engineering as a field of investigation causing a lack of information so that engineering properties of coral reef
limestone was ignored.

II. LOCATION AND SAMPLING

The area of study extends about 60Km from Port-Sudan to Suakin harbor bounded by coordinate lat.
(19º 00ʹ ; 19º 50ʹ N) and long (37º 00ʹ ; 37º 30ʹ E) Fig (1).
Five sites were selected for sampling there are:
1- Tahlyia site: seven boreholes were drilled adjacent KhorSalalab of 40m depth in average to obtained
subsurface sediments and pore water plus sea water sample.
2- DamaDama: about 7.0 km southern Port-Sudan. Two exploration boreholes of 40m depth for sediments and
pore water samples plus surface and from 5.0m depth sea water samples.
3- Green area: (Southern Port) one trial pit of 0.6m on the back shore for sediments and pore water plus
surface and one from 5.0m depth sea water samples.
4- Free Zone: about 37km from Port-Sudan toward Suakin. Two trial pits of 3m and 4m for sediments and
pore water and one surface sea water samples.
5- Suakin: one trial pit of 1.0m on Sabkha flat and one surface sea water samples.

Fig. 1: Location Map of the Study area

III. GEOLOGY
The coastal plain of the red sea, Sudan, is located between the shore line and the Red sea hills. The
basement rock occur over a large area in North- West Sudan of Pre- Nubian sand stone age which exhibit
variable degree of metamorphism including sediments incorporate into complex sequence of igneous intrusive
and extrusive suite (Gass, 1981: Babikir, 1977: Vail, 1979: El-Nadi, 1984).
The igneous rocks cover a large area with unknown thickness of foliated and un-foliated granite and diorite (El-
Nadi, 1984). The meta-sedimentary inliers reaching the amphibolite metamorphic facies crop out in the
Northern and Southern Red Sea Hills and West of Port-Sudan included a continental origin of the sediments (El-
Tom, 2002; Al-Imam, 2005). Volcanic sedimentary unit and green Schist assemblage’s crop out NW Port-

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Sudan and Suakin. However, the shield in the Red sea hills region had been more stable during most of lower
and upper Paleozoic eras. Nubian sandstone is widely and in different continental environmentsdeposition of
cretaceous. In the coastal plain, these Nubian form a wide part with other continental material reach the
coastline particularly in the near shore zone (Cowell et al., 2005; Punter, 1989).The widely spread Pre-
Cambrian Afro-Arabian shield which had been available uplifted and eroded in the Red Sea region to produce
three successive sequence of mixed carbonate and clastic sediments. The ultimate sedimentary phase was
succeeded by period of large scale intrusion variously called the ring complexes are injection and red granite
(Krӧ ner, 1993).
The Quaternary and Recent formation are classified as marine and continental sediments. The drainage
system (Khors and Wadis) is filled by Quaternary continental sediments such as gravel, sand and silt varying in
thickness. These depositions are alluvial deposits controlled by the configuration of the basement complex bed
rock. Generally, Quaternary and Recent marine sediments are mainly composed of reef and reefal sand. Sabkha
deposits and salt rocks mostly covered the back shore area (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Geological Map around the Study area

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IV. REGIONAL TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION
Carbonate builds up on both tectonically passive active margins. Both were available in Sudanese
coastal plain which had been subjected to tow different movements: vertically uplift and lateral displacement.
However, reef complex may have originated grown over the uplift block resulting from faulting in the Pre-
Pleistocene. Coral reef limestone terrace between Port-Sudan and Suakin has been uplifted 2.5m by vertical
movement of the submerged coral bed rock. The lateral distribution of different facies in the Sabkha and reef
flat has the same constituent and trend. Lateral shifting and depositional setting was frequent and could lead to
lateral discontinuous shallowing upward (Al-Zain and Al-Imam, 2002, 2004,Al-Zain; Al-Imam, and
AlShafie 2005).
The onshore Pleistocene sediments are largely coarse graver and sand thought to have been derived
from the basement complex. They reflect primarily rapid lateral attenuation siliciclastic deposits which may
replace as such as in Green area. Back shore or any later overlain by carbonate as in Khor Salalab (Tahlyia
site).Two separate groups of evidence that are related to deposition of alluvial wadi deposits and that to marine
succession are involved. Marine sequence in particular are built up of sediments accumulations (mostly after
reef), formed when sea level was higher than the highest point within the deposition. These are punctuated by
erosion surface which may represent sea level or sub aerial surface. In Free zone, the coral reef assemblage
height about 2.5m referring to sea-level while had with drawl simultaneously with uplift process. In contrast,
compensation of these processes is represented in Suakin region at the entrance of main harbor which uplifted
up to 3.0m.
The coastal plain on which the drainage system run through have varied view of alluvial terrains
deposits such as fan of Pleistocene debris spreading seaward a cross the coastal plain and have been dissected by
more recent streams activity. In general, alluvial deposits are correlated with period of high rainfall. Recent
sands, commonly coarse and arkosic are associated with heterogonous gravels. These are lateral gradation from
unsorted screes to stratified and current-bedded sands and more grounded gravel. However, some of these
alluvial deposits are resting on coral reefs, while others are laterally equivalent to carbonate.

V. HYDROGEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Sea water, pore water and trial pit sediments samples have been analyzed to measure the hazardous
cations and anions using HASH (1989) method. Results of different waters are compared with sea water which
used as standard content

Table 1: Hydrochemical Facies of the Water from Port Sudan-Suakin area

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Fig.3: Piper Diagram for Coastal groundwater from Port Sudan to Suakin (Piper, 1953)

The results of the chemical analyses of the total wells in the study area were plotted on Piper diagram
(Fig. 3) for hydrochemical facies. As results, groundwater is significantly dominated by Na +, and Cl- ,
ions(Table 1). The content of cations and anions give an indication of increasing salinity of pore water.
However, the sub surface stratigraphic facies, geomorphological feature, structural and tectonic provide that the
area is well developed karsts formation. Such formation consist of carbonate minerals e.g. Calcite CaCO3 and
Dolomite Ca Mg (CO3)2.
In Tahalyia, pore water, Na+ has excess content in range of 10.58% - 16.85% where K+ (2.57% -
6.95%), Ca2+ (1.34 % - 3.21%) and Mg2+ (0.97% - 7.08%) are less in average values. In contrast, a complexity
in the distribution of the anions concentration reflects the inland interaction. NH3- is completely absent; where
NO2exceed by 0.01% to 0.13% in content than that of the sea water, but there is not recorded in boreholes
numberTBw–4;TBw–5 and TBw–7. The distribution of content of NO3 is approximately similar to that of NO2.
Bicarbonate (HCO3) and sulphate (SO42-) recorded more concentration than sea water by 0.45% to 1.8% and
4.11% to 3.46% respectively. Cl- has regular distribution with less concentration, except in borehole No. TBw–3
and TBw–6 where is associated with high concentration of SO42- (3.47% and 0.21% respectively). Most of pore
water have the same content of fluorite but generally reflected as high content.
In Dama Dama, generally, K+ has less concentration by 1.99% than sea waters where other cations are
increasing. The difference between DBw-1and DBw-2 in Na+ concentration is 5.67% but in DBw-2 K+, Ca2+
and Mg2+ recorded more than these in DBw-1. Although these boreholes are located in the same environment,
Cl- is decreasing in DBw-1 by 0.78 % and increase by 5.09% in DBw-2 with reverse content of SO42-.
Very wide variation in concentration of both cations and anions in Green area (GPw-1) compared with sea
water, where Na+contents is 17.1% and K+ is 3.44% respectively increasing, while, Ca2+ 10.57% and Mg2+
4.78% decrease. All anions have excess concentration in different percentage: 18.2% Cl -, 0.98% SO42+, 0.43%
F, 17.25% HCO3 and No3 1.45%.
The result of (FPW-1) pore water shore that all anions and cations have less content than sea water,
except Cl- which approximately equal of that of sea water. The coastal (SPw-1) in Suakin is characterized by
high concentration of Na+ and Ca2+ compared to sea water. They have 0.45% and 0.99% while K+ and Mg2+
decrease by 0.96% and 0.48% respectively.
The pH values of sea water and most of pore water are in ranges 7.0 to8.0 where some other pore
waters are less by (6.7-6.9). Although Na+ is high concentration in pore water, the pH values are less than sea

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water referring to the anions balance between them (sea water and pore water). SO 42+, HCO3 and Na+ cause the
acidity in some pore water.

VI. GEOCHEMISTRY OF SUBSURFACE SEDIMENTS

Result of chemical analyses of samples of water obtained using atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(A.A.S) as shown in (Table 2).Cl- and SO42-content in Tahalyia subsurface sediments varies between (1.26%-
1.86%) and (0.43%-2.7%) respectively. It is very low content when compared with pore water. Although the
trial pits consist of different types of sediments, they have more or less the same content of Tahalyia subsurface
sediments. However, any consist in content of anions in the sediments is due to the leaching from pore water
certainly in Sabkha deposits (GPs-1), FPs-1, FPs-2 and SPs-1). In deeper depths where clastic deposits occur,
the content in percentage of Cl- is more than carbonate (TBs-1, TBs-2 and TBs-4). In Sabkha deposits, where
pits are located, Cl- is high indicating the nature of Sabkha and salt marshes.
The content of anions generally, decreasing in pore water than in sediments. Clastic deposits are richer in Na +
than in carbonate. This high concentration of Na + as well as K+ in the first sample of DBs-1 as a resultant of
mixture with alluvial deposits on the surface in which Na + and K+ have the same behavior of content disruption.
Subsurface clastic deposits facies process, mostly rich in Na+ and K+ as sodic and alkaline sediments where
other elements predicated in carbonate pore water.

VII. DISCUSSION
Arid and semi-arid climatic factors have direct effect on different environment processes. Temperature,
moisture and humidity are affecting the physical and chemical properties of surface and subsurface sediments.
Geology, geomorphology and drainage system patterns play an important role in controlling effective factors
and mechanism of reaction. The capability ofdrainage patterns to carry a dense load and a large amount of

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clastic material as meta-sediments and meta-volcanics which are deposited over tertiary deposits toward the sea.
However, stratigraphy and geophysical studies show deep weathering to depth of 40m (Al-Imam, 2005). As the
sea water effected on pore water and surface sediments it is also directly influences directly subsurface layer.
These change due to the sea water seepage and interaction cause ionic exchanges with constituents of layers.
Carbonate rock and evaporation rate in such regionexceeding increasing content of Na+ and Cl- in pore water
and/or in the sediments. Clastic clay which is delivered from surrounding highlands and milky white materials
which originate from carbonate rock filled joints and fractions in form of kaolinite, bicarbonate, silicic acid and
release Na+, Ca+ and Mg2+. This condition stimulate the weathering reaction and causes Na + to be release with
exchange of H+ due to the excess of Na+ and high HCO3 concentration in shallow water table and deep pore
water in the subsurface layers. Formation of HCO3 causes depletion of H+ and CO22- leading to decrease in
grade of weathering process which require substantial amount of sea water to convert the alternated terrigenous
and clay minerals as biotite and K-feldspar to kaolin, silicic acid and bicarbonate. However, the weathering
processes are progressive and proceeds downward erosion through the layers. Newly formed minerals will be
transformed into other mineral assemblages by exceeding rate of evaporation (Salama et al., 1999).
As well as sea water sprays, Chlorite content in the rainfall decreases with increasing distance from the
sea. Different type of rocks in the Red Sea hills weather by rainfall. In the produce subjected to chemical
exchange during transportation through the carbonate coastal plain. Two process of water movement take place
in the coastal plain: 1- rain water percolation downward during winter (rainy season) and 2- evaporation by
capillary rise of hyper saline pore water during the year. The second process has more influence than of the first
one. Hereinafter, the formation of carbonic acid, bicarbonate and carbonate dissolution or precipitation involves
equilibrium with setting sequence of carbonate:
CO2 + H2O ------ H2CO3 …………………………………………………….... (1)
HCO3 + H+ ------- H2CO3 …………………………………………………….... (2)
and from weathering:
H++ CO3 ---------HCO3 ………………………………………….…………….. (3)
Ca2+ + 2HCO3 ------------CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O ……………………………….. (4)
As a result of exchange between pore water and subsurface sediments with increasing alkalinity and Mg2+ in
pore water, dolomite will precipitated.
Mg2+ + 2HCO3 + CaCO3 -------- CaMg (CO3)2 + CO2 + H2O…………………. (5)
As Ca2+ is removing, the Mg/Ca ratio is increases. At ratio of (6) or grater CaCO3 as aragonite in the sediments
possibly convert to dolomite conditioning by increasing evaporation and precipitation of Mg 2+(Drever, 1982).
Similarly, this process in Sabkha and salt marshes environments:
2CaCO3 + Mg2+ ---------- CaMg (CO3)2 + Ca2+……………………………...… (6)
The free Ca2+ associate with SO42-, with increase salinity to form Gypsum:
Ca2+ + SO42- + 2H2O ---------CaSO4.2H2O………………………………….…. (7)
When HCO3 is more and CO2 dissolved in water and reacts with Ca2+, Calcite will form (eq. 4). If weathering
process is reserved, silicic acid and sepiolite will form and other cations which are produced during weathering
process percolate downwards:
Mg2+ + 2HCO3 +4H4SiO4 ------------- Mg2Si3O6 (OH) 2 + 2CO2 + 6H2O……… (8)
The clay minerals (Alumino-silicates) are precipitated when degradation takes place in clays:
K+ + 2Al3+ + 1.5H4SiO4 + 5H2O --------- KAl2O3 (SiO2)1.5(H2O) + 6H+…….. (9)
The position of the groundwater samples in the anion triangle indicates dominance of the Cl- and SO-24, whereas,
that of cation indicates the dominance of Na+ and Mg2+ ions.Consequently, four types of groundwater can be
chemically distinguished: Na-Cl -facies; Mg-Na-Cl- facies, Na-Ca- Cl-facies Ca-Mg-Na-Cl –facies and Na-Ca-
Cl - Facies. The dominance of Na+, Cl- and SO4-2 ions with very high concentrations reflect an existence of sea
water intrusion phenomenon.

VIII. CONCLUSION
The precipitation of clay minerals fills the fissure fractions, cracks, voids and cavities. This process
may lead to sliding of buildings which are proposed to be constructing on such foundation layer and may also
causing settlement of foundation(Fig. 4).
Moreover, carbonic acid and silicic acid are may attack the concentrate and the reinforcing steel of foundation
causing corrosion and damage to foundation structures.
The equilibrium between the alkalinity and acidity in such environment is requiring as a factor in
subsurface constructions. The sulphate minerals in Sabkha environment such a Sepiolite and Gypsum are
directly precipitated in foundation layers associated with carbonic acid. To avoid the hazardous chemical
components, the pH value, type of building materials (type of cement, aggregate, brats...…..etc.) and foundation
design are very important and care should has been taken.

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Depositioning Weathering

Sheer zone High land Weathering

2+
CO2,Ca ,Mg
2+ Products

Coral reef Mg, K, Al, Si, Clays

limestone

Sea Water H2O

Seepage.
Transported of percolated

HCO3 H2CO3

Ca2+, Mg2+
HCO3, H4SiO4Mg,

Cl- Na+
CaCO3 Precipitation

H4SiO4 + Kaolinite Carbonate and clay minerals

Increasing of +HCO3 precipitation Attacked acid H O

Alkalinity
Depletion of H & CO Na, K, Ca, Ng, Si release

CaMg (CO) 2+ Increasing of

Ca2+
Mg, Ca ratio

Acidity rich in SO42- Ca Mg (CO)2 H4SiO4 + Mg2++HCO3

condition
Mg2Si3O6 (OH)2

Sepiolite
CaSO4 2H2O
Foundation Layer
CO2+H2O
Sabkha environment

Fig.4: Weathering depositions companion model

REFERENCES
[1] Al-Imam, O.A.O., (2005).Coastal Geotechnical Properties and Pilling Foundation Design area between
Port Sudan and Suakin, Red Sea, Sudan. Ph.D. Thesis, Alneelain University 300p.
[2] Al-Zain, S.M.& Al-Imam, O.A.O., (2002). Carbonate Minerals diagenesis in Towaratit Coastal Plain,
south Port-Sudan, Red Sea, Sudan. Nile Basin Research Journal.Alneelain University, Khartoum, Issue
No. 4, Vol. II p35 – 58.
[3] Al-Zain, S.M.& Al-Imam, O.A.O., (2004).Sea Level Changes and Evolution of Towaratit Coastal Plain
south Port-Sudan, Red Sea, Sudan.Nile Basin Research Journal.Alneelain University, Khartoum, Issue
No. 6, Vol.III, p 32-54.
[4] Al-Zain, S.M.; Al-Imam, O.A.O., and AlShafie A.I.,(2005). Surface Textural Characteristics of the
sediments in Towaratit Coastal Plain, south Port-Sudan Red Sea, Sudan, Natural Science Magazine,
Higher Education, Khartoum. SJBS (G), 6:149-167.
[5] Al-Amoudi, O.S.B., (1993). Chemical Stabilization of Sabkha soils at high moisture contents. Eng.
Geol., 36:279-291.
[6] Babikir, I.M., (1977).Aspects of the Ore Geology of Sudan. Ph.D. Thesis. University College og Cardiff.
U.K.
[7] Cowell, P.J.; Stive, M.J.F.; Niedoroda, A.W.; De Vriend, H.J.; Swift, D.J.P.; Kaminsky, G.M.;
Capobianco, M., (2005). The coastal tract (Part I): A conceptual approach to aggregated modeling of
low-order coastal change. Spec Issue, Jour. Coast.Res.
[8] Drever, I.J., (1982).The geochemistry natural waters.Prentice Hall, Englewood, Cliffs, NJ.
[9] El Nadi, A.H., (1984).The geology of the Precambrian metavolcanics. Red Sea Hills, NE Sudan. PhD.
Thesis. University of Nottingham, England, UK.
[10] El Tom, A.M., (2002).Water resources development and management, Red Sea State, Port – Sudan area.
Ph.D. Thesis. Alneelain University, Khartoum, Sudan.

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[11] Flemming, B.W.; Delafontaine, M.T., (2000). Mass physical properties of muddy intertidal sediments:
Some applications, misapplications and non-applications. Continental Shelf Research, 20:1179 – 1197.
[12] Gass, I.G., (1981).Pan-African (upper Proterozoic) Plate tectonics of the Arabian-Nubian Shield.In: A.
Kröner (ed) Precambrian Plate tectonic. 387-405.
[13] HASH (1989).Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. 17 th (ed). Rand, M.C. and
et al., New York U.S.A.
[14] Kröner, A., (1993). The Pan- African Belt of north-eastern and eastern Africa. Madagascar, southern
India, Sri Lanka and east Antarctica: Terrane amalgamation during formation of the Gondwana
supercontinent. In: Thorweihe, U., and Schandelmeier, H. (ed): Geoscientific Research in northeast
Africa, S3-9, Rotterdam (Balkema).
[15] Piper, A.M., (1953).A graphic procedure on geochemical interpretation of water analysis.U.S. Geol.
Surv.Groundwater, Note 12.
[16] Putner, Majid (1989). The Sudanese Red Sea: I, new developments in stratigraphy and petroleum –
geological evolution. J. of Pet. Geol. 12 (2): 145-166.
[17] Salama, R.B., Otto, J., and Fitzpatrick, W., (1999).Contribution of groundwater conditions to soil
water salinization Jour. Of Hydrol. 7: 46-64.
[18] Vail, J.R., (1979). Outline of Geology and mineralization of the Nubian shield east of the Nile Valley,
Sudan. In: Tahoun, S.A., (ed). Evolution and Mineralization of the Arabian Shield. 1: 97-107.
[19] Watts, C.W.; Tolhurst, T.J.; Black, H.S., and Whitmore, A.P., (2000). In situ managements of erosion
shear stress and geotechnical shear strength of the intertidal sediments of the experimental managed
realignment scheme at Tollesbury, Essex, U.K. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 58: 611-620.
[20] Zhenhan, Wu; Patrick, J.; Daogong Hu; Zhonghai Wu; Xitao Zhao; Peisheng Ye and Wan Jiang
(2004). Hazard posed by active major faults along the Golmud-Lhasa railway route, Tibetan Plateau,
China. Eng. Geol., 74: 163-182.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-214-220
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Analysis of Black Hole Effect and Prevention through IDS in

MANET
Nisha1, Simranjit Kaur2, Sandeep Kumar Arora3
1
(ECE, S.S.C.E.T Badhani/ PTU, India)
2
(ECE, S.S.C.E.T Badhani/ PTU, India)
3
(ECE, LPU Phagwara/LPU, India)

Abstract: - A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is an autonomous network. It is a collection of mobile nodes
that communicate with each other over wireless links. From last few years, the interest in the area of Mobile Ad-
hoc Network (MANET) is growing due to its practical applications and requirement of communication in
mobile devices. In the comparison to wired or infrastructure-based wireless network, MANET is vulnerable to
security attacks due to its fundamental characteristics, e.g., the open medium, dynamic network topology, lack
of clear lines of defense, autonomous terminal, lack of centralized monitoring and management. There are
various types of attacks in MANET which drops the network performance. Black hole attack is one of them. Ad
hoc On-demand Distance Vector routing (AODV) is a popular routing algorithm MANET. In this paper we
investigated the effects of Black Hole attacks on the network performance. In our work we simulated black hole
attacks in Network Simulator 2 (ns-2) and measured the throughput, PDF and routing load in the network with
and without a black hole. We also proposed a solution against black hole attacks using intrusion detection
system (IDS).

Keywords: - MANET, RP-AODV, Black hole attack, IDS.

I. INTRODUCTION
Wireless network is the combination of mobile computer nodes or stations that are not physically
wired. The main advantage of this type of network is communicating with rest of the world while being mobile
or wireless. But disadvantage is their limited bandwidth, memory, processing capabilities and open medium [1].
Wireless networks consist two basic system models are fixed backbone wireless system i.e. infrastructure based
network and Wireless Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) i.e. known as infrastructureless network. The
infrastructure based networks uses fixed and wired gateways. The bridges for these networks are known as base
stations which are responsible for coordinating communication between the mobile hosts (nodes). The other
type of network is infrastructureless mobile network commonly known as an ad-hoc network. In this type of
network the mobile nodes communicate with each other without any fixed infrastructure between them. An ad
hoc network is a collection of mobile nodes that do not rely on a predefined infrastructure to keep the network
connected. So all functioning of networks is dependent on the trust and co-operation between nodes. Nodes are
the mobile systems or devices i.e. mobile phone, laptop, PDA (personal digital assistance), MP3 player or
personal computer that is participating in the network. They can form arbitrary or dynamic topologies depending
on their connectivity with each other in the network. Nodes are very helpful to conveying information about the
topology of the network and share the responsibility of managing the network. Hence in addition to acting as
hosts, each mobile node does the function of routing as well as relaying messages for other mobile nodes [2].
However, due to its inborn characteristics of dynamic topology, lack of centralized management security and
limited physical security, MANET is vulnerable to various kinds of attacks than wired networks. As shown in
figure 1, ad hoc network consist several home-computing devices including cellular phones, laptops, PDAs and
so on. Communication can be done directly between nodes within its transmission range.
Most important networking operations include routing and network management [3]. There are many routing
protocols that provide efficient routing in the network. Routing protocols can be divided into three classes i.e.

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proactive, reactive and hybrid protocols, depending on the routing topology. Proactive protocols are basically
known as table-driven routing protocol. In this each node maintains predetermined routing information.
Examples of this type include DSDV, WRP and CGSR. Reactive protocol also known as source-initiated on-
demand protocols, in contrary, do not periodically update the routing information. Whereas in reactive routing
protocols, routes are established whenever it is necessary. Example of this type includes DSR, AODV, TORA
SSR and ABR. Hybrid protocols have features of both reactive and proactive approaches. Example of this type
includes ZRP. Security is a major concern in all kinds of communication networks, but ad hoc networks face the
greatest challenge due to their inherent nature. As a result, there exist various kinds of attacks that can be
performed on an Ad hoc network. [4]. In this work, we discuss one such attack known as Black Hole Attack on
the widely used AODV (Ad -hoc On-demand Distance Vector) routing protocol in MANETs. A mechanism
presented shows the method to detect & prevent from black hole attack in Mobile ad hoc network and also
protection through black hole attack activity using intrusion detection system (IDS) in AODV routing protocol.
Intrusion detection systems (IDS) are mainly used to detect and call attention to suspicious behavior.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In section II, we discuss the some related work for
security of MANET by routing attacks. Section III, describes overview of AODV protocol. Section IV (A) we
discuss Black hole Attack and in IV (B) describe solution to black hole attack. Section V presents the simulation
environment. Sections VI discuss important results obtained in simulation. Section VII describes the conclusion
of the paper and future work.

Figure 1: Wireless Ad-Hoc Network

II. LITERATURE REVIEW & RELATED WORK

The first intrusion detection model was developed in 1987 in which Denning proposed a model based
on the hypothesis that security violations can be detected by monitoring a system check records for abnormal
patterns of system usage [5]. In contrast to securing the routing layer of ad hoc networks, some researchers have
also focused on simply detecting and reporting misleading routing misbehavior. In contrast to securing the
routing layer of ad hoc networks, some researchers have also focused on simply detecting and reporting
misleading routing misbehavior. Researchers have proposed solutions to identify and eliminate a single black
hole node [1]. In [6], Marti, Giuli, Lai and Baker describe misbehavior detection and its effects. The paper
presents two extensions to the DSR algorithm: the watchdog and the path rater. The watchdog identifies
function of misbehaving nodes by listening promiscuously to the next node transmission. This technique is
imperfect due to collisions in routes, limited transmission power and partial dropping. In [7], Sen et al. have
presented a scheme for detection of malicious packet dropping nodes in a MANET. He provides a mechanism
i.e. based on local misbehavior detection and flooding of the detection information in a controlled manner in the
network so that the malicious node is detected even if moves out a local neighbourhood. In [8], black hole attack
is mitigated by analyzing the destination sequence number in the RREP packet. If the destination sequence
number in the RREP packet is higher than the destination sequence number at the source, then the node sent
RREP packet is assumed to a malicious node. In [9], he proposes a modified protocol viz. MR-AODV based on
our previous finding viz. R-AODV that eliminates limitations of existing mechanisms. MR-AODV isolates
Blackhole and Grayhole nodes during route discovery phase as R-AODV and sets up a secure route for data
transmission. In his simulation results prove that MR-AODV is a reliable solution which gives significant
improvement in PDR with acceptable average end-to-end delay and normalized routing overhead under various
network parameters and traffic conditions.

III. AODV-RP
In this paper we use AODV as the routing protocol. AODV is a reactive routing protocol and it is an
adaptation of the DSDV protocol for dynamic link conditions [10]. Basically it has combined properties of both
DSR and DSDV. It uses on-demand approach to find available routes, i.e. a route is established only when it is

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required by a source node to transmit the data packets. AODV protocol operates in two phases: route discovery
and route maintenance. It uses three types of control messages namely Route-Request (RREQ), Route-Reply
(RREP), Route Error (RERR) are used for establishing and maintaining the routing path from source to
destination. Route discovery process is used by node when the packet sender has no route to destination in its
Routing Table. When the source node wants to make a connection with the destination node, it broadcasts an
RREQ message over the network. This RREQ message received by neighbours or intermediate nodes of the
source node. Each node receives a RREQ will check its Routing Table to see whether it has a path to the
requested destination. It replies if there is one with RREP packet to source node. Source node receives multiple
RREP packets via different paths. Source node selects fresher and shorter path among them to send the
application data. If there is no route to destination, the RREQ is forwarded. Before forwarding, it keeps a
reverse path to the source node in its routing table. The Routing Table records the route information of the next
hop, the distance and the current highest sequence number it has seen. Route maintenance starts when its one
hop neighbours go out of its range. Then the node invalidates a cached route. It is used to notify the source node
or to trigger a new route discovery.
Sequence numbers are also used in the RREP messages. The sequence number is a 32-b it unsigned integer.
When a node sends any type of routing control message, it automatically increases its own sequence number.
Higher sequence number indicates more accurate information. When a node sends the highest sequence number,
its information is considered most up to date and route is established over this node by the other nodes. So, more
the sequence number means more is the freshness. A destination node updates its own sequence number either a
node initiates a route discovery process or a destination node responds to RREQ with a RREP.

IV. BLACK HOLE ATTACK

A Black Hole attack [11] is a kind of DoS attack where a malicious node can attract all packets to
pretend to have a fresh route to the destination and then absorb the network traffic and block data packets by
dropping them. Black Hole nodes are difficult to find if they start using sequence number comparable to the
current sequence number of networks. In Figure 2, we assume that Node M is the malicious node (Black Hole
Node). Node S is a source node initiates route discovery by broadcast RREQ packet to all nearest neighbour. If
this RREQ packet is received by malicious node M, it sends faked RREP packet by inserting high sequence
number in the attention of having valid or fresh route. AODV-RP relies on sequence number to check freshness
of the route. Then source gets deceived by the faked RREP packet and ignore all other replies from other nodes.
The node S sends data packets in that route. The malicious node, instead of forwarding data to destination it
simply drops. In this way black hole attack decrease the packet delivery percentage of the network significantly.
In this work, to see the effect of an attack on the network we modify RP-AODV to BLACKHOLEAODV. In
this we configure blackhole node to perform the attack in the network.

V. INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM

Intrusion detection is based in collection and analysis of system and network audit data. Upon
detection, intrusion should be reported to security management. It continuously monitors activities like packet
traffic. Each mobile node runs IDS independently to observe behaviour of neighbouring nodes, looking signs of
intrusion locally, making decision to prevent the system from attack or it can also request for data and actions
from neighbouring nodes if needed [12].

Figure 2: Black Hole Attack scenario

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Intrusion detection systems in the Ad Hoc networks are divided into various categories from different
viewpoints. The most important IDS systems are network based intrusion detection (NIDS) and host based
intrusion detection (HIDS). In NIDS detecting attacks and malicious actions are done with the help of
neighbouring nodes by their cooperation between each other. It runs on a gateway of a network and obtained
audit data from traffic and then analyzed the data collected. In HIDS data acquires through hope rating system’s
log files that run on the node. In ad hoc network, a combination of the HIDS and NIDS can be used to discover
attacks. This combination makes a powerful and distributed intrusion detection system. In this system, packets
are exchanged in the network and also data collected from the network nodes are considered as a basis for
intrusion detection.
As we know black hole attack is very difficult to detect than other attacks. To minimize the effect of
blackhole node and improve the performance of network we use IDS and also modify RP-AODV to IDSAODV.
As we see in III (A), black hole send an RREP message without checking the tables, it is more likely for the first
RREP to arrive from the Black Hole. But with the help of IDSAODV Protocol it will check the RREP packet
from Black Hole node for minimum path to destination and choose maximum destination sequence number. The
IDSAODV Protocol will discard the first RREP packet from Black Hole node and choose second coming RREP
packet from destination. The IDSAODV Protocol will also find another path to destination. To see the effect of
IDSAODV, we configure the nodes as IDSAODV Protocol in our work and observed various performance
parameters. We used same scenarios for IDSAODV as we used for normal RP-AODV and for Black hole attack
to do the comparison.

VI. SIMULATION AND RESULTS

In this section, we describe simulation environment and simulation results.

6.1 Simulation Environment

We use NS-2 (v-2.35), a network simulation tool to simulate wireless and wired communication
network. NS2 is discrete event simulator developed by the University of California in Berkeley. It provides a
good platform for MANET simulation. We simulate our model for 20, 30 and 40 nodes. The random waypoint
model is selected as a mobility model in a rectangular field (600 x 600 m 2). RP-AODV is used for simulation at
network layer. Nodes send constant bit rate (CBR) traffic at varying rates over UDP connections. Each packet is
of size 512 bytes. We have repeated the experiments by changing the number of node 20, 30 and 40 to see the
performance of network under attacks. The simulation parameters are given in Table I.

Table I. Network Simulation Parameters

Parameter Definition
Protocol AODV, BLACKHOLEAODV, IDSAODV
MAC layer IEEE 802.11
Simulation duration 500s
Node placement Random
Simulation area 600m *600m
Size of data packet 512 bytes
Traffic sources CBR/UDP
Number of nodes 20, 30, 40
Version NS-2 2.35

6.2 Result analysis

A simulation study was carried out to evaluate the performance of MANET in presence of attacks using metrics
such as throughput, packet delivery ratio and normalized routing load.

6.2.1 Throughput
It is defined as amount of data transferred from sender to receiver in a given amount of time. It is
measured in bits per second or packets per second. Throughput is calculated for the network in normal
condition, then in the presence of the black hole attack and in the presence of IDS to improve the performance
of network. Throughput values for 20, 30 and 40 nodes for normal AODV, BLACKHOLEAODV and for
IDSAODV are plotted in X-graph as shown in figure 3.

6.2.2 Packet delivery function

Packet delivery fraction is calculated by dividing the number of packets received by the destination

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through the number of packets originated by the application layer of the source (i.e. CBR source). It specifies the
packet loss rate, which limits the maximum throughput of the network. The better the delivery ratio, the more
complete and correct is the routing protocol. PDR is calculated by considering number of nodes 20, 30 and 40
for different routing protocols are plotted in graph as shown in figure 4. PDR characterize both correctness and
efficiency of network. It is observed from simulation that PDR value of network in normal condition is higher
than the network under attack but when we use IDS (intrusion detection system) in the presence of attack, the
PDR ratio again rise. PDR values for 20, 30 and 40 nodes for normal AODV, BLACKHOLEAODV and for
IDSAODV are plotted in X-graph as shown in figure 4.

6.2.3 Normalized routing load

Normalized routing load is the ratio between the total numbers of packets transmitted from routing
layer of the source to the total number of packets received at the application layer of the destination. It
characterizes the protocol routing performance under congestion. Normalized routing load values for 20, 30 and
40 nodes for normal AODV, BLACKHOLEAODV and for IDSAODV are plotted in X-graph as shown in
figure 5.

Figure 3: Throughput values for different routing protocols

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Figure 4: PDR values for different routing protocols

Figure 5: Normalized routing load values for different routing protocols

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VII. CONCLUSION
In this paper we are discussed the routing security issues of MANETs. Black hole attack can easily
deploy against the MANET. We introduced a black hole in each scenario and compared the performance of the
networks with and without a black hole. We also introduced a prevention of black hole attack through IDS. For
this we implemented an IDSAODV protocol. The observation and results shows that throughput increases in the
presence of IDS. The PDF in the presence of black hole attack varies from 10% to 40% but when we used IDS
to prevent the system from attack, the value rises and varies between 90 – 98%. The value for routing load
increases in the presence of black hole attack but drops when we applied IDS. The advantage of using this
approach is that IDSAODV does not require any additional overhead and require minimum modification in
AODV protocol and other one is that it does not make any modifications in the packet format hence can work
together with the AODV protocol.

REFERENCES
[1] Hongmei Deng, Wei Li, and Dharma P. Agarwal, “Routing Security in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks”,
University of Cincinnati, IEEE communication magazine, October 2002
[2] C.Siva S Ram Murthy and B.S.Manoj,” Ad hoc Wireless Networks – Architectures and Protocols”,
Pearson Education, 2007.
[3] V. Karpijoki, “Security in Ad Hoc Networks”, Seminar on Net Work Security, HUT TML 2000.
[4] Lidong Zhou, Zygmunt J. Haas, “Securing Ad Hoc Networks”, IEEE network, special issue,
November/December 1999.
[5] L. Prema Rajeswari, R. Arockia Xavier Annie, A. Kannan, “Enhanced Intrusion Detection Techniques
For Mobile Ad Hoc Networks”, Uk International Conference on Information and Communication
technology in Electrical Sciences (ICTES 2007), Dec. 20-22, 2007. Pp. 1008-101.
[6] S. Marti, T. J. Giuli , K. Lai, and M. Baker mitigating routing Misbehaviour in mobile ad hoc networks.
In mobile Computing and Networking (MOBICOM), Pp.255–265, 2000. Available
on:citeseer.ist.psu.edu/marti00mitigating.html.
[7] J. Sen, M. Girish Chandra, P. Balamuralidhar, S.G. Harihara, and H. Reddy, “A distributed protocol for
detection of packet dropping attack In mobile ad hoc networks”, in Proceedings of IEEE
International Conference on Telecommunications (ICT’07), May 2007, Penang, Malaysia.
[8] N. Mistry, D. C. Jinwala, and M Z averi, “Improving AODV protocol against black hole attacks, "
Proceeding of International Muiti Conference of Engineers and Computer Scientists vol. II, IMECS
2010, pp. 1034-1039, Hong Kong, March 17-19, 2010.
[9] Rutvij H. Jhaveri, “MR-AODV A Solution to Mitigate Blackhole and Grayhole Attacks in AODV Based
MANETs”, Third International Conference In Advanced Computing & Communication Technologies
(ACCT), pp.254 – 260, 6-7 April 2013.
[10] Charles E. Perkins, Elizabeth M. Belding- Royer, Samir R. Das, Mobile Ad Hoc Networking
Working Group, Internet Draft, February 2003.
[11] Yi-Chun Hu, Adrian Perrig, “A Survey of Secure Wireless Ad Hoc Routing”, IEEE Security and Privacy
May/June 2004.
[12] Niyati Shah and Sharada Valiveti, “Intrusion Detection Systems for the Availability Attacks in Ad hoc
network”, International Journal of Electronics and computer science engineering, Vol.1, pp.1850-1857.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-221-228
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Design, Construction and Effectiveness Analysis of Hybrid

Automatic Solar Tracking System for Amorphous and Crystalline
Solar Cells
Bhupendra Gupta1, Neha Sonkar2, Brahman Singh Bhalavi3, Pankaj J Edla4
1
Assistant Professor, Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur,
2,4
Student, Master of Engineering, Heat Power, JEC, Jabalpur
3
Assistant Professor, School of Energy & Environmental studies, DAVV, Indore, India

Abstract: - This paper concerns the design and construction of a Hybrid solar tracking system. The constructed
device was implemented by integrating it with Amorphous & Crystalline Solar Panel, three dimensional
freedom mechanism and microcontroller. The amount of power available from a photovoltaic panel is
determined by three parameters, the type of solar tracker, materials of solar panel and the intensity of the
sunlight. The objective of this paper is to present analysis on the use of two different material of Solar panel
like Amorphous & Crystalline in a Solar tracking system at Stationary, Single Axis, Dual Axis & Hybrid Axis
solar tracker to have better performance with minimum losses to the surroundings, as this device ensures
maximum intensity of sun rays hitting the surface of the panel from sunrise to sunset.

Keywords: - Solar Tracker, Three way of rotating freedom mechanism, Amorphous & Crystalline Solar Panel,
Microcontroller.

I. INTRODUCTION
At present, there is a great interest towards solving the energy problems facing the world. This has led
to research on alternative energy source that would complement the conventional fossil fuel. The alternatives
energy sources include solar, nuclear and wind, but in this research work we focused on solar energy. Solar
energy is the energy generated by the power of the solar radiation. It is the cleanest source of energy whose use
can contribute to saving exhaustible energy sources. Photovoltaic panels convert the suns radiation to electricity.
The amount of power available from a photovoltaic panel is determine by three parameters first, the type of
tracking system, material of the solar panel and the intensity of the sunlight. In this research the review in the
use of two different material Solar panel like Amorphous & Crystalline in a Solar tracking system at Stationary,
Single Axis, Dual Axis & Hybrid Axis solar tracker to have better performance with minimum losses to the
surroundings. As this device, solar tracker ensures maximum intensity of sun rays hitting the surface of the
panel from sun-rise to sunset.

II. THEORY
A solar panel must be able to follow the suns movement to produce the maximum possible power. This
is achieved through the designed and implementation of the tracker system, that maintains the panel orthogonal
position with the light source. The device is implemented by integrating it with Amorphous & Crystalline solar
panel, three dimensional freedom mechanism and microcontroller connected with the computer to accumulate
the data. The construction of the tracker is made up of three segments, the mechanical, computer Science and
electronics & electrical part respectively. The mechanical system consists of the DC motors, worm gears and the
frame that housed the entire system. The electrical & electronic system consists of PV sensor, a comparator
circuit and a microcontroller and at last to connect the complete system with computer by software to
accumulate data & data base.

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Fig 1 (a) Earth revolution around the Sun. Fig 1 (b) Position of Sun with respect to Earth.

Fig2. Tilt Angle  of a PV Array. Fig. 3. Equivalent electrical circuit of PV module

For many years, several energy companies and research institutions have been performing solar
tracking for improving the efficiency of solar energy production. The current work shows that a comparable
system can be designed at a lower cost particularly for academic institutions.
Before the advent of solar tracking, fixed solar panels have been positioned within a reasonable tilt
range based on the latitude of the location. A rule of thumb is to select a tilt angle of within ± 15° of the latitude
depending on whether a slight winter or summer bias is preferred in the system. The PV array would face “true
south” in the northern hemisphere and “true north” in the southern hemisphere. Solar tracking is best achieved
when the tilt angle of the tracking PV array system is synchronized with the seasonal changes of the sun’s
altitude and with the geographical insolation level for optimized solar tracking during the day
As depicted in Fig 1(a), the position of the sun with respect to that of the earth changes in a cyclic
manner during the course of a calendar year. Tracking the position of the sun in order to expose a solar panel to
maximum radiation at any given time is the main purpose of a solar tracking PV system. The normal to the cell
is perpendicular to the cell’s exposed face.
Fig2. The sunlight comes in and strikes the panel at an angle. The angle of the sunlight to the normal is the angle
of incidence (h). Assuming the sunlight is staying at a constant intensity (k), the available sunlight to the solar
cell for power generation (W) can be calculated as-
W =A k Cos (1)
Here, A represents some limiting conversion factor in the design of the panel because they cannot convert 100%
of the sunlight absorbed into electrical energy.

Equivalent electrical circuit of pv module, showing the diode and ground leakage currents.

Voc= V + I Rsh (2)

The diode current is given by the classical diode current expression:

I d= ID [QV/AKT-1] (3)

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Where ID = the saturation current of the diode

Q = electron charge = 1.6 · 10–19 Coulombs
A = curve fitting constant
K = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 · 10–23 Joule/°K
T = temperature on absolute scale °K

The load current is therefore given by the expression:

I = IL- ID [e Q Voc /AKT -1]- VOC /Rsh (4)

PV CELL TECHNOLOGIES
In making comparisons between alternative power technologies, the most important measure is the
energy cost per kWh delivered. In PV power, this cost primarily depends on two parameters, the photovoltaic
energy conversion efficiency, and the capital cost per watt capacity. The continuing development efforts to
produce more efficient low cost cells have resulted in various types of pv technologies available in the market
today, in terms of the conversion efficiency and the module cost. The major types are discussed in the following
sections:

(a) Single-Crystalline Silicon

The single crystal silicon is the widely available cell material, and has been the workhorse of the
industry. In the most common method of producing this material, the silicon raw material is first melted and
purified in a crucible. A seed crystal is then placed in the liquid silicon and drawn at a slow constant rate. This
results in a solid, single-crystal cylindrical ingot. The wafers are further cut into rectangular cells to maximize
the number of cells that can be mounted together on a rectangular panel.

(b) Amorphous Silicon

In this technology, amorphous silicon vapour is deposited on a couple of μm thick amorphous (glassy)
films on stainless steel rolls, typically 2,000-feet long and 13-inches wide. Compared to the crystalline silicon,
this technology uses only 1 percent of the material. Its efficiency is about one-half of the crystalline silicon at
present but the cost per watt generated is projected to be significantly lower.

III. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The experimental setup comprises of different element used for three dimensional freedom mechanisms
for tracking the maximum intensity of sun rays. Mechanical Arrangement for movement in three direction i.e.
Horizontal axis, Vertical Axis & hybrid Axis is mentioned below.
Horizontal Axis
To rotate the panel along with the sun in horizontal Axis is mounted in a shaft of 1x35inches & clamped by
aluminium strips.
Gear Arrangement of three Spur Gear of 72, 16 & 36 teeth respectively with Single start Worm gear connected
with Stepper Motor 18°/pulse, 12 Volt, 6Ω has been done for rotating the panel to horizontal axis. (Fig 6)
Vertical Axis
Similar as horizontal axis here too the gear arrangement is with Spur Gear of 72 teeth assembled with the Single
start Worm gear connected with Stepper motor 18°/pulse, 12 Volt, 6Ω with Simply supported two wheel
bearing. (Fig 5)
Hybrid Axis
For moving the panel to hybrid axis a stud of 10 mm is assembled with Spur gear of 42 teeth & Single start
worm gear connected with Stepper motor 18°/pulse, 12 Volt, 3.9Ω. (Fig 7)
Micro Controller
The Micro Controller used in the solar tracking system is P1C16F877A (Fig. 8) contains number of element
which performs different work to control the panel & to prepare the data base of the analysis the same was
connected with the desktop with Terminal Software. The element of microcontroller is listed below
 IRs detects the sunlight intensity. When consume high sunlight intensity resistance is decreased and supply
high current trough it.
 The motor controller IC MAX 232 drive the DC motor by the direction of microcontroller
 LCD JHD162AC is mounted on the micro controller to represent the current Voltage & Current for both the
material i.e. Amorphous & Crystalline.
 Amplifier T1P122 used to amplify the data of micro controller 7 provide the input to Stepper motor.

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Fig4. Structural view of three ways rotating freedom solar tracker.

In the system shown in Figure 4, a solar panel is mounted over the supporting arm with consisting three
direct current motor with gear mechanism, four IR (Infra Red Sensor) sensors and a control box. The light
detecting system consists of four Infra Red Sensor (IR) which are IR 1, IR 2, IR 3 and IR4 mounted on the solar
panel and placed in an enclosure. The sensors are setup in a way that IR 1 and IR 2 are used to track the sun
horizontally for drive the horizontal positioning motor while IR 3 and IR 4 are use to track the sun vertically for
drive the vertical positioning motor. The all operations are operated by control box where microcontroller and
motor control ICs processes whole detection and control system. So that, all the three motors vertical,
horizontal& hybrid movement to ensure proper tracking of the solar panel in any position of the sun with respect
to the East-West or North-South.
Solar panel should be directly perpendicular to the sunlight so that radiation of sunlight is highest. But,
position of the sun is not same place during the whole day. Therefore, direction of the sun radiation is not same
and its changes during the course of the day. So, if we can use solar tracking system it would give maximum
solar efficiency.
The dimension of Solar panel used in the setup is 49x15inchs for Amorphous & 30x12inchs for Crystalline. The
picture of setup along with the Hybrid Tracking Mechanism is shown in Fig. 9

Fig 5. Gear Mechanism for Vertical Axis Fig 6. Gear Mechanism for Horizontal Axis

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Fig 7. Gear Mechanism for Hybrid Axis Fig 8. Microcontroller

IV. METHODOLOGY
The complete methodology used in the construction & design of the Hybrid Automatic Solar Tracking
system is drawn below (fig. 10) with the help of block diagram. The construction of the tracker is made up of
three segments, the mechanical, computer Science and electronics & electrical part respectively.
The key component of the system under above three segments is clearly mentioned in the block diagram used to
convert solar energy into electricity.
Here SP1 is Solar Panel 1st for Crystalline,
SP2 is Solar panel 2nd for Amorphous.

Fig. 9 Schematic view of Hybrid Automatic Fig.10 Block diagram of Hybrid Automatic Solar Tracking
System. Solar Tracking System.

V. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The performance assessment of Amorphous & Crystalline Solar panel at different positions are discussed
below-

1. Stationary Tracking System.

The power generated by Amorphous & Crystalline Solar Panel at Stationary position that is 23.5°with the
horizontal & other two axis are fixed is maximum at 12:00 noon & drop with respect to the time.(Fig 11)
The maximum power generated by Crystalline Solar panel is 13.2W where the power generated by Amorphous
Solar panel is 11.9W at 13:00PM

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Table1. Amorphous & Crystalline PV Module
Amorphous Solar Panel different position of Solar panel
Pw of Pw of Pw of dual Pw of % difference % difference % difference between
Time
stationary (W) single-axis (W) axis (W) hybrid (W) between St and DA between SA and DA SA and hybrid
10:00 8.85 8.92 8.95 8.98 1.16 0.34 0.66
11:00 10.94 10.96 10.98 12.50 0.44 0.25 14.09
12:00 11.50 14.50 15.90 16.40 38.26 9.66 13.10
13:00 11.90 15.10 16.10 16.10 35.29 6.62 6.62
14:00 10.50 13.84 13.88 16.70 32.14 0.29 20.71
15:00 9.30 12.37 12.39 12.40 33.18 0.15 0.24
16:00 7.90 8.24 8.27 8.29 4.66 0.29 0.55
Average percent difference between 10:00 and 16:00 21.98 3.03 8.87

Crystalline Solar Panel different position of Solar panel

Pw of Pw of Pw of dual Pw of % difference % difference % difference between
Time
stationary (W) single-axis (W) axis (W) hybrid (W) between St and DA between SA and DA SA and hybrid
10:00 9.30 12.30 9.50 9.61 2.15 29.47 21.87
11:00 12.80 12.80 13.70 13.80 7.03 7.03 7.81
12:00 13.20 14.90 17.15 18.50 29.92 15.10 24.16
13:00 12.50 16.20 17.60 18.10 40.80 8.64 11.73
14:00 12.10 15.30 16.15 17.90 33.47 5.56 16.99
15:00 11.10 14.90 15.50 15.90 39.64 4.03 6.71
16:00 10.30 10.90 13.50 13.90 31.07 23.85 27.52
Average percent difference between 10:00 and 16:00 26.81 5.96 10.17

14 14
12 12
Power OutPut (Watts)

10
Power OutPut (Watts)

10
8 8
6 6
Amorphous Crystalline Amorphous Crystalline
4 4
2 2
0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00
Time Time
Fig 11.Performance assessment at Stationary Fig 12.Performance assessment at Single Axis
Solar Tracking System Solar Tracking System

2. Single Axis Tracking system.

As its name implies the panel in single axis tracking system is rotated in one direction that is the
horizontal axis to track the sun & ensure maximum sun rays hitting the surface of the panel. The amount of
Power generated by the Crystalline Solar Panel is 16.2W & for Amorphous it is 15.1W. (Fig 12)

3. Dual Axis Tracking system.

In dual axis tracking System two of the axis of solar tracker is moving along with the suns direction
one is the horizontal axis & second is the vertical axis. The maximum power generated by Crystalline &
amorphous in Dual axis tracking system is 17.6 & 16.1 respectively. The curve shows that the maximum power
is generated in between 12:00-13:00 PM when the intensity of sunrays is highest. (Fig 13)

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20 20

Power OutPut (Watts)

Power OutPut (Watts)

15 15

10 10

5 Amorphous Crystalline 5
Amorphous Crystalline

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00

Time Time

Fig 13.Performance assessment at Stationary Fig 14.Performance assessment at Hybrid Axis

Solar Tracking System Solar Tracking System

4. Hybrid Tracking System.

In this system the panels are capable to rotate in all the three direction for tracking the sun to have the
maximum intensity of solar radiation over the year from sun rise to sun set. The results of hybrid tracking
system are as it produces power output 18.5W by Crystalline Solar panel & 16.4W by Amorphous Solar panel.
(Fig 14)

VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, it has been presented a solar-tracking system which is an efficient system. It can be utilize
anywhere such as house-hold activities in office even in industrial purposes. Today’s world is facing acute
power crisis. We need to find new resource and also need to boost efficiency for the production of power from
other renewable energy sources.
We also need a better power system to give service to those people who live in remote area. Under this
circumstance, this type of project can give a good result when energy crisis is one of the most vital issues in the
world.
A comparative analysis was performed using four systems, i.e., hybrid tracking, dual-axis, single-axis,
and stationary. The results showed that the use of the dual-axis tracking system produced 17.87% gain of power
output, compared with a single-axis tracking system. The gain of output power with the hybrid tracking system
was much higher (52%) when compared with a stationary system inclined at 23.5 deg to the horizontal.

REFERENCES
[1] Asmara hid Ponniran1, Ammar Hashim1, Ariffuddin JoretA Design of Low Power Single Axis Solar
Tracking System Regardless of Motor Speed
[2] International Journal of Integrated Engineering, Vol. 3 No. 3 2011.
[3] Adrian Catarius, Mario Christiner2010, Azimuth-Altitude Dual Axis Solar Tracker, A Master
Qualifying Project: submitted to the faculty of Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
[4] Bull, S. R., 2001, “Renewable Energy Today and Tomorrow,” IEEE Proc.89 (8), pp. 1216–1226.
[5] J. Rizk, and Y. Chaiko2008 Accurate analytical method for the extraction of Solar Cell Model
Parameters,University of Singapore Kent Ridge, Singapore 0511
[6] Jeff Muhs, Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2000, Design and analysis of hybrid solar lighting and full-
spectrum solar energy systems. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-8048,
Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corp.
[7] Minor M. Arturo, García P. Alejandro 2010, High–Precision Solar Tracking System, Proceedings of
the World Congress on Engineering 2010 Vol II WCE 2010, June 30 July 2010, London, U.K.
[8] NurKhuzairy Bin Jamaludin 2008, Solar Tacking System, University Malaysia Pahang.
[9] Nur Mohammad, TarequlKarim, Design and Implementation of Hybrid Automatic Solar-Tracking
System Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 2012 by ASME February 2013, Vol. 135.
[10] Okpeki U.K. otuagoma. S.O 2007, Design and Construction of a Bi–Directional Solar Tracking System.
International Journal Of Engineering And Science Issn: 2278-4721, Vol. 2, (February2013),Pp 32-38
[11] Rahman, S., 2003, “Green Power: What Is It and Where Can We Find It?,” IEEE Power ---- -
Energy Mag., 1(1), pp. 30–37.

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[12] Saboj Kumar Ray, Md Abdul Bashar Global Journal of Research In Engineering, General Engineering
Vol 12 Issue 4 Version 1.0 Year 2012, Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA) Online Issn 2249-4596 &
print Issn: 0975-5861.

Dr. Bhupendra Gupta received B.E.(Mechanical Engineering), M.TECH (Energy

Engineering), And Ph.D. (Mechanical Engineering ) currently working as Assistant
Professor at Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur, India. He has authored 8
textbooks in the field of engineering and published more than 20 papers in
International Journals, 4 in international conferences, 05 in national conferences. He is
life member of ISTE, SESI and IE (India). His key research area of interest is Solar,
Biomass Fuel Cell, Renewable Energy and Thermal Engineering.

Neha Sonkar, Student Master of Engineering, Heat Power, JEC, Jabalpur. Gold
Medalist in Industrial & Production Engineering & University Topper in Bachelor of
engineering. Chancellor’s Scholarship by Governor. Presented 3 papers in National
Seminar & achieved 2 Gold & 1 Silver Medal.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-229-238
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Prospect of Buchanan’s Traffic Planning Approach in Small

Towns of India: A Case Study in Tezpur Town
Prakash Jyoti Saikia, Dr. Abani Kumar Bhagabati
1
Department of Geography, Tezpur College, Assam, India
2
Department of Geography, Gauhati University, Assam, India

Abstract: - With fast pace of increase in vehicular population, even the small towns in India are facing serious
traffic and parking problems. So, traffic planning from modern perspectives becomes the need of the hour.
Today, the much-adopted transport planning tool for urban centres has been the simulation models and there are
many such models that are available for the purpose. But, while many resources have been devoted to the
development of more complex computer modelling tools (e.g., UrbanSim and TRANSIMS etc.), less attention is
focused on simpler modelling approaches. In the case of the small towns of India, it is next to impossible to
think for a modern and sophisticated method of transportation planning, not only because they are too
expensive, time consuming, but also from the view point of expertise and other managerial constraints. So, this
paper preferred to take the help of the approach suggested in famous ‘Traffic in Towns’, 1963 (popularly known
as Buchanan Report after Professor Colin Buchanan). To illustrate the role of the adopted approach, the present
work uses a descriptive case study of Tezpur town. More specifically, this case study provides a practical study
to suggest that this simpler approach can be a cost-effective approach to support certain aspects of the urban
planning decision-making process.

Keywords: - Small town, Transportation planning, Urban master plan

I. INTRODUCTION
In the towns of India, road transport is the most widespread means of transport. But, the continued
growth of traffic on urban roads has led to unwanted traffic congestion as well as noticeable increase in road
accident. For the purpose of planning a town, preparation of land-use master plan is a common approach in
India. Here, the transport planning process is based on the premise that capacity requirements of urban transport
networks should be dimensioned to meet predicted demand resulting from changes in land use and socio-
economic factors[1]. In other words, the transport system has been based on the layout of the land use instead of
the other way round, where the land use plan should be formulated based on the transport forecast and analysis.
This may probably be one of the causes why, despite having master plans, most of the Indian towns face serious
traffic and parking problems. So, the central research question of this paper is concerned with the problem of
managing moving traffic and parking in the towns of India (particularly the small towns) by an affordable
approach that could support the master planning process.
The study of the current state-of-the-art in transportation planning shows that within the transportation
planning process, an entire set of transportation forecasting modeling tools has been developed [2]. But, while
vast resources have been spent in the development of more complex computer modelling tools, less attention has
been focused on simpler approaches[3]. The high cost and large data requirements to run large-scale models have
necessitated the use of simpler approaches for the small towns of India and, thus, the present work preferred to
take the help of the approach suggested in famous ‘Traffic in Towns’, 1963 (popularly known as Buchanan
Report after Professor Colin Buchanan). To illustrate the role of the adopted approach, the present work uses a
descriptive case study of Tezpur town. More specifically, this case study illustrates how this simple approach
can be used as a part and parcel of the master plans.

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II. METHODOLOGY AND DATABASE
The goal of this research is not to develop a new Transportation and Land use Modelling tool, but to
use an existing approach and apply it to the small towns of India. For this purpose the present work mainly
resorts to the established work of the steering group and working group appointed by the Ministry of Transport,
Her Majesty’s Stationary Office (HMSO), London, entitled ‘Traffic in Towns’. It is the pioneer study on the
long-term problems of traffic in urban areas, published by HMSO in 1963. The present work finds this approach
as an example of a simpler modelling approach that could be used to support urban planning decision-making.
For the small and medium sized towns of India, such an approach can be beneficial for two basic reasons –
firstly, it involves the collection of a very modest data and secondly, it is operational. Here, question may arise
as to whether the approach taken by Buchanan in 1960s may be considered as a modern approach or not? But it
is worth to mention that, in majority of the Indian towns (especially in the small towns), most of the variables
for the traffic problems are almost the same as they were in the 60s in England and though the number and
magnitude of some of them may show some change, they can be treated as those affected the traffic of London
in 1960s.
The methods for working on the Buchanan’s approach and modifying it as per the local conditions
include a practical case study on the master plan area of Tezpur town, Assam (Fig. 1) and surveys for the
purpose. For instance, a random survey with survey schedule method was taken as means to collect data on
economic condition of the residents of the town, number of vehicles they have and the places of their work and
market. As the population is very large, this survey covered only 2 to 3 per cent households of the municipal
area and each of the villages forming the master plan area of the town. The information from this survey was
then used to obtain the basic catchment area of the major nodes in the town and used for further analysis.
Besides the above, 2 municipality wards and 14 villages from the master plan area were chosen
randomly to collect detail information. It is noteworthy that for this selection, the master plan area was first
divided into well defined population density zones as per 2001 Census and then the proportionate representation
from each of the density zones was maintained as far as possible. Information from these selected wards and
villages are then collected by means of a schedule, covering at least 50% of the residential households for the
wards and 70 - 100% households in the case of the villages.
The primary data regarding traffic volume were collected at all the 8 major entry points into the town.
It was done manually by counting and classifying traffic, flowing past the selected fixed lines on the road. To
know the hourly pattern of traffic volume in the central area of the town, the traffic on the roads in the central
area of the town were also counted at 13 different locations.
The carriageway widths as well as the shoulder widths of roads within the master plan area were
measured manually at 104 cross sections on different roads. While taking the measurement, the condition of the
road was also observed and recorded. The conditions were evaluated on the basis of black toped, graveled or
kutcha road and the physical condition of the road.
In order to gather an understanding of the parking situation in the town, a parking survey was done by
the ‘walked petrol’ method[4]. Here, a frequency of half an hour was taken for recording the on-street parking.
Accident data were generated from the secondary source, i.e. from the police records. For this, month wise total
number of accidents, place of having maximum number of casualties, hour of the day having maximum number
of accidents and the days of the week having maximum case of accidents for the period from 2004 to 2008 were
collected.
To address the specific need of the work, the surrogate variable of transportation structure indices viz.
Cyclomatic number (μ), Alpha index (α), Beta index (β) and Gamma index (γ) for assessing the transport
network were used[5]. Similarly, the population projection is done by arithmetic projection (the horizon year is
taken as 2025) method with formula-
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑛(𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝑚)/𝑚 , Where, Pn = Projected population in n year later from the year, Po = Present
population and Pm = Population at a date m years earlier from the present
The numbers of vehicles at present (2011) as well as at the horizon year are projected with the same
above formula, as has been used for projecting the population. Again, with the help of the per capita trip
generation (as obtained from the household survey of the aforementioned 14 villages and wards), the number of
daily trips for different population density zones and catchment areas of major nodes are estimated.
Last but not the least, it may be mentioned that, due to lack of reliable statistics, the observations are a
vital part in the investigation. The necessary secondary data were collected from Public Works Department,
District Transport Office, Municipal office, Office of the Town and Country Planning, Census office etc. To
know the planning procedure, the Town and Country Planning Officer and two of the engineers were
interviewed.

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III. APPROACH OF BUCHANAN
In 1963, Professor Colin Buchanan in the ‘Traffic in Towns’ had explained the traffic planning in such
a way that it has received appropriate treatment. It had produced a new design for towns, which was meant for
contriving the efficient distribution or accessibility of large number of vehicles to large number of buildings in
such a way that a satisfactory standard of environment is achieved [6]. The following few paragraphs highlight
the main recommendations of the report, its response and legacy.
The report recommended that the urban redevelopment should look to the long term, and avoid
parsimonious short-termism. Further, it stresses that if a town or city is both financially able and willing, it
should rebuild itself with modern traffic in mind. However, if circumstances meant that this was not possible, it
would have to restrain traffic, perhaps severely. According to this report, planners should set a policy regarding
the character being sought for each urban area, and the level of traffic should then be managed to produce the
desired effect in a safe manner. The report also emphasised on a lattice of environmentally-planned areas in the
town, joined by a road hierarchy, with longer distance traffic being directed around and away from these areas.
In the case of small towns, for instance, the report showed the possible way that could be taken to redevelop
Newbury town in a pattern with vehicles easily integrating into the urban scenery. The suitability of this
approach has been proved when the A34 Newbury Bypass was proposed, alongside extensive pedestrianisation
and road changes within the town. The new roads dramatically reduced the impact of motor vehicles on the
town and accompanied the reinvigoration of Newbury which had managed to retain its historic core[7].
However, as towns were developed according to the Buchanan’s blue print, several issues emerged. For
instance, some of the grand plans that were called for have had a poor reputation in their implementation.
Another point of criticism was the courage needed to develop the schemes proposed in the report. The
recognition of environmental issues was also less well understood in the 1960s. Because, the considerations in
the report were more for the human environment, rather than the natural issues which have tended to confound
some subsequent road proposals.

IV. CASE STUDY TOWN

Tezpur is the administrative headquarters of Sonitpur district of Assam, a north-eastern state of India. It
is located in and around 26º 37´ N latitude and 92º 47´ E longitude and its altitude is about 79 metres above
mean sea level[8]. It is located over a slightly undulating topography. While a few low hills (with heights 120 to
160 m) cover the southern part, the northern side of the town is flat. It has also some low-lying areas (locally
known as hollas) and is dotted with many tanks, tillas and tikas. The area of its Municipal jurisdiction is 7.10 sq.
km, and the Master Plan area is 126.60 sq. km[9].

Fig. 1: Location of Tezpur town

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History shows that the Chinese aggression of 1962 had a great impact on this town, which had
enhanced the importance of the town as a strategic place from defense point of view. Moreover, the Government
and Semi-Government establishments that came after this had created employment opportunities to a
considerable extent and as a result of this, people from outside were attracted to the town [10]. In 2001, the total
population of the town had crossed the one lakh mark (with a population density of 11,349 persons per sq.km.)
and became a class-I town of Assam. As far as the whole master plan area is concerned, the 2001 Census put the
total population as 2,17,791 (with density 1,720 persons per sq. km).

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

V.1 Provision of road traffic planning
The study reveals that though the master plan of the town has a brief chapter on urban transportation
and there is a provision for the formulation of an efficient circulation plan, the plan resort only to short-term
programs to cope mainly with the present transport difficulties. But, these schemes are not based on detail study
as well as on sound traffic engineering and management measures.

V.2 Present status and estimation

Tezpur is a cosmopolitan town. There are also many Army bases in the northern and the north-western
portion just outside its outgrowths. But, the most striking feature regarding the spatial distribution is that while
the western part of the master plan area, particularly to the west of the NH-52, is inhabited by Hindu people, the
eastern half of it is inhabited mainly by the Muslim Community. As a matter of fact, the spatial pattern of
growth of population shows that while the growth has been high in the eastern half of the master plan area, in
the western half and in the municipal area, the population growth is relatively low. The spatial pattern of the
growth of houses and the workers also conform to the growth of population.
About the road network, the general framework is seen to be composed of four radial roads,
interlinking transverse roads and some lower order feather roads, all of which woven intricately to form a
pattern of spider web. However, the local physiography causes it to deviate from the general spider web.
Similarly, the situation of the town on the river bank also has made the spider web limited to its half. Out of the
total roads of this network, above 59% roads are black topped, 23% are gravelled and about 18% are kutcha.
The computed connectivity indices for the existing road networks show that in terms of degree of
connectivity the town presents a poor picture. For instance, the computed alpha index is 19.15%. The strength of
the existing network is further aggravated by the overall condition of the roadways. Most of the roads are
narrow. Lack of sidewalks or specified track forces pedestrians, cyclists and other slow movers to use the
shoulder or the roadway itself. Uncontrolled on-street parking exacerbates the situation by narrowing further the
right of way (R/W) for moving traffic. Many roads are in a dismal state of disrepair, often unpaved and riddled
with potholes. It is also observed that there has been a general lack of modern traffic signals, even in situations
where they are warranted.
The traffic in the town is of heterogeneous in nature. Modes having maximum speed ranging from 15-
100 km per hour and width ranging from 0.5 - 2.6 metre are sharing the same road space. To be mentioned that
the carriageway width of the National Highways in the town is 7.10 metre. In the case of the major distributors,
the paved portion ranges from 3 to 7.35 metre, with maximum frequency at 5.7 to 5.8 metre category. But, the
paved portion is found to be narrow on almost all the local distributors (ranging from 2.7 to 5.8 metre, with
maximum frequency to the lower ends). When compared to the peak hour traffic volume (as obtained from the
traffic count), the widths of the roads are found inadequate for the existing and growing needs of traffic. It is
found that the roads have been carrying up to 2 to 3 times more traffic than their prescribed capacity[11]. The
study shows that due to the narrowness of the carriageway, many roads face a good deal of congestion. In these
roads, even a stationary vehicle can impede the flow of traffic in the whole road. The accessibility, especially at
the time of the peak period, is also found to be significantly low. Moreover, inadequate loading facilities, lack of
parking etc. are also observed at several places.
It is found that apart from the town centre, there are five major nodes in the master plan area of Tezpur,
where people go for work and shopping. So, the shortest routes from the catchment areas of these nodes form
the corridors for movement. Generally the radial roads form these major corridors [(Fig.3 (A)]. However, the
transverse road, in the form of NH 37(A) and a part of NH 52, forms another important corridor. Within the
central area, the important corridors identified are the road from Tribeni point to Civil Hospital point, road from
Murhateteli to Chandmari, the Barahalia road and the road from Dadhara to Dhanwanagar etc.
The roads having basically the intra-master plan area traffic have a peak hour between 8.30 AM to 9.30
AM. On such roads, a sharp decrease in the traffic can be seen after this peak hour. The reason for this is that the
traffic on these roads basically consisted of workers, who have to reach the town centre by 9.00 AM to 10.00
AM. On the other hand, the roads, where both long distance and intra-town commuters along with through
traffic move, there has been a more or less constant high traffic after 9.00 AM. For example, count points like

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Mission Chariali, Haleswar and Murhateteli show such trend, having a peak hour at 10.30 AM to 11.30 AM. In
the case of the traffic to the town centre, the peak volume of traffic forms a wave, starting at around 9.00 AM at
the periphery and ends at around 10.00 to 10.30 AM at the town centre.
Lack of adequate parking place for motorised vehicles has already created serious problem in the
commercial area of the town. The parking survey revealed a shortage of about 230 car parking spaces at the
peak hour. The investigation of the cases of accidents shows that places like Mission Chariali, Batamari and
Solagaon exhibit high accident proneness not only in terms of number of cases, but also in terms of casualties.
The study shows that while majority of cases in and around the municipal area is between light motor vehicles
and pedestrians (38.08% during the study period 2004 - 2008), out side the municipal area it is the heavy
vehicles that cause most of the accidents with other road users (nearly 54% of the total number of accidents
caused by all types of vehicles). The involvement of motor cycles in the accidents is also found to be high
(27%). Following are the results of the estimation of the population, number of vehicles, number of daily trips
and modal preference in the town:
(a) The projected population at present and at the horizon year for the master plan area is around 26 to 28 and
30 to 36 lakhs respectively.
(b) By 2025 or so, the number of motorised vehicles, especially the motorcycles and cars for the journey to
work itself would rise (given an adequate network and suitable parking places) from about 22,449 at present
to nearly 33,844 (about 66% increase). On the contrary, the total number of persons travelling for work by
all forms of transport would increase by only about 41%.
(c) The number of motorised vehicles seeking to enter the municipality area daily would increase from about
22,000 - 23,000 at present to about 29,000 - 32,000 by 2025. In addition to this, there would be about
50,000 - 55,000 non-motorised vehicles. The total peak hour flow would be of the order of 3,662 motorised
vehicles (out of which about 80% would be composed of motor cycles and cars) and about 2,600 - 2,700
non-motorised vehicles. The composition of the non-motorised vehicles would be about 1,750 cycles, about
700 - 800 cycle rickshaws and 200 - 300 thelas and animal drawn carts. The ultimate parking demand for
this level of traffic would be about 3,000 spaces (as against about 2,000 spaces at present) for the motorised
vehicles and above 2,000 spaces to accommodate the non-motorised ones.
(d) The field survey places the per capita trip generation to be 0.57. Again, from the total trips found in the
survey, the estimated total trips for the Tezpur master plan area becomes 1,40,498 at present and 1,78,207 at
the horizon year. It is to be noted that, the worked out per capita trip generation by different modes for
different density zones and the catchment areas (which was done in lieu of the conventional techniques of
multi-stage distribution of the trips) also gives the total trips to be about 1,60,000 – 1,65,000 for the horizon
year.
(e) The total number of vehicles in the whole master plan area would rise from about 84,484 at present to about
1,07,253 at the horizon year. Out of this, above 50 % will be bicycles and cycle rickshaws, 30% will be
motor cycles and 10% will be cars and the remaining 10% will embrace all other types of vehicles.
Regarding the spatial pattern, it is seen that while bicycles and motor cycles predominate in the
comparatively low income zones of the northern and eastern sides of the study area, the percentage of cars
is high in the zone comprising the municipal area and its fringe.

V.3 Future directions

The heterogeneous nature of traffic is likely to continue in less motorised Tezpur town and because of
the socio-economic realities and compulsions, pedestrians, bicyclists and motorised two-wheeler riders will
remain dominant on the roads of the towns for many decades. So the future traffic planning for the town has to
address the following issues:
Various road users have different and often, conflicting requirements. Motorised vehicles need clear
pavements and shoulders, while the bicyclists and pedestrians need shaded trees along the pavement. Owners of
private transport modes prefer uninterrupted flow and minimum delays, whereas public buses require frequent
stops for picking and discharging passengers. Since our infrastructure design does not account for the existing
conflicting requirements of different modes, future traffic models must account for the users of these different
transport modes. Another cause of concern for the traffic problems in this town is that the sections of National
Highways passing through it have to serve multiple purposes. On the one hand they carry through traffic and on
the other, the adjacent land use generates cross-traffic and demands multiple space usage like space for parking
vehicles or space for informal shopping, etc. The existing design standards do not account for conflicting
demand between local traffic and through traffic resulting in long delays for through traffic and safety hazards
for both kinds of traffic. So, despite the situation of low per-capita income and low capacity for capital intensive
infrastructure compared to that of the advanced nations, road efficiency and safety has to be promoted.
It is found that a large number of road users in the town are bicyclists, pedestrians and other slow
moving vehicles. So, the road designs have to address their needs in addition to the needs of motorised vehicles.

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Motorised vehicles can use a longer route and over-bridges, but, a pedestrian or bicyclist would prefer not to use
an underpass or over-bridge just because it is safer to do so. A major shift, thus, is required in the design
principles itself. The quality of roads is perhaps the greatest issue that has to be addressed with high priority.
This is important in terms of providing better facilities for the traffic and relief to the road side residents.

VI. DESIRABLE POLICY OBJECTIVES

VI.1 Transport policy objectives
The paper wants to stress on an integrated transportation planning policy, which may consider three
policy issues for the overall transport planning of the town. These are (i) Promoting and improving public
transportation and to encourage public transport use. It is important because many rural and suburban
commuters of the study town are seen to depend on scooters, motor cycles or personal cars due to lack of
convenient public transport. Other techniques may include coordinating interdepartmental efforts, shift of
work/school hours from peak period to off-peak period, enforcing stricter traffic rules etc., (ii) Policy
innovations for managing traffic and travel demand and (iii) Policy for promoting non-motorised modes of
transportation, especially the bicycles, increasing education and awareness levels, controlling urban population
growth etc.

VI.2 Land use policy objectives

The key land use policy objectives would be land use concentration and mix of uses. These types of
spatial structures are described in the planning literature as economical in both transport and land use terms. One
may also envisage the development of some of the urban nodes, so as to provide them with self-containment in
terms of the proportion of the total trips generated by their hinterlands, having destination within that node. It
may also be helpful in terms of purpose and mode of travel.

VI.3 The strategy

The basis for the strategy lies on a vision of the town’s future and the position of the transport system
in it. Now if one follows Buchanan, this vision should include solutions for allocating urban space and attention
for modes of transport. For example, an area within the central location of the town that is accessible for all
forms of passenger traffic cannot at the same time be efficiently supplied. Another example may be that the
choice for an effective and efficient public transport system cannot be combined with a system in which the
passenger car is given all the space it needs. Having analysed the present and future status of different aspects
related with traffic, the desired traffic planning for Tezpur town may be seen as a series of choices at different
levels. But, by following Buchanan, in this study we seek to consider following principles upon which the traffic
problems might be tackled –
(i) Numbers, types and speeds of vehicles to be kept down to a level compatible with environmental standards.
(ii) Circulation of essential traffic to destinations to be contrived, but not necessarily by the shortest route nor
even any choice of route.
(iii) Streets and areas which are used predominantly by the pedestrians to be converted for pedestrian use only.
(iv) All through movements to be prevented.
(v) Internal movements to be reorganised to eliminate the conflict of criss-cross journeys.

Thus, in the conditions that are likely to arise in the future, following may be the ideal basis of any
transportation planning for the study town: As the first ideal, one could see that what is needed for Tezpur town
is an efficient primary network, which is capable of discharging the heavy load of different types of vehicles
even at the peak hour. Now, considering the principles on which this primary network could be planned, the
present work assumes that the thorough traffic using the road running from Kalia Bhomora Bridge to Mission
Chariali and then proceed to Balipara side on the one hand and towards Mangoldoi side on the other would be
removed by the provision of suitable by-passes. The location of the by-passes is outside the scope of this paper.
However, it may be pointed out that any by-pass should not criss-cross the main line of movement to the town
centre. In that sense, the location of one of such by-pass, relieving NH 37(A) from the through traffic to and
from Nagaon side, may be thought of running through the bank of the Brahmaputra. Question may arise whether
the provision of these by-passes would be a solution to Tezpur’s problems. The answer is that if the by-passes
could be built now they would certainly bring a measure of relief as far as the movement in the master plan area
is concerned. However, regarding the movement into the municipality area, the proposed provision of by-pass
would not affect the traffic. Further, our study shows that as the number vehicles increases in the future it is the
build up of traffic within the master plan area that really becomes the formidable problem to cope with.
As the second principle, one may consider the environment of the town. For this purpose, the whole
town was examined in order to determine the possible arrangement of the town into groups of major
environmental areas. These environmental areas are taken as the residential areas, areas of educational

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institutions (particularly the schools for small children) and their surroundings, important commercial as well as
industrial centres or areas used by other important activities such as by Air Force and Army base etc. (Fig. 2). It
is found that a particular environmental difficulty arose on all the four radial roads from the town centre. In the
areas away from the municipal area, these roads not only serve to provide direct access to the dwellings, but also
function as local distributors (linking with a number of access roads). In the absence of any alternative route
there has been some added complication that through traffic to and from the southernmost part of the town has
to make use of the radials. Even if the through traffic is disconnected, the volume of traffic in 2025 would build
up along these radials. A decision has to be taken, therefore, whether to direct traffic away from the radials or to
convert the radial roads into distributors. Here, the present work has opted for the second alternative and will try
to treat the radial roads as major distributors.

Fig. 2: Tentative grouping of environmental areas

Then the question of cyclists arises. Because, in the analysis of model choice, it is seen that though the
car ownership is now growing, it still lags behind the widespread use of bicycles. It is also seen that though the
car ownership and use has been increasing, the bicycle has remained popular. Thus, it can be said that bicycle
has a good future and its use could still be increased significantly especially in a small town like Tezpur. In this
regard, the scope for increasing bicycle use for the trips currently made by car may be considered. This
particularly applies to short trips currently made by cars. In the study, it has been found that almost 40% of the
short trips are not longer than 5 km, and 67% are not longer than 7.5 km. Motorists themselves admit that a
quarter of all car trips could easily be made by motor cycles or bicycles, and another quarter could be made by
bicycles. Thus almost up to 50% of car trips within the town could be replaced by bicycle trips. To be noted that
from the household survey it was evident that 37.41% of all non-walking urban journeys in the town are made
using bicycles and only 9.30% use cars. However, some town planners may see the bicycle as a significant
cause of traffic congestion and traffic accidents, and want to discourage its use in the town centre. Others may
see the bicycles as a cheap and non-polluting mode of transport that should be further encouraged. But, realising
the popularity and possibility for an increase in bicycle use in Tezpur town, present work envisages an urgent
need to have a clear policy regarding the use of bicycles. In this context, it should be mentioned that, according
to Buchanan cycles should not be admitted on the primary network. It is because of the fact that cycle tracts on
the primary network become too complicated to build. At the same time, he also clearly stated that it is really
expensive, and probably impracticable, to create and maintain a completely separate system of tracts for cycles.
So, the structural change, which is required in the entire transport and traffic system, will be a major challenge.
Here, it is to be cleared that, by following Buchanan we may think for the diversion of cycle traffic increasingly
to the less busy roads. But such a venture may result in inconvenience to the majority of cyclists in a town like
Tezpur, where cycle is one of the prime modes of journey. So, in spite of Buchanan’s remark, we may think for
at least a network of radial bicycle routes as the first step towards such a change. In future, these radial routes
may be added with some ring routes to upgrade the system. On the basis of the road inventory, present paper
wants to suggest 2 such cycle routes [(Fig. 4 (B)].
The fast growth of motorcycles becomes the next cause of concern. The household survey reveals that
the motorcycle ownership in the town is above 125 vehicles per 1,000 persons (much higher than that of only

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about 40 cars per 1,000 persons). As a means of transport, the motorcycle has played two important roles: first,
it has replaced a number of bicycles, taking up an increasingly higher share in the total trip modes; second, it
becomes the convenient transport means for suburban dwellers to enter the town for work and business,
promoting integration of the urban and rural economies. Compared to the automobile, the motorcycle has
advantages in price, energy consumption and road occupation and compared to bicycles, it has advantages in
speed and comfort. It, therefore, seems to have strong potential for competing against all other kinds of transport
means in the town. However, they are also creating certain specific problems. For example, without any control
these are growing at a very fast pace and swamping the urban road system causing frequent accidents and also
the problem of pollution. Thus, the use of motorcycles should be brought under strict enforcement and covered
by the suitable medium of education.
Turning to the design of the primary network for the town, the basis for the design is shown in the
diagrams from (A) to (C) in Fig. 3. Here, the first diagram (A) shows the main zones of traffic generations in
relation to the main corridors of movements in the master plan area. The second diagram (B) depicts the
directions of main movement-desires. The third diagram (C) shows the main nodes, where most of the people
work. Figure 4 (A) and (B) presents tow options for the primary network, one at minimum redevelopment and
the other at some partial redevelopment.

Fig. 3: The sequence of diagrams (A to C), show the basis for the design of the primary network

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Fig.4: The theoretical network with a minimum redevelopment and with partial redevelopment

Fig. 5: Proposed roads in accordance with adjusted environmental areas and vice versa.

Besides, the five major nodes (excluding the town centre), where people go for work and market
purpose have to be developed with varying socio-economic and land use characteristics. In other words, they
should be provided with high degree of self-containment to reduce the travel demand for work, shopping,
recreation and other facilities at the town centre.

VII. CONCLUSIONS
The study shows that there would be a very formidable potential build-up of traffic in the study town as
vehicular ownership and usage increase to the saturation level. The accommodation of this full potential is
beyond any practical possibility of being realised in the foreseeable future. Thus, it is necessary to consider to
what extent and by what means this potential is to be managed. Because it may range up to drastic and
expensive measures, on a scale, that is seemingly unusual for a town of the size of Tezpur. Here to mention the
law propounded by Buchanan that - given a determination to observe a certain worthwhile standard of
environment, the amount of traffic that can be admitted depends upon the money that can be invested in physical
attraction. Surprisingly, the present situation is that while the estimated capital invested by the people in
acquiring the vehicles (based on the information from DTO, Tezpur) is about Rupees 100 -150 crores per year,
the amount of money spent by the Government in building or maintaining the roads in and around Tezpur town
(as reported by the PWD Office and Municipality Board, Tezpur) is only Rupees 57.78 crores in the last 5 years.
So, the choice will be either to match the investment in vehicles with an equivalent investment in road works or
to manage the demand for travel.

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Turning to the master plan of the study town, it is trying to cope with the steadily increasing volume
of traffic by means of minor alteration. But, as per Buchanan, such a venture will lead to both a poor traffic
access and a grievously eroded environment. So, while supporting Buchanan, this paper wants to emphasise that
the approach used by him seems to provide a reliable base for formulation of suitable plans. Further, in the light
of present study, the paper wants to conclude that the most economical course (though at the first instance, it
seems to be expensive) and probably the best course for Tezpur town would be to build the primary network
along with the by-passes that curtail the load of through traffic. It would be the best choice because it would
immediately give the town a relief from the through traffic and also provide a sound framework on which the
local traffic would build up.

VIII. GLOSSARY
Hollas - low lying marshy/wet lands. Tillas – Low hillocks. Tikas – low plateau like small table lands in
between hollas. Lakh – One lakh means 1, 00,000. Chowk Bazar – the central market place. Kutcha road –
Earthen road. Thela- A light two wheeled carrier-vehicle pushed by a person walking.

IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We take the pleasure to acknowledge the co-operation and advice received in all aspect of this work
from Dr. Padma Kanta Borah, renowned professor and retired head of the Department of Civil Engineering,
Assam Engineering College, Guwahati.

REFERENCES
[1] D. B. Sarma, Nagar Jyoti (a special souvenir highlighting the achievements in Urban Sector), Urban
Development Department, Government of Assam, Dispur, 2004.
[2] Iacono, Michael, David Levinson, and Ahmed El-Geneidy, Models of Transportation and Land Use
Change: A Guide to the Territory, Journal of Planning Literature 22(4), 2008, 323-340, available at
http://www.jpl.sagepub.com/cgi/collection/topcitedtransport
[3] Hardy, H. Matthew, Simplified Integrated Transportation and Land Use Modeling to Support
Metropolitan Planning Decisions: An Application and Assessment, doctoral diss., George Mason
University, Fairfax, VA, 2011, 4-5, available at ProQuest Dissertations and Theses,
http://www.udini.proquest.com/view/simplified-integrated-pqid:2346138251/
[4] L.R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning (Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2004) 70-
71, 529-533
[5] M. H. Yeates, An introduction to Quantitative Analysis in Economic Geography (New York: Mc. Graw
Hill Book Co., 1968) 115.
[6] Traffic in Towns: A study of the long term problems of traffic in urban areas: Reports of the Steering
Group and working Group appointed by the Minister of Transport, Her Majesty’s Stationary Office,
London, 1963, 41-52.
[7] Historic Newbury fit for the future, West Berkshire Council, 2006, 17, available at
http://www.westberks.gov.uk/media/pdf/h/t/historic_newbury_cs_1.pdf
[8] Kanak Sharma, Tezpur Nam Eto Nagar Bisesh (Self publishing, 2001) 26-27.
[9] The Assam Gazette, Extraordinary, No. 401, Government of Assam, Dispur, 28th Dec., 2007, 2532-2533.
[10] The Assam Gazette, Extraordinary, No. 166, Government of Assam, Dispur, 14th Dec., 1977, 915.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-239-252
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Pollution Control: How Feasible is Zero Discharge Concepts in

Malaysia Palm Oil Mills
Yahaya S. Madaki1, Lau Seng2
1
(Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia)
2
(Centre for Technology Transfer and Consultancy, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia)

Abstract: - Many palm oil mills in Malaysia still discharged either partially treated or raw palm oil mill
effluent (POME) into nearby rivers. Either partially treated or untreated POME depletes a water body of its
oxygen and suffocates aquatic life. Vast amounts of biogas are also generated during anaerobic digestion of
POME. This paper presented the key findings from the survey mailed to 86 palm oil mills located in Sarawak
and Sabah. The survey results provide an overview of the position of the palm oil mills operators on current
advance POME treatment technology (PTT) in relation to achieving zero discharge concepts. The survey
attempted to identify the key issues about the PTT in respect to feasibility of zero discharge concepts in palm oil
mills. The results shows that, although palm oil mills generate a lot of different types of wastes during
processing of Fresh Fruit Bunches, according to the operators and available literature, POME is the most
difficult waste to manage. The results also shows that, palm oil mills cannot meet up with the new discharge
limits of 20ppm of BOD and zero emission using only conventional open or closed pounding system.

Keywords: - Anaerobic digestion, Biogas, Palm oil mill, Palm oil mill effluent, Zero discharge concept

I. INTRODUCTION
The global market has become increasingly dependent on palm oil, but major producers like Malaysia
and Indonesia are facing tougher operational challenges to cater for the rapidly growing global demand. Among
the major challenges faced by palm oil industry especially in developing countries like Malaysia are
environmental issues. The processing of oil palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB) primarily for palm oil also results in
concomitant production of wastes in the forms of palm oil mill effluent (POME), empty fruit bunches, mesocarp
fiber and shell. POME consists of water soluble components of palm fruits as well as suspended materials like
palm fiber and oil residues. Despite its biodegradability, POME cannot be discharged without first being treated
because it is acidic and contains residual oil that cannot be easily separated using conventional gravity-based
systems. Essentially, this oily mix needs a lot of oxygen before it can decompose completely, and this
phenomenon is called having a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). In the past, when the industry was at
its infancy in 1960's, either palm oil mills usually discharged partially treated or raw POME into nearby rivers
as this was the easiest and cheapest method for disposal. However, excessive quantities of untreated POME
deplete a water body of its oxygen and suffocate aquatic life, and many rivers have been devastated by such
discharges. The problem of pollution accruing from a mere 92,000 tonnes production by only 10 mills was not
apparent then. The environment could somehow absorb these wastes.
This lackadaisical attitude did not last long. By the 1970's the growth of the industry was literally
exponential, bringing along with it pollution which the waterways could no longer handle, so much so that palm
oil processing became synonymous with POME pollution. Ton for ton, the oxygen depleting potential of raw
POME is 100 times that of domestic sewage. The industry was faced with a major problem, virtually completely
lacking in any proven technology to treat POME. Committed to overcome the problem, the government and the
industry worked together to source for treatment technologies that are environmentally and economically sound.
Bear in mind, none was available anywhere in the world then to specifically treat POME. This government-
industry synergy towards common goal-pollution abatement paid off handsomely. Systems for treatment of

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organic industrial wastes were successfully adapted for POME treatment. The three most commonly used
systems were ponding system, open tank digester and extended aeration system, and closed anaerobic digester
and land application systems. [1].
Although particular aspects of environmental control had been the subject of legislation in past decades
around the world, for example the Control of Pollution Act 1974, Trade Effluent Regulations 1989, and the
Environmental Protection Act 1990 which raised significantly the profile of the environment as an industrial
responsibility and which brought many industrial activities under the direct control of the Environment Agency
or local authorities in U.K [2]. However, the growing international concern about the environmental
sustainability, public awareness and community involvement in the protection of their immediate environment
has continue to mount more pressure on manufacturing industries especially palm oil mills in Malaysia to
control environmental pollution.
Sporadic research has been performed and new methods and technologies have been developed to find
approachable solutions for managing POME, yet palm oil mills are still struggling to meet up with more
stringent limits of effluent discharge allowed. By 1984, law on effluent discharge in Malaysia limits the
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), a measure of effluent strength, to 100 parts per million (PPM). However, in
environmentally sensitive areas of Sabah and Sarawak like Kinabatangan River, Department of Environment
(DOE) Malaysia had imposed a more stringent condition of 20 ppm since 2006. For example, for new mills, a
20-ppm BOD requirement coupled with land irrigation has been imposed in Sabah. In very sensitive areas, the
DOE has even imposed a zero discharge requirement
There are more than 430 palm oil mills in Malaysia, of which 55 mills are in Sarawak and 124 mills in
Sabah, making the state the largest crude palm oil (CPO) producer in Malaysia [1]. Based on these new
challenges being faced by palm oil mills, there is urgent need for the palm oil mills in Malaysia to explored and
take advantage of the current available options or additional alternative to improve their environmental
performance. This paper provides the outcome of the preliminary studies carried out on the feasibility and
sustainability of the palm oil mills acquiring and adopting the zero discharge technology to achieve zero
discharge concepts.

II. WORLD PALM OIL PRODUCTION

Nigeria was the largest exporter of palm oil and palm kernels until 1934 when the country was
surpassed by Malaysia. Malaysia and Indonesia had surpassed Africa‟s total palm oil production. According to
oil palm review, published by the Tropical Development and Research Institute (TDRI) in the United Kingdom,
over 3 million tonnes of palm oil was produced by Malaysia alone in 1983, compared with about 1.3 million
tonnes of Africa production. In 1995, Malaysia was the world‟s largest producer with a 51% of world share, but
since 2007, Indonesia has been the world‟s largest producer, supplying approximately 50% of world palm oil
volume.
Worldwide palm oil production during the 2005-2006 growing season was 39.8 million metric tonnes, of which
4.3 million tonnes was in the form of palm kernel oil. However many economists predict palm oil will be the
leading internationally traded edible oil by the year 2012. Table 1.2 is records of 2012 world palm oil
production [3]

Table 1.2; 2012 World Palm Oil Production [3]

2.1. Production of Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil in Malaysia

Palm oil production in Malaysia has increased over the years, from 4.1 million tonnes in 1985 to 6.1
million tonnes in 1990 and to 16.9 million tonnes in 2010. It reached 18.9 million tonnes in 2011 and in 2012
the production was estimated to be at 19.4 million tonnes [3]. The Malaysian palm oil industry easily meets the

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local oils and fats demand, and the excess are exported. Palm kernel oil production in 1999 was 1.3 million
tonnes, and reached 4.7 million tonnes in 2011. Prior to 1970, most of the palm kernels produced was exported.
Since 1979, they were crushed locally to produce crude palm kernel oil and palm kernel cake. Malaysia
currently accounts for 39 % of world palm oil production and 44% of world exports. If taken into account of
other oils & fats produced in the country, Malaysia accounts for 12% and 27% of the world's total production
and exports of oils and fats. Being one of the biggest producers and exporters of palm oil and palm oil products,
Malaysia has an important role to play in fulfilling the growing global need for oils and fats sustainably. [1].

III. GENERATION OF WASTES FROM PALM OIL MILLS

The processing of oil palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB) primarily for palm oil also results in concomitant
production of wastes. According to [4], during processing in palm oil mill, more than 70% (by weight) of the
processed FFB is usually left over as oil palm wastes. The wastes products from oil palm processing consist of
oil palm trunks (OPT), oil palm fronds (OPF), palm oil mill effluent (POME), empty fruit bunches (EFB), palm
press fiber (PPF), shell, palm oil mill sludge (POMS), and palm kernel cake (PKC) [5, 6] According to [7] fiber,
shell, decanter cake and EFB accounts for 30, 6, 3, and 28.3% of the FFB respectively.
Palm kernel oil (white palm oil) is obtained from the seed known as kernel or endosperm. When oil has
been extracted from the kernel, what remains is known as „palm kernel cake (PKC). This is rich in carbohydrate
(48%) and protein (19%) [8]. POME is generated mainly from oil extraction, washing and cleaning processes in
the mill and these consists of water soluble components of palm fruits as well as suspended cellulosic materials
like palm fiber, fat, grease and oil residues [9]. Among the wastes that are generated from processing of oil palm
fruits, POME is considered the most harmful waste for the environment if discharged untreated. [10].

3.1. Records of Generation of Pome by Palm Oil Mills in Malaysia

It has been estimated that about 26.7 million tonnes of solid biomass and an average of 30 million
tonnes of POME were generated from 381 palm oil mills in Malaysia in 2004 [11]. Based on palm oil
production in 2005 of 14.8 million tonnes, an average of about 53million m 3 POME is being produced per year
in Malaysia [12]. However [13], reported that 66.8 million tonnes of POME were generated in 2005. Based on
the statistical value of total CPO production in May 2011, the production of 985,063 tonnes of CPO means a
total of 1.5 million m3 of water was used, and 738,797 m3 was released as POME, in that month alone. [11], in
their estimation stated that about 0.5- 0.75 tonnes of POME would be generated from mill for every ton of fresh
fruit bunch. However, for a well-run mill with good housekeeping, it is estimated that 2.5 tonnes of POME are
generated for every ton of CPO produced. However, the national average is about 3.5 tonnes of POME per ton
of CPO. This is an indication of increase in generation of POME in tonnes as production and processing of palm
oil continue to rise to meet both domestic and global demand.

3.2. Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME)

The extraction of palm oil involves a number of steps; fruit bunch sterilization, stripping, digestion,
pressing, clarification, purification, and vacuum drying. When these entire steps are added together, a significant
amount of water is needed for a palm oil mill‟s operations. On average, it is estimated that for 1 ton of crude
palm oil produced, 5-7.5 tonnes of water are required, and more than 50% of the water will end up as POME
[14]. Raw POME is a colloidal suspension containing 95%-96% water, 0.6-0.7% oil and 4-5% total solids
including 2-4% suspended solids that are mainly consisted of debris from palm fruit mesocarp generated from
three main sources, namely sterilizer condensate (36%), separator sludge or clarification (60%) and hydro
cyclone (4%) wastewater [15, 16]. The typical characteristic of individual wastewater streams coming out of
palm oil mill from the three main source of generation is given in Table 2.3[17]

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Table 2.3: Characteristics of individual wastewater streams [17]

The raw or partially treated POME has an organic matter, which is due in part to the presence of
unrecovered palm oil [14]. This highly polluting wastewater can therefore cause pollution of waterways due to
oxygen depletion and other related effects as reported by [14]. The depletion of the oxygen level in rivers leads
to anaerobic conditions and the release of noxious gases, particularly hydrogen sulphide. Thus, the natural
ecology of the rivers is destroyed, [18]. In Malaysia, POME produces 25 million tonnes per year of chemical
oxygen demand (COD), [19].

3.3. Characteristics of POME

POME composition depends mainly on the season, raw material quality and the particular operations
being conducted at any given time. POME, when fresh, is a thick brownish colloidal mixture of water, oil and
fine suspended solids. It is hot (80-90 0C) and possesses high amounts of total solids (40,500 mg/l), very high
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (25,000 mg/l), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (50,000 mg/l), oil and
grease (4,000 mg/l), [16]. The effluent is non-toxic, as no chemicals are added to the extraction process [18, 20].
Typically, POME is low in PH because of the organic acids produced in the fermentation process; it is acidic
with a PH of around 4.5 as it contains organic acids in complex forms that are suitable to be used as carbon
sources [21]. POME consists of water soluble components of palm fruits as well as suspended materials like oil
residues, short palm fiber, cell walls, organelles, a variety of carbohydrates ranging from cellulose to simple
sugars, a range of nitrogenous compounds from proteins to amino acids, free organic acids and assembly of
minor organic and mineral constituents [22]. Nutrients contains in POME according to [23] and [24], are
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and calcium, which are the vital nutrient elements for plant
growth.
Due to the non-toxic nature and fertilizing properties, POME can be used as fertilizer or animal feed
substitute, in terms of providing sufficient mineral requirements.
[24] reported that POME contains high content of A1 as compared to chicken manure and composted sawdust
According to [23], toxic metals, such as lead (Pb), can also be found in POME, but [25], reported that Pb
concentrations are usually below sub lethal levels (>17.5 ug/g). According to [24], Pb is found in POME as a
result of contamination from plastic and metals pipes, tanks and containers where Pb is widely used in paints
and glazing materials.
Despite its biodegradability, POME cannot be discharged without first being treated because it is acidic
and contains residual oil that cannot be easily separated using conventional gravity-based systems. Essentially,
this oily mix needs a lot of oxygen before it can decompose completely, and this phenomenon is called having a
high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and raw POME can sometimes have a BOD of up to 100 times higher
than that of domestic sewage.
POME even when treated, still imposes a demand on the environment as is still contains a significant
amount of organic matter. Microbes in water take in dissolved oxygen as they digest organic matter. This
demand for oxygen known as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is usually measured in milligrams per liter
(mg/l) and is widely used as an indication of the organic quality or the degree of organic pollution of water; a
higher BOD means poorer quality, and the inverse holds true as well.
Generally, the microbial population increases in proportion to the amount of food available. In such
instances, the microbial action will consume dissolved oxygen faster than atmospheric oxygen can dissolve in
the water. When that happens, fish and other aquatic life might die because of depleted oxygen. Raw or
untreated POME is characterized by high BOD, often in the range of 25,000gm/l or higher as shown in Table
2.3.

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3.4. Pollution by POME from Palm Oil Mills

During the last century, a great deal of research and development as well as application has been
devoted to pollution control advance technologies for treatment and management of both solid and liquid waste
generated from palm oil mills. The major reason for such huge efforts is that waste generation from palm oil
mills have been declared as one of the major source of environmental pollution. For every metric ton of palm oil
produced, 2.5metric tonnes of effluent (POME) are generated from processing in palm oil in mills. Direct
release of this effluent causes freshwater pollution, which can affect downstream biodiversity and people [26].
In Malaysia, the total production of crude palm oil in 2008 was 17,734,441tonnes.
However, the production of this amount of crude palm oil results in even larger amounts of palm oil
mill highly polluting effluent that were mostly discharged directly into environment especially by small and
medium palm oil mills operators. In 1983, more than 7.5 million metric tonnes of POME was generated in
Malaysia and POME has been singled out as the chief contributor to Malaysia‟s environmental pollution. [27].
Palm oil mills discharged palm oil effluent into environment in its raw form. Studies on the effect of
palm oil effluent on soil showed that raw POME is acidic and alters microbiological and physico-chemical
properties of soil, which ultimately affects soil fertility. [28]. Anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases (CO2
and CH4) from palm oil mills during anaerobic digestion of POME has been recognized as one of the main
causes of global warming which contribute to climate change all over the world. Several measures under the
Kyoto Protocol 1997 have been drawn up to reduce the greenhouse gases emission. One of the measures is
Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM). In Malaysia, palm oil industry particularly from palm oil mill effluent
(POME) anaerobic treatment has been identified as an important source of methane. In a research to investigate
the actual greenhouse gases emission from Lagoons and open digesting tank in palm oil mills, the result
indicated that methane contribution to biogas released from the open digesting tank and lagoon system were
35% and 45% respectively. Also in a study to quantify the actual CH4 emission from the open digesting tanks in
Felda Serting Hilir palm oil mill Malaysia, the CH4 emission pattern recorded for 52 weeks from 3600 metric
tonnes was between 13.5% and 49.0%. The total CH4 emission per open digesting tank was 518.9kg per day
[29]. Consequently, similar situations have been reported in countries like Thailand, Indonesia, and Nigeria that
are into large-scale palm oil production.

IV. CHALLENGES FACED BY PALM OIL MILLS

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) 1992 in chapter 21 of its
Agenda 21 observed that environmentally sound management of waste to control environmental pollution was
among the environmental issues of major concern in maintaining the quality of Earth‟s environment and
especially in achieving environmentally sustainable development in countries of the world. It went further to say
that effective control of generation, storage, treatment, recycling and reuse, transport, recovery and disposal of
wastes is of paramount important for health, environmental protection, natural resource management and
sustainable development. It therefore becomes imperative for the palm oil mills to have modern, advance, and
sustainable technologies to handle and manage its waste in a proper and environmentally sound manner to
control environmental pollution. There is no gain in improving the economic and welfare of the people and only
for them and their environment to be polluted because of indiscriminate discharge of waste especially POME by
palm oil mills.
In the past, when the industry was at its infancy in 1960's, palm oil mills usually discharged either
partially treated or raw POME into nearby rivers as this was the easiest and cheapest method for disposal.
However, excessive quantities of untreated POME deplete a water body of its oxygen and suffocate aquatic life,
and many small rivers have been devastated by such discharges. The problem of pollution accruing from a mere
92,000 tonnes production by only 10 mills was not apparent then. The environment could somehow absorb these
wastes.
This lackadaisical attitude did not last long. By the 1970's the growth of the industry was literally
exponential, bringing along with it pollution which the waterways could no longer handle, so much so that palm
oil processing became synonymous with POME pollution. Tone for ton, the oxygen depleting potential of raw
POME is 100 times that of domestic sewage. The industry was faced with a major problem, virtually completely
lacking in any proven technology to treat POME. Committed to overcome the problem, the government and the
industry worked together to source for treatment technologies that are environmentally and economically sound.
Bear in mind, none was available anywhere in the world then to specifically treat POME. This government-
industry synergy towards common goal-pollution abatement paid off handsomely. Systems for treatment of
organic industrial wastes were successfully adapted for POME treatment. The three most commonly used
systems were ponding system, open tank digester and extended aeration system, and closed anaerobic digester
and land application systems. [1]. However, the growing international concern about the environmental

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sustainability, public awareness and community involvement in the protection of their immediate environment
has continue to mount more pressure on manufacturing industries especially palm oil mills in Malaysia to
control environmental pollution.
Malaysia has been identified as the country that produces the largest POME pollution load in the river
[13]. Due to this fact, the palm oil industry faces the challenge of balancing the environmental protection, its
economic viability and sustainable development. Therefore there is urgent necessity to find an approach to
preserve the environment while keeping the economy growing.
Sporadic research has been performed and new methods and technologies have been developed to find
approachable solutions for managing POME, yet palm oil mills are still struggling to meet up with more
stringent limits of effluent discharge allowed. By 1984, law on effluent discharge in Malaysia limits the BOD, a
measure of effluent strength, to 100 parts per million (PPM). However, in environmentally sensitive areas of
Sabah and Sarawak like Kinabatangan River, Department of Environment (DOE) Malaysia had imposed a more
stringent condition of 20 ppm since 2006. For example, for new mills, a 20-ppm BOD requirement coupled with
land irrigation has been imposed in Sabah and in very sensitive areas; the DOE has even imposed a zero
discharge requirement.
Over the last two decades, several treatment and disposal technologies have been successfully developed
and used to treat POME [30]. They were all designed and constructed to meet a discharge limit of 100mg per
liter BOD. They consist of conventional biological systems using anaerobic and aerobic or facultative processes.
If operated according to design criteria and maintained well, the processes are able to treat POME to the
discharge limits set by the DOE Malaysia.
Although, anaerobic digestion is the most suitable method for the treatment of effluents containing high
concentration of organic carbon such as POME [31]. Anaerobic digestion according to [32], has been proven
unique and the most beneficial stabilization technique as it optimizes cost effectiveness, is environmentally
sound, minimizes the amount of final sludge disposal, and has the ability to produce a net energy gain in the
form of methane (CH4). The processes, being biological, rely on suitable bacteria to break down the organic
matter (pollutants) and, consequently, reduce the BOD of the effluent. The end- products of anaerobic
degradation are biogas (consisting of about 65% methane (CH4), 35% carbon dioxide (CO2) and trace amounts
of hydrogen sulphide) and sludge. At the mill, POME is collected in a sludge pit and retained for a day or two to
allow the residual oil to rise and be skimmed off before being pumped to a treatment plant. It is important to
ensure that as little oil as possible gets into the treatment plant as; otherwise, the efficiency of treatment will be
compromised. Anaerobic digestion of POME generates vast amounts of biogas, about 28 cubic meters per ton of
POME treated. Both CH4 and CO2 are greenhouse gases and CH4 is more potent. Biogas is also corrosive and
odorous. Thus its emission to environment is undesirable and this has been seen as the main disadvantage and
challenges faced by palm oil mills in the use of anaerobic method for treatment of POME. However, production
and recovery of biogas during anaerobic digestion of POME can be turn into economic advantage and means of
achieving zero discharge concepts if the palm oil mills would acquire and adopt available current advance
technologies that have capacity to harness biogas for heat and electricity generation.
This study, apart from its quest to establish the feasibility of zero discharge concepts in palm oil mills.
It also explored the challenges faced by palm oil mills in their effort to meet up with new stringent regulations
and growing awareness of need not to pollute. Consequently a reliable and sustainable means of achieving this
fits as mentioned earlier is by acquiring and adopting of current advance POME treatment methods or
technologies that can harness the biogas that are generated during anaerobic digestion of POME. This has been
agreed as one of the best environmental practices that will guaranty zero discharge concepts.

V. POLLUTION CONTROL AND ZERO DISCHARGE CONCEPTS

United States America (USA) congress, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
and environmental professionals concluded in the 1980s that a new industrial waste management philosophy
was needed if the ever-expanding industrial pollution and resource depletion problems were to be solved, [33].
They argued that indiscriminate use of virgin resources in manufacturing and subsequent end-of –pipe treatment
of resulting wastes would not provide the resource sustainability and environmental quality demanded by the
public. As a result, a new paradigm was developed which emphasized minimizing the use of harmful or
overexploited resources and eliminating or minimizing waste production at the source in the industry‟s product
area. This philosophy became known by many names, including waste minimization, source reduction, waste
reduction, green engineering, and sustainable engineering, but the name that is most often associated with it is
pollution control.
Pollution control is a term used to described production technologies and strategies that result in
eliminating or reducing waste streams. The U.S. EPA defines pollution control or prevention as; the use of

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materials, processes or practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants or wastes at the source. It
includes practices that reduce the use of hazardous materials, energy, water or other resources and practices that
protect natural resources through conservation or use that is more efficient. .
Thus, pollution control includes both the modification of industrial processes to minimize the production of
wastes and the implementation of sustainability concepts to conserve valuable resources. However, “zero
discharge concepts” is a new idea, strategy, or proposal that involved an industrial processes design, pollution
control plan, and or environmental management system to prevent release of any harmful or toxic material to the
environment. (Authors). Pollution control activities range from product change to process changes in method of
operation. The main premise underlying pollution prevention according to [35], that it makes far more sense for
a generator not to produce waste than to develop extensive treatment schemes to ensure that the waste poses no
threat to the quality of the environment and this assertion is likened to “zero discharge concept” which this study
seeks to establish its possibility in palm oil mill industry in Malaysia that is striving hard to change its present
image as environmental polluters.

VI. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Data for this research were collected between September 2012 to March 2013 by means of a
questionnaire survey mailed to 86 palm oil mills located in both Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia as a pilot
project. The questionnaire explored a range of issues relating to the treatment and management of palm oil mill
effluent (POME). In this research, emphasis was placed on the type(s) of technologies palm oil mills are
presently using for POME treatment and most importantly focused on the possibility and feasibility of palm oil
mills in Malaysia acquiring and adopting the current advance POME treatment technologies to achieve clean
production and ultimately zero discharge concepts.
The response rate of 58% was achieved. The questionnaire explored the following aspects of POME treatment
and management in palm oil mills;

 Is POME the most difficult waste to handle by palm oil mills?

 Which method(s) or technology does palm oil mills used in treating POME?
 Knowledge of availability of current advance POME treatment technologies by palm oil mills.
 Willingness of the palm oil mills to acquire current advance POME treatment technology as option for
clean production and means of achieving zero discharge concepts.

The responses received were coded and entered into the SPSS database and analyzed using mean,
ANoVa, t-test and correlation functions since in this research, what [36] referred to as complex research
approach (combination of more than one type of research approach) was adopted. However, according to [37], a
number of studies have been reported in the literature, including [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43], and [44]; all
supports the use of means, percentage and frequency to be used as part of analysis especially for descriptive or
exploratory studies.
Consequently, review of the case studies, pilot projects on current advance POME treatment
technology in Malaysia palm oil mills and analysis of the data obtained from the palm oil mills formed the
direction and position of this study on the feasibility or other wise of zero discharge concepts in palm oil mills in
Malaysia.

VII. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

7.1 POME as a Difficult Waste from Palm Oil Mills
Although, different types of wastes are generated during processing of oil palm fresh bunches (FFB).
According to Prasertan and Prasertan (1996), during processing of FFB in the palm oil mills, more than 70% (by
weight) of the process FFB is usually left over as oil palm wastes. The wastes products from oil palm processing
consists of oil palm trucks (OPT), oil palm fronds (OPF), empty fruit bunches (EFB), palm press fibers (PPF),
palm kernel cake (PKC), shell, palm oil mill effluent (POME) and palm oil mill sludge (POMS) [5, 6].
Respondents were asked to provide their response on which of the wastes generated by them is more difficult to
handle or manage. From the simple statistic percentage, 100% of the respondents claimed that POME is the
most difficult waste to manage by the mill and these are some of the reasons given by the operators.

 The volume by weight of the POME generated per one ton of FFB is enormous.
 During POME treatment to reduce the level or strength of BOD and other parameters, other by products
like biogas, sludge etc. are generated.

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 It involved a lot of labor, required a lot of time, close monitoring and too expensive to achieve the required
BOD level of 20ppm or less before final discharge.

Obviously, these are also some of the reasons why majority of palm oil mills discharged either partially
or untreated POME into nearby rivers as reported several times happened at Kinabatangan and Tenaggang rivers
all in Kota Kinabalu. In Mukah land District, Oya-Dalat land District and Miri-Bintulu all in Sarawak, various
palm oil mills were fined between RM 18,000 (US $ 6000) to RM 25,000 (US $ 8333) and three months
imprisonment each after the owners pleaded guilty to the charge framed against them under section 16 (1) of the
Environmental Quality Act 1974 and punishable under section 16 (2) of the same act. The operators were found
guilty of discharging POME into watercourse. All the liquid wastes discharged into the watercourse were found
to contain substances in concentration exceeding the stipulated limits under regulation 12 (4) Environmental
Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations, 1977.
According to the report by Borneo Post online, the mills were prosecuted by the Department Of Environment
Officers. [45]

7.2 Methods or Technologies Palm Oil Mills used in treating POME

The cheapest way of discharging POME is to either disposed it on the land inform of land application
or release it into the river untreated, since POME is a non-toxic oily waste. Nevertheless, discharging of POME
into water bodies cause water depletion and results in aquatic pollution [46]. Over the last two decades, several
treatment and disposal technologies have been successfully developed and used to treat POME [30]. They were
all designed and constructed to meet a discharge limit of 100mg per liter BOD. These methods or technologies
consist of conventional biological systems using aerobic and anaerobic and or facultative processes. If operated
according to design criteria and maintained well, the process are able to treat POME to the discharge limit set by
Malaysia Department OF Environment (DOE). However, type of method or technology currently implored by
mills was reflected in the questionnaire responses. The percentage calculated from the survey responses
provided 97% respondents claiming the use of ponding system of aerobic and anaerobic process in treating their
POME.
Aerobic and anaerobic processes are biological treatment systems that rely solely on microorganisms to
break down pollutants and they need proper maintenance and close monitoring. Microorganisms are very
sensitive to change in their environment and hence, great care must be taken to maintain the condition in which
they thrive. This requires the attention of skilled operators, and the commitment of management. Unfortunately,
the palm oil industry still considers wastewater treatment a burden rather than as part of the production process,
let alone a profit opportunity. Undoubtedly, this aspect has the lowest priority in the maintenance budget. As a
result, according to [30] most palm oil mills are not always able to comply with the discharge limits. According
to [31], anaerobic process is a suitable treatment method due to the organic characteristic of POME. Therefore,
ponding system is the most conventional method for treating POME in Malaysia, [18, 47].
The pond system has been applied in Malaysia for POME treatment since 1982 and they are classified
as waste stabilization pond [48]. [48], reported that more than 85% of palm oil mills exclusively use ponding
systems due to their low cost. Ponding systems are easy operating systems but [48] and [49] argued that they
have some disadvantages, such as occupying a vast amount of land mass, relatively long hydraulic retention
time (HRT) of 45-60 days for effective performance, bad odor and difficulty in maintaining the liquor
distribution and biogas production which results into harmful effect on the environment when allowed into
atmosphere. However, production of biogas during anaerobic treatment of the POME has been considered as the
main challenge being faced presently by the operators of the palm oil mills. Consequently, the management and
utilization of this biogas as a source of renewable energy to control pollution aiming to achieve zero discharge
concept is the focus of this study.

7.3 Knowledge of the Availability of the Current Advance POME Treatment Technologies by Palm
Oil Mills Operators
Dozens of methods and technologies have been developed to treat and control POME pollution. This
implied that, there is availability of various new advance POME treatment technologies that are ready to be
acquire and use by palm oil mills. Nevertheless, the question is, does the palm oil mills operators have
knowledge of the availability of these technologies? This study explored this question by asking the respondents
if they have knowledge about these new advance technologies. A number of new technologies and methods
were listed in the questionnaire and multiple responses were allowed. Overall, 86% of the respondents claimed
to have knowledge of the new advance technologies and 2% of these respondents also claimed to be involved in
research and development of new technology in collaboration with universities and research institution in and

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outside Malaysia. On the other hand, 14% of the respondents claimed not to have knowledge about availability
of new advance POME treatment technologies.
There have been reports and review of literature on various new advance POME treatment technologies
that has been tested and proven effective through a plot projects. Some are however still at the testing stage. A
collaboration between Shanghai Jiao tong University and Malaysia‟s own Ronser Bio-Tech Sdn Bhd offered
two proprietary systems called AnaEG and BioAX for evaluation at a pilot plant at Labu Negri Sembilan. The
five tons per hour pilot plant at Labu is intended to demonstrate that is possible to achieve a zero emission of
POME into environment. The plant is designed to be able to generate biogas at a rate of 150 cu. meters per hour,
produce sludge that can be used as fertilizer, and produce wastewater that is good enough for boiler use. The
first stage of the plant will see to the recovery of waste oil from POME, before the sludge is treated by the
AnaEG or BioAX processes. The biogas that is produced will be captured for power generation by burning them
in gas engines, while some solid high-potash fertilizer is also recovered. The final bits involve membrane
separation, followed by ultrafiltration, and reverse osmosis, to produce clean water as shown in Fig 1.

Figure1. Pilot project of Ronser Bio-Tech’s Zero Discharge POME treatment technology at Labu,
Negri Sembilan

A new palm oil mill in Bintulu, Sarawak has also order a turnkey plant for effluent treatment and
biogas recovery system. The advance technology is to be referred to as Membrane Bio Reactor (MBR), a
wastewater treatment method that combines a membrane and bio treatment (Anaerobic), which the company has
confirmed its performance based on the site pilot tests for two years.
Veolia Water Solutions and Technologies officially lunched and announced its Pomethane technology
during 2012 POMREQ Conference in Malaysia. Veolia‟s Pomethane Technology offers affordable, greener
solution to treat POME. Pomethane technology has already been implemented by several Southeast Asian
companies, including Felda, Malaysia‟s largest crude palm oil producer. Pomethane, according to the company
represents a best practice application for managing palm oil industrial waste through an anaerobic thermophilic
digestion process. Some of the important benefits derivable from Pomethane Technology are;

 Technical solution that meets Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) requirement

 Economic efficiency
 In compliance with International Environmental Standards
 Environmental friendly and
 Renewable energy product

In addition, the anaerobic digestion of POME by use of thermophilic bacteria in Pomethane Technology
provides a number of advantages compared to the conventional mesophilic bacteria;
 The retention time is significantly shorter at thermophilic operating conditions which results in a reduction
of the digester tank size and thus capital cost and maintenance
 Thermophilic bacteria are capable of digesting more complex degradable substances, which may not be

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degraded by mesophilic bacteria. This results in an increase of the biogas yield.

 At mesophilic temperature range fungi and viral may grow in the substrate thus causing potential health
hazard from the effluent. Unwanted Microbiology will not survive in the thermophilic temperature range.
 The effluent from the secondary digester will run through a clarifier system.
 The effluent from the clarifier will be treated in the downstream wastewater treatment system.
 A part of the sludge will be recycled to the digester and the excess sludge can be composted after further
decanting or taken straight to the plantation as fertilizer.

Finally, Pomethane Technology has the capacity to remove COD exceeding 90% and final effluent discharge of
BOD < 20 PPM.
Other new advance POME treatment technology that has also been reported is Camco Southeast Asia. A
regional clean energy company, planned to build a 2-megawatt biogas project in Malaysia that will make use of
methane pollutants found in POME from palm oil mills. The US $ 4 million project is part of a 13 years “build-
own-operate-transfer” agreement between Camco and the mill owner. Under the terms of agreement, the mill
owner will provide adequate POME feedstock free for the entire duration of the contract. The biogas project will
use anaerobic digestion technology for breaking down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen.
In a related development, Alambumi Palm Oil Mill has also entered into collaboration agreement with
Konzen Clean Energy Sdn Bhd to develop a CDM project at Alambumi Palm Oil Mill in Miri. Divided into two
phases, the first phase would involve building up a closed anaerobic tank digester to capture methane gas
costing around RM 7.5 million (US $ 2.5 million) and the second phase would be biogas utilization costing
around RM 7 million. (US $ 2.3 million). However, this will be Konzen‟s second biogas CDM project from
palm oil mill effluent in Sarawak after Rinwood Pelita Palm Oil Mill in Mukah.
Professor Abdul Latif Ahmad of Universiti Technologi Malaysia (UTM) and his team invented a
system, which he claimed could turn palm oil waste into drinking water. The invention is called the “Novel
membrane-based treatment system which turns POME into crystal clear drinking water. According to inventor,
the technology required four steps to treat the waste before it became clean enough to drink. The environment-
friendly technology is set to reduce water pollution, as it will help ensure zero discharge of palm oil waste into
rivers.

7.4 Willingness of the Palm Oil Mills to acquire and adopt the Current Advance POME Treatment
Technology
There is no doubt that the current advance POME treatment technologies has been developed and
found to be effective by various organizations as clearly mentioned earlier. The target was to help palm oil mills
to achieve zero discharge concepts and to maximize the utilization of biogas generated during POME treatment
as a source of renewable energy. On records, the technologies are also available in global biogas plants market.
As stated earlier 86% of the palm oil mills captured in this study claimed to have knowledge of availability of
new advance POME treatment technologies (PTT). However, the willingness of palm oil mills operators to
acquire and adopt the new technology was reflected in the questionnaire responses. The respondents were asked
to choose either “YES”, “NO” or “NOT SURE” to state their willingness of acquiring and adopting the new
technology. 36% of the respondents choses “YES” indicating “Willingness”. While 41% of the respondents‟
choses “NO” indicating “Unwillingness” and 23% of the respondents choses “NOT SURE” indicating neither
YES or NO. The results of this survey revealed that despite the need for the palm oil mills to meet up with the
new stringent condition of 20ppm BOD and imposed zero discharge requirements by Malaysia Department of
Environment, many palm oil mills are not still willing and ready to acquire and adopt the new advance POME
treatment technology.
This category of the palm oil mill operators clearly advanced the following reasons for their position. In
some cases, millers claimed that utilization of biogas for power generation required a high initial capital to
acquire a new plant. Many argued that the government call for millers to become green independent power
producers (IPPs) is not practical. According to the millers, there are still no clear-cut biomass and biogas policy
and sufficient incentives to convince them to go into such projects. The mill operators argued that until the
government provide more attractive incentives for palm oil industry. This will encourage the millers to acquire
the new advance POME treatment technology that enable them make full use of the biogas to first generate
electricity for their mills and gradually selling its electricity to the national power grid where ever possible. One
of such attractive incentive according to the millers is to increase the tariff on green energy from $ 0.21 per unit
to between $ 0.29 and 0.40 per unit.

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VIII. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented the key findings from the survey mailed to 86 palm oil mills located in
Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. Although this is a pilot project, the survey results provide an overview of the
position of the palm oil mills operators on current advance POME treatment technology in relation to achieving
zero discharge concepts in their operations. The survey attempted to identify the key issues about the current
advance POME treatment technologies in respect to feasibility of zero discharge concepts in palm oil mills in
Malaysia.
The results shows that, although palm oil mills generate a lot of different types of wastes during
processing of FFB, according to the operators and available literature POME is the most difficult and expensive
waste to manage. This is because POME contains large quantity of pollutants that are harmful to the
environment. Obviously, palm oil mills cannot meet up with the new discharge limits of 20ppm of BOD and
zero emission in some sensitive areas using only conventional open ponding system. Therefore, there is need for
paradigm shift from the conventional ponding system that is popular among palm oil mills in Malaysia to the
current advance POME treatment technology. The new available technology has been proven effective to
guaranty zero emission that improve environmental performance and ultimately curb the industry‟s
environmental footprint. The results also found that majority of the operators generally have knowledge of the
availability of the advance and more suitable POME treatment technologies. According to available records and
reviewed literatures, some palm oil mills are already collaborating with different research institutions and
manufacturing companies in acquiring the new POME treatment plants.
Although, the millers claimed they want to achieve zero emission to improve their environmental
performance. The responses from the survey shows that majority of the millers are not willing to acquire and
adopt the current technology. This was evident from the reasons they advanced as stated earlier.
Based on the survey, records, reports, and reviewed literatures, the finding of this pilot study can be summarized
in the following points;

 Across the globe, current advance POME treatment technologies and or biogas plants are available for palm
oil mills to acquire and adopt for clean production.
 Attractive incentives and supports, that were found to be a major factor that will attract the millers to
embrace the new technology, are available at both national and international level.
 At the national level, the Malaysia government in her effort to promote green technology development in
2011, provided a found of up 500 million US dollar under the Green Technology Financing Scheme
(GTFs). This is to support green technology development in Malaysia, which includes utilization of
biomass, and biogas in palm oil industry. Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) and
Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) also financially support Malaysia‟s research and development
sector. These ministries provide research grants to qualified institutions to support potential research
projects that will promote the utilization of renewable energy sources.
The promotion of utilization of renewable energy sources available in Malaysia was implemented in
2011 under the Small Renewable Energy Program (SREP). Biogas generated from the treatment of POME was
identified as one of these potential renewable energy sources. In addition to introduction of the fee-in-tariff
(FiT) from US $ 0.09 KW/h onwards. Malaysia government has implemented the promotion of investment Act
1986 (The commissioner of Law Revision, 2006). This Act offers incentives to companies that generate energy
from renewable resources that is then either sold to other companies or retained for self-consumption.
The incentives offered include the granting of Pioneer Status (PS), Investment Tax Allowance (ITA),
Import Duty, and Sales tax Exemption (ID-STE). PS allows for income tax exemption on statutory income,
whereas ITA offers tax allowances on qualified capital expenses. Any palm oil mill that produces biofuel or
renewable energy is eligible for the incentive application to encourage the utilization of renewable energy
sources. In a related development, commercial banks in Malaysia have also gone into Green Technology
Financing (GTF) in view of the potential market for environmental business. Of the foreign commercial bank in
Malaysia, Sumitonw Mitsui Banking Corp. of Japan has team up with the Federation of Malaysia Manufacturers
(FMM) to provide RM 632 million (USD 200 million) financing for local manufacturers. It was first kind of
financing from a commercial bank to be used on green initiatives such as renewable energy, recycling and waste
management project. Other banks offering green financing include HSBC, Maybank, and Standard Chartered
Bank.
However, during 6th World Islamic Economic Forum, Malaysia Prime Minister has also proposed the
setting up of a Clean Energy Development Bank to boost Eco-sustainable efforts by developing countries of the
organisation of the Islamic Conference.
 At the international level, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC,

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1998) is a scheme to promote sustainable development. It introduces carbon credits through which
developing countries can gain profit by trading certified emission reductions (CER), while developed
countries can achieve their emission reduction targets by purchasing the tradable carbon credits. The palm
oil industry is eligible to earn CER through biogas-methane capture released by POME.
More than five CDM projects from the palm oil industry were approved and issued at least 0.5Mt of
CO2 equivalent CER [50]. Recently, Rinwood Pelite palm oil mill in Miri and Alambumi palm oil mill in
Mukah are among the few palm oil mills that have utilized this incentive from CDM project of carbon credits
and other income generated from biogas utilization. With the worldwide trend in energy generation using RE,
the availability of current advance POME treatment technology and attractive incentives at both national and
international level. The prospect of zero discharge concepts and its feasibility in palm oil mills in Malaysia is
certain.
Finally, more needs to be done in the aspects of incentives and support from Malaysia government.
Green Investment Bank (GIB) for renewable energy, carbons capture and storage and energy efficiency
measures recently launched in UK can be replicated and adopted by Malaysia government. More research and
development that will result into less expensive technology should be encouraged. More collaboration with the
stakeholders in palm oil industry. Awareness campaign through organizations like Round Table Sustainable
Palm Oil (RSPO) will greatly influence the millers towards embracing the new advance POME treatment
technology to achieve zero discharge concepts in Malaysia.

IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, and Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental
Conservation (IBEC) for providing fund and facility used for this Study.

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and 5th NR Conf. on Quality Management, Australia, 1997, 187-195
[40] A. Preston, I. Saunders, Matching leadership and quality practices in a hospital setting, proc. 2nd NR
Conf. on Quality Management, Australia, 1995, 59-72
[41] A. Brown, Industry experience with ISO 9000, proc. 2nd In. and 5th NR Conf. on Quality Management,
Australia, 1995, 147-159.
[42] S. Davenport, C. Grimes, J. Davis, Managers and research collaboration: the case of TBG. Proc. Conf. on
Technology for Manufacturing, New Zealand, 1997, 19-25 (1)
[43] A. Brown, R. Millen, T.V. Wiele, An empirical investigation of the use of self-assessment practices in the
USA, proc. 2nd In. and 5th NR Conf. on Quality Management, Australia, 1997, 14-18
[44] G.A. Vargus, C. Cabanas, Social and organizational aspects of quality implementation: a Spanish
experience, proc. on Conf. Decision Sciences Institute 3rd In. meeting, 1995, 227-229.
[45] Press, www.theborneopost.com/2011/08/26/oil-palm-mills-fined-for-polluting-waterways/
[46] T. K. Hwang, S.M. Ong. C.C. Seow, H.K. Tan, Chemical composition of palm oil mill effluents, Planter,

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54, 1978, 749-756.

[47] A.N. Ma, A.S.H. Ong, Pollution control in palm oil mills in Malaysia, Journal of the American Oil
Chemists' Society, 62(2), 1985, 261-266
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Water Science and Technology, 44, 2001, 157-162.
[49] K.K. Chin, S.W. Lee, H. H. Mohammad, A study of palm oil mill effluent treatment using a pond system,
Water Science and Technology, 34, 1996, 119-123.
[50] M.B. Wahid, Biogas utilization in palm oil mills, (Malaysia Palm Oil Board, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
2009). (2)

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)
e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-253-257
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Cyber laws encompassing the Security of E-Quran in Saudi

Arabia
Naasir Kamaal Khan
Department of Computer Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Abstract: - Past two decades in the world have seen tremendous growth in the use of Information Technology
in almost every field of daily life. We have seen abrupt changes in the society and paper world is completely
changed to electronic world. The use of electronic format of storing, processing and retrieval of data made ease
for the human kind in a multidimensional way which influences the human being in all the aspects of life. The
growth of using Holy Quran for reading and learning through electronic mode is increasing day by day. As there
are always two faces of a coin, the other side shows the risks and vulnerabilities associated with the use of e-
Quran. With over 1.5 billion of Muslim population in the world, several calls were raised in the Islamic
countries to establish a law suitable to handle computer crimes which matches the Islamic Shariah law. In this
paper threats associated with the use of digital format of Quran and existing cyber laws associated with it, are
discussed, both in the Kingdom and worldwide. The author conducted on extensive review of published
literature on a number of computer crime laws developed by many countries, which includes Texas Computer
Crime Law, Anticrime act 2007 of Saudi Arabia and cyber laws in other countries of Middle East. Lastly author
proposes the amendments in the latest version of Cyberlaws for securing the Holy Quran, in the light of present
Anticrime act of World especially in Middle East as computer crime is of a global nature and the present
penalties associated with Modification and fabrication of electronic data is not enough when we talk about the
holy book Quran.

Keywords: - Piracy; Cyber Laws; Texas Law; Islamic Law; e-Quran.

I. INTRODUCTION
Information Technology is rapidly growing field in the modern era. The electronic form of data
storage, processing and retrivel has completely removed the paper world. The use of data in electronic form
facilitates its user to carry it anywhere without any intervention of physical boundry. The compulsion of size
and space has also been vanished. But the darker aspect of this technology has also a great impact, which can
not be neglected.Tremendous growth in computer and Internet users since last few years increases the problem
manyfold. Computer is now not limited to corporate, business or education world, it has been reached to each
individual in one form or another which leads to unauthorised access of digital data.
This unauthorized creation and distribution of any software is considered as software piracy. The origin of
software piracy lies in the early 1960s, when computer programs were freely distributed with mainframe
hardware by hardware manufacturers. In the late 1960s, manufacturers began selling their software separately
from the required hardware [1]. Some file sharing programs like „bit torrent‟ and „napster‟ are also contributing in
software piracy. According to the BSA statistics, the piracy rate is increased from 2% to 43% in short span, just
because of the highly demanded PC market in developing countries [2]. People in the world get used to install
and download false materials and products and also feel happy to be able to afford these materials without any
cost and resulting harm to the individual or masses [3].

II. THREATS TO E-QURAN

Computer crime by definition means where computer is used as a target, tool or both. Threats associated
with computer are classified as Interception, Interruption, Modification and Fabrication. Out of which
Modification and fabrication is the severe one which attacks on Integrity of data. As transmitting and receiving
the data in electronic form does not follow any physical rule due to anonymity of source, it is difficult to track the

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malpractice easily. But laws can be incorporated as soon as malpractice is detected and the culprit can be
punished. Hackers are continuously identifying new means of stealing information. Unfortunately, the presence
of unaware users in an environment surrounded by digital world makes them an easy target for hackers. User
education and training is a must to combat computer security threats. This is not a simple task to achieve and not
the sole responsibility of the user or the organization. Many groups have to be involved to produce an IT security-
aware resident [4].
The electronic use of Quran is common now a days, whether it is through Desktop PC, Tablet or Smart
phones. The e-Quran is also vulnerable to various attacks including the most severe one, which is attack on
Integrity. There are several threats and vulnerabilities to e-Quran which can be classified broadly in two
categories. First, Fabrication of false e-Quran from scratch and secondly Interception and modification in
authenticated copy of e-Quran. The first category falls under integrity of the content which closely resemble with
the financial and banking data. Spoofing and Masquerading are two types of attack which talks about integrity but
usually ignored in cyber crime dictionary and assumed to be less harmful crime. The word spoof means to
deceive. In digital world spoofing refers tricking or deceiving computer systems or other computer users. This is
typically done by hiding one's identity or faking the identity of another user on the Internet.
The second category falls under confidentiality of data, software piracy is popularly known crime in this
category. Term Data diddling is also used for small alteration of data Masquerading is an attack by which a
person claims to be another person and takes all the privileges available in that IP-address. Data diddling is a man
in the middle attack where the MITM not only intercept the data but also alter the data. Diddle means a small
change in setting to bring your system down, like in buffer overflow attacks. [5]

Figure 1 - Integrity Attack (retrieved from Facebook)

III. EXISTING CYBER LAWS

Most the countries across the globe have cyberlaws based on their requirement, culture and ambience.
In Islam the basis of law is Quran and hadith and cyberlaws are also replica of the same. In section 33.02 of
Texas cyber law [6] breach of computer security is described under several parameters of personal and financial
security. U.S cyberlaws [7] states in section 18 U.S.C. § 1028 about Fraud and related activity in connection
with identification documents, authentication features, and information, section18 U.S.C. § 1028A about
Aggravated identity theft and 18 U.S.C. §§ 2516 about Interception of wire, oral, or electronic communication
i.e piracy.
The study of present cyber legislation of all the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
(ESCWA) members, namely: Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen shows the flaws and shortcoming in
existing laws [8].

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In this paper three major countries of Middle East namely Saudi Arab, Oman and UAE are taken into
consideration and their laws related to above mentioned two categories are being analyzed.

Figure -2. Countries with Updated Law [8]

A. Cyberlaws of United Arab Emirates

Article 10 of UAE cyber laws [9] states that penalty of Impersonation, masquerading or fraud is imprisonment
for a term of at least 1 year and fine of at least AED 30,000 or either. Article 15 states that the penalty of
imprisonment upto 7 years for following crimes through computers
 Abuse of an Islamic holy shrine or ritual
 Abuse of a holy shrine or ritual of any other religion where such shrine or ritual is protected under Islamic
Sharia.
 Defamation of any of the divine religions.
 Glorification, incitement or promotion of wrong doing.

B. Cyberlaws of Oman
Chapter Four of Oman Cyber laws [10] named Forgery & information Fraud states in Article 12 that
the penalty with imprisonment for a period not less than one year and not exceeding three years and a fine not
less than OMR one thousand and not exceeding OMR three thousands or by either penalty, shall be applied to
any person who uses the information technology tools in the commission of informational forgery crimes by
changing the nature of such data or the electronic information by addition or deletion or replacement with the
intent to use it as proper data or electronic information, acceptable in an informational system legally a matter
which might causes personal benefit to him or the other or causes damage to the other. If such data or electronic
information is governmental, then the penalty shall be temporary imprisonment for a period not less than three
years and not exceeding fifteen years and a fine not less than OMR three thousands and not exceeding OMR
fifty thousands. The same punishment provided for in the previous paragraph shall be applied mutatis mutandis
to any person who knowingly uses the forged data or electronic information.
In Article 19 The penalty with imprisonment for a period not less than one month and not exceeding three years
and a fine not less than OMR one thousand and not exceeding OMR three thousands or by either penalty, shall
be applied to any person who uses the informational network or the information technology facilities to produce
or publish or distribute or purchase or possess whatsoever that might prejudice the public order or religious
values.

C. Cyberlaws of Saudi Arabia

Article 6 of Saudi Arabia Cyber law [11] states that Any person who is involved in Production, preparation,
transmission, or storage of material impinging on public order, religious values, public morals, and privacy,
through the information network or computers shall be subject to imprisonment for a period not exceeding five
years and a fine not exceeding three million riyals or either.

IV. PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO EXISTING LAW

Existing Cyberlaws all over the world addresses integrity issue of data storage, processing and retrival.
It includes software piracy and intellectual property right, but nowhere laws are made specifically against
malpractice or fabrication of religious scripture including UAE, Oman and Saudi Arabia.
In Surah Baqarah, from ayat 78 to 81 (2:78 to 2:81) Allah says that “Among them are unilletrate ones who do
not know the Scripture except in wishful thinking, but they are only assuming. So woe to those who write the

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
"scripture" with their own hands, then say, "This is from Allah ," in order to exchange it for a small price. Woe
to them for what their hands have written and woe to them for what they earn. And they say, "Never will the
Fire touch us, except for a few days." Say, "Have you taken a covenant with Allah ? For Allah will never break
His covenant. Or do you say about Allah that which you do not know?" Yes, whoever earns evil and his sin has
encompassed him - those are the companions of the Fire; they will abide therein eternally.” So the penalty of
modification and fabrication of Quran should not be less then capital punishment as the intruders not only doing
a crime of diddling text whether intentionally or un-intentionally but also spreading mischief to Innocent and
unaware computer / smartphone users.
Author advocates that the ammendments should be done in cyber laws as the present laws are
insufficient and weak. So more stronger laws should be included at least in arab world to protect integrity of e-
Quran. The penalties to the criminal should not be less then the Drug traficking or Cyber Terrorism.
In author‟s view this crime should come in the category of content crime in present Omani Cyber Laws [10],
where the penalty is life imprisonment and a fine of one hundred thousand OMR or as in Article 25 where the
punishment is the death penalty or life imprisonment and a fine of twenty five thousand OMR. In Saudi Arabian
cyber laws [11] this crime should come under Article 7 where imprisonment is for ten years, and a fine of five
million riyals.
In this context Author Proposes following Amenmends in the present Cyberlaws :
1. A Separate Article in the law should be made against foregery of e-Quran.
2. This Article should be subdivided in two categories; Fabrication of e-Quran and Modification of e-Quran.
3. For Fabrication the penalty should not be less then life imprisonment.
4. For Modification the penalty should not be less then ten years of imprisonment and fine of five million riyal.
5. In both the cases criminal should be banned to use computer and Internet for a lifetime.

V. DISCUSSION
Legislation is the back bone of every society. In Saudi Arabia there is a special case in that the
sanctions imposed as punishment are approved as stated in the Qur‟aan and Sunnah. There are public sanctions
such as theft, murder, adultery for which an Anti-Crime act was introduced in 2007 to combat cyber crimes. It
also determines the level of each crime and the resulting harm[12]. In [4] some recommendations were given
such as formation of Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERT) to enhance the security awareness among
residents. Involvements of Police Departments, Enterprises, Telecommunication companies (ISPs), Media and
Users.
In 2008, a new initiative has been proposed to fight cyber terrorism by bringing governments,
businesses, and academia together from all over the world. The initiative, known as the International
Multilateral Partnership Against Cyber Threats (IMPACT) [13], consists of the international partnership of more
than 30 countries to study and respond to high-level cyber security threats.
Apart from the common legislation of cyber crime in Kingdom, it is now important to have a special
law to protect integrity of e-Quran. It is observed in the near past that the smart phone users are increasing day
by day and several versions of software of e-Quran is now available. So the chance of forgery and fabrication
also increases proportionally. A common user can easily be misguided due to unawareness of this fraud. An
example of “Musaylimah bin Ḥabīb” alias Kazzab belonged to tribe Banu Hanifa used to compose verses and
offer them, as Quranic revelations. Most of his verses extolled the superiority of his tribe, the Bani Hanifa, over
the Quraysh [14]. He was killed in the battle of Yamama and later his followers were executed. There are many
hidden culprits in cyber world now a day‟s who intentionally spread mischief in the land so it is necessary to
make strong law to protect Holy Scripture in electronic form.
In Figure 3 it is shown that any security system cannot be established until it is supported by three
features, viz. Selection of Control policies, Implementation and Monitoring. So to have a strict law it is
recommended to have all these features incorporated in the system.

Figure 3 - Security System features

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VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper several forms of cybercrime were discussed especially those are connected to piracy and
fraud. A correlation has been made of these crimes with the threats of e-Quran and various other threats were also
discussed. After analyzing threats to e-Quran they were categorized in two broad fields, modification and
fabrication which challenge the integrity of e-Quran. Existing laws related to piracy and forgery were discussed in
general and related to e-Quran in particular in the cyber laws of many countries particularly UAE, Oman and
Saudi Arabia. It was observed that any of the three does not include any clear law to protect e-Quran. Author
proposes some amendments in the existing law and advocated to have stronger law for security of e-Quran as it is
matter of faith, religion and moral values. Lastly some case studies were discussed related to this research with
managerial, social and technical aspects.

VII. REFERENCES
[1] Business Software Alliance, “Eighth annual BSA global software 2010 piracy study”, May 2011.
[2] Ajay Nehra, Rajkiran Meena, Deepak Sohu, and Om Prakash Rishi. “A Robust Approach to Prevent
Software Piracy”.Students Conference on Engineering and Systems (SCES), IEEE 2012.
[3] Samir N. Hamade. “The Legal and Political Aspects of Software Piracy in the Arab World” Proceedings
of the Third International Conference on Information Technology: New Generations (ITNG'06), IEEE
2006.
[4] Fadi A. Aloul.”Information Security Awareness in UAE: A Survey Paper”. IEEE International
Conference for Internet Technology and Secured Transactions (ICITST), London, UK, pp. 1-6,
November 2010.
[5] CAPEC; A Community of knowledge resource for building secure software, available online at
http://capec.mitre.org/data/definitions/184.html
[6] Texas Computer Crime Law. Available Online:
http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/PE/htm/PE.33.htm
[7] Cybercrime Laws Of The United States. Compiled October 2006 by Al Rees, CCIPS.
http://www.qcert.org/sites/default/files/public/documents/us-ecrime-compilation_of_cybercrime_laws-
eng-2006.pdf Last accessed on 1/7/2013
[8] Models of Cyber Legislation ESCWA Countries. Available online at
http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/ictd-07-8-e.pdf.
[9] The Federal Law No. (2) of 2006 on The Prevention of Information Technology Crimes published in the
Official Gazette of the United Arab Emirates, Volume 442, 36th year, Muharam 1427 H/ January 2006.
[10] Cybercrime Law Sultan of Oman, Royal Decree No 12/2011; English Version available online
http://www.qcert.org/sites/default/files/public/documents/om-ecrime-issuing_the_cyber_crime_law-eng-
2011.pdf .
[11] Anti-Cyber Crime Law of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Bureau of Experts at the Council of Ministers
Official Translation Department Translation of Saudi Laws, 8 Rabi1, 1428 / 26 March 2007.
[12] Naasir Kamaal Khan. “Taxonomy of Cyber Crimes and Legislation in Saudi Arabia” in International
Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology (IJARCET) ISSN: 2278-1323
Volume:1, Issue:8 October 2012, page 207-209.
[13] International Multilateral Partnership Against Cyber Threats (IMPACT), available online at www.impact-
alliance.org/
[14] The Life of the Prophet Muhammad: Al-Sira Al-Nabawiyya By Ibn Kathir and Muneer Fareed.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-258-263
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

An Experimental investigation of sea sand as an Abrasive material in

vibrating chamber by using Tungsten Carbide Nozzle in Abrasive Jet
machining Process.
N. S. Pawar, R.R. Lakhe, R. L. Shrivastava,
*Department of Mechanical Engg, Government Polytechnic , Nagpur, Maharastra state, India
** Director, shreyas Quality Management system, Training and consultancy ( 9001:2000),11, Tulsivihar
Abhayakar Nager Road TF-III, Nagpur-10, Maharastra State, India
*** Professor in Mech Engg Dept.,Yashwanrao chavan college of Engg. Nagpur Maharastra State, India

Abstract: - A large number of investigation carried out in Abrasive jet machining and water jet machining
process with different parameter but no detailed work have been found or carried out by using sea sand as an
abrasive in AJM process by using different types of nozzles and variable parameters. The present work gives
performance of sand having grain structure of 100-150 micron in the tungsten carbide nozzle. The
experimentation in this study give characteristic of sea sand as abrasive material. The parameter like pressure,
standoff distance of nozzle from work piece keeping constant and variable. It give the result of material
removal rate , powder flow rate, similar to actually abrasive used like Aluminum oxide, silicon oxide etc. The R
square value o.97 to 0.996 degree of polynomial equation. It is also notice that width of cut slightly increase
with increase of feed rate .The taper cut slot was found to be a higher at greater stand of distance and work feed
rate .Tungsten carbide is very hard. It maintain high cutting ability as abrasive strike on work piece.

Keywords: - sea sand, Vibrating chamber, Abrasive jet machine , abrasives, Nozzles, glass,

I. INTRODUCTION
Sand Abrasive compressed air is used for surface cutting, holing of surface on the brittle material like
glass, this also used for surface cleaning and surface texturing etc. In AJM process fine particles of sea sand
having grain size 100-150 micron accelerate in mixing chamber. The sea sand particle directed toward working
surface. The Tungsten carbide Nozzle is one of the most useful nozzle in modern AJM engineering process
because of its high hardness, high wear resistance, high chemical inertness, high young’s module and thermal
conductivity. In earlier studies of Deng Jianxin used ceramic based composite have been developed and used in
various application.
Nevertheless considering its working condition the AJM process can generate penetration. The
acceleration of the sand abrasive in vibrating chamber generate the proper turbulence of particles along with
compressed air of pressure varying from 5 kg per cm sq. to 12 kg per cm sq. The cam and follower at lower base
side of the gives vibrating motion to chamber. The studies by Dong sam park (1) machining profile of grooves
shows U type shape. He also elaborate masking for good result independent of the heating temperature with
water abrasive jet machining . By Deng Jianxin (3) he focus on reducing stresses on entrance of ceramic nozzle
with apparent increasing in erosion wear resistance. The effect of hardness of nozzle was reported by Jianais
Deng (5). The experimental work carried out by Balasubramaniam (7) the effect of particles size on its
normalized erosion profile and effect of normalized erosion profile as velocity assumed to be constant. For all
stand of distance he conclude that the peripheral velocity of jet is increases it also increases the rate of material
removal rate.
The present study set a target of sea sand as abrasive material in vibrating chamber of tungsten carbide
nozzle with varying parameter of pressure, standoff distance. The morphology of impacted surface is compared
conventional abrasive which used in AJM as well as water abrasive Jet machine process. In fact the quadratic
polynomial and cubic polynomial model fit curve gives the R-square vary near to 1 i.e. 0.98 to 0.9918 which
result good fitting of curve.

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II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS AND SET UP
Experimentation were conducted to proposed sea sand as abrasive material with grain size vary from
100-150 micron. The microscopic structure can observed by sedimentation and decontation, sedimentation
balance, BET, illustration method. For 1.5 to 2 mm diameter of nozzle 50-150 micron grain size is preferably
used. The sieving size range start from 37 micron below this not possible to used for grain size measurement if
the size is above 37 micron electronic microscope is used.
The pressure varying from 5 to 12 kg per cm. sq. and standoff distance keeping variable and constant for
different powder flow rate throughout the machining process.

Table No.1:Experimental condition

Abrasive--------------sea sand
Grain size-----------100-150 micron
Pressure-------------5 to 12 kg/cm2
Standoff distance ----------------constant
Tungsten carbide Nozzle--------2mm dia
Time consider for penetration----variable
Work piece----Glass & Thickness = 4 mm

Fig No:1 Experimental set up

In this work process the material removal rate and powder flow rate were calculated in different
condition apply for set up. The high turbulence is created in vibrating chamber with compressed air by which
the particle moves with high speed of stream. The impact through nozzle cause severe erosion or material
removal gm/sec. the erosion of material surface depends upon velocity of particle direction and brittleness of
work piece. Some studies are showed that erosion rate depend upon impact angle.

Table No: 2.when pressure variable and standoff distance constant.

P SO MRR PFR DOC
Sr. Kg/cm D W/T = Wa/T = mm
No ² mm gm/sec) gm/sec
1 5 8 0.043 1.10 4.5
2 5.5 8 0.051 1.21 4.7
3 6 8 0.060 1.34 5.0
4 6.5 8 0.065 1.50 5.1
5 7 8 0.075 1.73 5.1
6 7.5 8 0.077 1.73 5.2
7 8 8 0.080 1.74 5.4
8 8.5 8 0.081 1.75 5.6
9 9 8 0.081 1.75 5.4
10 9.5 8 0.080 1.76 5.5

The quadratic and cubic polynomial model fit for MRR v/s pressure shows the R square value are not
much more differ and the percentage of difference is 0.5 % which is very less. The graphical representation of
material removal rate and pressure show the nature of sand abrasive with different condition. The depth of cut
is slightly increase as the SOD is increased. It is observed that sprinkling of abrasive is more then DOC is also
more.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Graph No. 1 Effect on MRR v/s Pressure at R-square value is 0.9934

Graph No.2 Effect of MRR v/s Pressure at

R-square value is 0.9939

Graph No :3 behavior of MRR v/s PFR at quadratic polynomial fit at R-square value 0.9836

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Graph No :4 behavior of MRR v/s PFR at cubic fit at R-square value 0.9903 which is not much differ

Table no:3 when SOD is constant

Sr. P SOD MRR PFR DO
N Kg/c mm W/T = Wa/T = C
o m² gm/sec) gm/sec Mm

1 8 9.5 0.082 1.80 5.1

2 8 9.5 0.082 1.81 5.0
3 8 9.5 0.081 1.81 5.1
4 8 9.5 0.082 1.81 5.1
5 10 9.5 0.081 1.80 5.0

III. ANALYSIS
Analysis is carried out even the effect of some vibration , grain size of sea sand, was properly analysis by good
fitting curve. It was tested under different polynomial fit i.e. linear polynomials, quadratic polynomial, cubic
polynomial, 4th degree poly fit etc. above all cubic polynomial fit gives their good fitting of curve and R square
value is 0.9934 and 0.9939 The linear model equation of polynomials is
F(x)= p1*x^3+p2*x^2+p3*x+p4 and
In this experimental study the assumption were made in present analysis condition and simplifying equation
F(x)= 0.219*x^3-0.947*x^2+1.399*x^1-0.6417
The analysis of MRR v/s PFR of first derivation, second derivation, and first integration are obtained with 95%
prediction bond are
Fit with 95% pred bounds MRR

Graph No: 5 Analysis for MRR v/s PFR

Analysis of fit "fit 1" for dataset "MRR v/s PFR"
0.1
fit 1
0.05 95% prediction bounds
MRR v/s PFR
0
0.2
1st deriv

0.1

0
0.5
Integral from 1.1 2nd deriv

-0.5
0.05

0
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
PFR

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Fig No: 2 photograph of cut section of work piece:

IV. DISCUSSION
Photograph shows the actual diameter of cut of brittle material. The value of material removal rate and
powder flow rate were obtained by varying pressure and SOD and constant then after. The observation and all
relevant value of MRR and PFR are obtained by cubic polynomial fit for this observational set

V. CONCLUSION
The following conclusion are made at the end of analysis.
a) As the pressure increases the MRR is also changing
b) The value of R-square very near to 1 i.e. 0.9934 and 0.9939.
c) If the SOD is constant there is no more effect on MRR
d) The validation of work i.e. the value of MRR at pressure 5 kg per cm sq. is 0.043 gm/sec by concluding
observation and the by using linear polynomial model

F(x)= 0.219*x^3-0.947*x^2+1.399*x-0.6417
F(x)= 0.0421 and the percentage of error is very less

REFERENCES
[1] Dong-Sam Park, Myeong-Woo cho, Honghee Lee, Won-Seung Cho, Micro grooving of Glass using
micro –Abrasive jet machining. ELSEVIER, Journal of material processing technology 146 (2004) 234-
240 ,Incheon, South Korea
[2] Matthieu Barge, Jeol Rech, Hedi Hamdi, Jean-Michel Bergheau, Experimental study of abrasive process,
ELSEVIER , WEAR, Journal of science direct,98156 ,28 Aug 2006,pg 101-107
[3] Deng Jianxin, Liu Lili, Ding Mingwei, Sand erosion performance of SiC/ (W,Ti)C gradient ceramic
nozzles by abrasive air-jets, ELSEVIER ,MATERIALS AND DESIGN, Journal of science direct 28
(2007) , pg 2099-2105
[4] Jianxin Deng, Xihua Zhang, Pingzhang Niu, Lili Liu, Jinghai Wang, wear of ceramic nozzles by dry and
sand blasting, ELSEVIER, Tribology International 29 (2006), pg 274- 280
[5] Deng Jianxin, Feng Yihua, Ding Zeling, Shi Peiwei, wear bahavier of ceramic nozzles in sand blasting
treatments, ELSEVIER, Lournal of European ceramic society 23 (2003), pg 323-329
[6] M. Wakuda, Y. Yamuachi, S. Kanzaki, effect of workpiece properties on machinability in abrasive jet
machining of ceramic materials, ELSEVIER, journal of the international societies for precision
engineering and nanotechnology 26 (2002), pg 193-198
[7] R. Balasubramaniam, J. Krishanan, N. Ramkrishanan, A study of shape of surface generated by abrasive
jet machining, ELSEVIER, the journal of material processing technology 121 (2002), pg 102-106.
[8] Manabu Wakuda, Yukihiko Yamauchi, Shuzo kanzaki, material response to particle impact during
abrasive jet machining of alumina ceramics, ELSEVIER, the journal of material processing technology
132, (2033), pg 177-183
[9] A.EI- Domiaty, H.M.Abd EI-Hafez, and M.A.shaker, drilling glass sheet by abrasive jet machining ,
world academic science engineering and technology 56 (2009), 61-67

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[10] S.paul, A.M. Hoogstrate, C.A. van Luttervelt, H.J.J.Kals, an experimental investigation of rectangular
pocket milling with abrasive water jet , ELSEVIER, the journal of material processing Technology 73
(1998), pg 179-188.
[11] Adnan Akkurt, the effect of material type and plate thickness on drilling time of abrasive water jet
drilling process , ELSEVIER, the journal of material and design 30 (2009), pg 810-815
[12] L. Chen, E. Siores, W.C.K.Wong, optimizing abrasive waterjet cutting of ceramic materials, ELSEVIER,
the journal of material processing tech. 74 (1998), pg 251-254
[13] A.A.Khan, M.M. Haque, performance of different abrasive material during abrasive water jet machining
of glass, ELSEVIER, the journal of material processing technology 191, (2007), pg 404-407
[14] L.Chen E. Siores, W.C.K.Wong, kerf charecterstics in abrasive waterjet cutting of ceramic materials
PEERGAMON, PUBLISHED BY Elsevier science ltd, pg 1201-1206
[15] P.K.Ray, A.K.Paul, some studies on abrasive jet machining, the journal of institution of engineer
(India),vol 68,pg 27-30, 2 Nov 1997

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-264-270
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Forming of universal optimal operation model of frame for coil

winding with finished yarn according to selected measuring
points based on the effect of mechanical oscillations
Professor dr. Slobodan Stefanović1, Professor dr. Radoje Cvejić2,
Professor dr. Duško Kostić3, Professor dr. Srbislav Radivojević4,
Professor dr. Imre Kriss5
1
High School of Applied Professional Studies of Vranje, Serbia
²Associate Professor, Faculty of strategic and operational management, Belgrade, Serbia
3
HighVocational School for Entrepreneurship, Belgrade, Serbia
4
Visoka strukovna tehnička škola, Zvečan, Serbia
5
Faculty of Engineering, University Politehnica Timisoara, Romania

Summary: - In order to create a universal optimal model of certitude functioning it is necessary to analytically
determine the shape of the transfer functions of the optimal operation model M ( t ) NK that will define the
ξ
frequency of the analyzed sklopa.Analiza security model is undertaken stepping and to determine the sub-
models according to selected measuring points for determining the mechanical oscillations and then made
structures block diagram linking sub-models of transportation mode input processing yarn (carded tape) to the
output (cross road).

Keywords: - model, the transfer function, the system for winding yarn, the algorithm, the monitoring system.

I. INTRODUCTION-- DESCRIPTION OF A FRAME FOR COIL WINDING

WITH FINISHED YARN
Powertrain system of a frame for for coil winding with finished yarn is shown in Figure 1. and consists
of the following parts and components which are classified on the basis of spun yarn which is produced by a
twist of the rotor (turbine) and on its way to the coil which is wound.

THREAD GUIDE (F1) - used to evenly and safely winding yarn on cone coil. His movement is straight with
reciprocating, the number of cycles is 120 cycles/minute. It is made from a special type of ceramic with a metal
plate on the occurrence of friction-resistant. Installation and removal are very easy.
CORE HOLDERS (F2) - are used for alignment and uniform circular rotation of the coil winding. Holders are
made of special type of polymer, the special shape drawn on holly bearings. When bearing is broke, due to the
effects of dust in it, comes to his seizure, but also to break the insert coil holder.
TENSIONER AND LIFTER OF A SPOOL (F3) - a spring lever system which supports the full spools onto
the conveyor belt. The spring system is unstrained in coil winding yarn, while at the same full coils are activated
and divides the full coil coating in which the coil tighter when reloading.
SPOOL BRAKE (STOP BEFORE THE YARN BREAK) (F4) - is a system that consists of a cylindrical
lining of which overlaps coil winding in and of the lever which is activated at the binding of a broken yarn.

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Figure (1). The transmission system of a frame for coil winding with finished yarn

II. RESEARCH INTO THE CAUSES OF DEFECTIVENESS OF THE POWER

TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS FRAME OF THE OE SPINNING
MACHINES - FAULT SCAPE ANALYSIS
Failures were due to subassemblies OE - spinning on the basis of elevated levels of mechanical
oscillations recorded on the basis of the data collection ie. organization of the course of the level of mechanical
oscillations measured values of stochastic signals at selected measuring points. Based on all the registered
clients of the analyzed complexes formed integral components of the fault tree circuits OE spinning machines.
Failure analysis on the frames of OE – spinning machines included the use of methods fault tree analysis
occurring as a result of mechanical oscillations of the analyzed circuits. This analysis will later be used in the
analysis of the reliability of the components of the analyzed components.
From the standpoint of functionality and structural characteristics analyzed circuits of OE - spinning
labeled R1 are complex technical circuits in textile technology in terms of operation and maintenance in terms of
technology. The structural part of the technical components is derived from the production of components that
have a high technological level (very good surface treatment, durability and stability). However, as with all
technical components are certain weak points.
The main elements of the transmission circuits are analyzed and their weak points are chosen technical
components and are defined as a single weak points where the failures are repeated, and the same can be partly
overcome by the introduction of technology proper maintenance on them ie. maintaining the level of mechanical
oscillations in the specified bands (within certain limits their their impact). Continuous monitoring of failure
occurrence, due to the increased activity of mechanical oscillations, there is the goal of maintaining the
condition that. regular preventive maintenance can mitigate the effect of the impact of mechanical oscillations,
and thus decrease the number of clients integral components of the analyzed components. Fault tree analysis
shows that intensive monitoring of failure leads to the discovery of weakness on the techniques of circuits,
which in this part of the analysis done.
Failure analysis is presented deductive technique in which the specification of unintended
consequences resulting from the impact of mechanical oscillations (vibrations) that appear in the process of
exploitation of the analyzed components OE - spinning. The analysis included the character causes of failure of
the main circuit elements (related to the analysis of complex spinning boxing - heart OE spinning machines and
assembly of finished coil winding yarn) and the ways in which the cause leads to failure.
The results of the number of poor points failure who receive the service conditions, be used in the safety
analysis of the functioning of the analyzed components (determination of the percentage of failures) and to
determine their reliability.
In figure 2. are given the reasons for the impact of mechanical oscillations that lead to failure of
components and assemblies of components analyzed, based on which one can predict the actions of their
preventive maintenance technologies.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Figure (2). Failures in the constituent assembly components for the finished yarn winding coils due to the
increased effects of mechanical oscillations

III. ANALYSIS MODEL

The analysis model included the methodology using an algorithm to determine the security of the
constituent components of the clutch system with OE - spinning. The methodology included the construction of
the monitoring system (Figure 3.).

IV. ESTABLISHMENT OF A UNIVERSAL OPTIMAL OPERATION MODEL

OF A FRAME FOR COIL WINDING WITH FINISHED YARN ACCORDING
TO SELECTED MEASURING POINTS BASED ON EFFECT OF MECHANICAL
OSCILLATIONS – DETERMINATION OF FREQUENCY CERTITUDE
In this analysis started from the method for determining the sub-models according to selected
measuring points for determining the mechanical oscillations and then was made a structural block diagram
submodel in the way of movement and its yarn processing delay.
Structural block diagram of transmission on selected sampling points is shown in Figure 4.,

where:
M6 - measuring point level fluctuations on the conductor strands and the cylinder to rotate the spool in his
winding the finished yarn,
M7 - measuring point level fluctuations on the tensioner/lifter spool, and the spool holder.
Figure (4). Display of a frame for coil winding with finished yarn through structural blocks

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Figure (3). Monitoring system (algorithm) methodology of determing certitude functioning of the analyzed
frames - OE spinning machines

NOTE: In the formation of this model started from the block diagram that are different from the block
diagram in determining the reliability of the transfer function. The reason is that the measuring point 6
includes the impact of the tensioner and lifter (F3) while another part that makes this subgroup of a brake
coils (F4) belongs to the measuring point 7, so it is necessary to distinguish their effects. In determining the
reliability of the transfer function that was not of great importance, and models for determining the optimal
assembly for winding coils the finished yarn is of great importance, because it determines the measuring
points and the influence of each component of the heat caused by the occurrence of mechanical oscillations.
With the introduced labels measuring points (M6 and M7) transformation of the structure of the block diagram
is as follows (Figure 5.):

Figure (5). The transformation of the structure of the block diagram of transfer to sub-models for winding coils
with the finished yarn

Model analysis was carried out and stepping to determine the sub-models according to selected
measuring points for determining the mechanical oscillation (vibration), and then made srtuktura block diagram
linking sub-models of transportation mode input processing yarn yarn (thread guide) to the output (cross the
road) ie. the final stage (the final winding yarn around a spool).
Note: This block diagram structure will be further used to determine the general form of the transfer function of
the optimal model M  (t ) NK to be defined as the frequency of the safety assembly for winding coils the
finished yarn.
To carry out the general form of the transfer function of the optimal model, it is necessary to determine the
terms of sub-models ( M i ) that are included locations of measuring the level of vibration.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
6. Measuring point 6, includes components – threas guide (F1) and spool tensioner/lifter (F3).
Thread quide moving in a straight line - the axial direction and with 60 cycles in one minute (30 cycles
in an axial direction, and so in the other) in a way that leads spun yarn from one end to the other end of the coil
winding is being carried out. As the authoritative speed takes the speed of one cycle of movement guide:
VODIČ  NITI (t )   F (t )  f A6 (t ) F    6 .
1 1

Spool tensioner/lifter is activated when the process begins winding the yarn on the bobbin ready and
then when fully wound bobbin yarn, which frees it from the rollers to rotate the coil winding is raising up. The
relevant angular velocity is the speed of the roller rotation coil (roll is the same shape as the coil and act on it in
pairs)
VALJKA (t )   6 (t ).
 6 t  - The angular velocity circular assembly at the measuring point 6, as a function of the oscillation
amplitude A6 t F1 , A6 t F3 .

Equation 6 is a sub-models:
RF 1 (t )   6 (t ) F1 R (t )   6 (t ) F 3 P  R F1 t  P  R F3 t 
 6   6   "6   t13  F 3  t14  t  t
'

 F1  f (6 )  F 3  f (6 ) 6 6
(1)
t2

 6  2 P  R F1 t   P  R F3 t  .
6

RF 1 (t ) - The reliability of the guide or the useful period of work;
RF 3 (t ) - The reliability of the belt / pickup coil in a useful period of work;
 6 (t ) F m s  - The amplitude of oscillation in a helpful guide or period of the measuring point 6;
2

 
1

 6 (t ) F3 m
s2
- Amplitude of oscillation belt / pickup coil in a useful period of the measuring point 6;
t13 , t14 s  - Uptime components at the measuring point 6;
P  R F t  - A polynomial with real coefficients, which gives the dependence of reliability of the component
1

guides in the function or value of the level of mechanical vibrations at the measuring point 6
P  R F3 t  - A polynomial with real coefficients, which gives the dependence of the component reliability
tensioner/lifter operational level values of mechanical vibrations at the measuring point 6.

7. Measuring point 7., includes components: coil holder (F2) and the brake coil (F4).
Coil holder has a circular motion and turning over the rolling bearing, over which sits in firmly. Longitudinal
rotation speed ( LEŽAJA (t )), is the speed bearing that is different from the circular velocity at the measuring
point 7.

 F   LEŽAJA (t )   F 4 (t )  f A7 (t ) F , F    7 .
2 2 4

 7 t  - The angular velocity circular assembly at the measuring point 7, as a function of the oscillation
amplitude A7 t  F2 , A7 t F4 .

Equation of a sub-models 7 is:

RF 2 (t )   7 (t ) F 2 R (t )   7 (t ) F 4 P  R F2 t  P  R F4 t 
 7   7   "7   t15  F 4  t16  t  t
'

 F 2  f ( 7 )  F 4  f ( 7 ) 7 7 (2)
7 
 72
t2
P  R  t   P  R  t .
F2 F4

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

R F 2 (t ) - The reliability of the coil holder in a useful period of work;

R F 4 (t ) - The reliability of the brake coil in a useful period of work;
 7 (t ) F m s  - The amplitude of the oscillation coil holder in a useful period of the measuring point 7;
2

  - Amplitude of oscillation brake coil in a useful period of the measuring point 7;

2

 7 (t ) F4 m
s2

t15 , t16 s  - Uptime components at the measuring point 7;

P  R F t  2
- A polynomial with real coefficients, which gives the dependence of reliability of the
component holder coil operational level values of mechanical vibrations at the measuring point 7;
P  R F4 t  - A polynomial with real coefficients, which gives the dependence of the reliability of
components brake coil operational level values of mechanical vibrations at the measuring point 7;

V. CONCLUSION
The general form of the universal equation of the optimal model assembly for winding coils the
finished yarn is obtained by entering all prior specific factors (the transfer function of the optimal model
M  (t ) NK , which is defined as the frequency of the safety assembly for winding coils the finished yarn) so
that:
 t2   t2 
M  (t ) NK  M 6  M 7   2 ( P  R) F 1 (t )  ( P  R) F 3 (t )    2 ( P  R) F 2 (t )  ( P  R) F 4 (t ) . (3)
 6   7 

The introduction of shift:

( P  R) F1 (t )  ( P  R) F 3 (t )  10 ;
(4)
( P  R) F 2 (t )  ( P  R) F 4 (t )  11 .

it is obtained universal equations of the optimal model for the security of the complex coil winding the finished
yarn:

Y (t ) 4  10  
M  (t ) NK   t  ( 2 )  ( 112 . (5)
X (t )  6 7 
This equation is a universal equation of the transfer function of the optimal model of assembly of the finished
coil winding yarn by selected sampling points from the effect of mechanical oscillations, and it gives the
frequency dependence of the safety of operations.

VI. REFERENCES
[1] Adamović Ž., Stefanovic, S., Procedures for the implementationof controlof mechanicalvibrationsand
method of collectionof the dataontechnical systems, XVIII Yugoslavconference withinternational
participation "Noise and Vibration", Faculty of Occupational Safety, Niš, 2002.
[2] Application of Reliability – centered majnenance to naval aircraft, weapon systems and support
equipment, MIL-HDBK-266, DoD, USA, 1981.
[3] Arnold D., Auf dem Weg zum Autonomen Materialfluss, Logistik im Unternehmen, Nov./Dez., 1989.
[4] Barlow, G., Proshan, F., Statistical Theory of Reliability and Life Testing Probability Models, Holt,
richard nad Winston Inc., New York, 1975.
[5] Barlow, G.,Proshan, F., Statistical TheoryofReliability andLifeTestingProbabilityModels,Holt,
RichardofWinstonInc.., NewYork, 1975.
[6] Callick, E.B., Teretechnology – principles and practice, teretecnology Handbook, HMSO, London, 1978.
[7] Deanzer, W., SystemsEngineering, Verlag industrilOrg., Zurich, 1979.
[8] Fitch, J.C., Proactive Maintenace Can Yield More Than a 10-fold Savings Over Conventional Predictive/
Preventive Maintenance Programs, diagnetics, Inc., 1997.
[9] Prasad, B., "CONCURRENT ENGINEERING-INTEGRATED PRODUCTAN DPROCESS
ORGANIZATION", Vol. 1,Prentice-Hill, NewJersey, 1996.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
[10] Nakajima, S., "TPM DevelopementINPLEMENTINGPROGRAMTOTALproductivemaintenence"
productivitPress,Cambridge, Massachutsetts, Norwalk, Connecticut, 1989.
[11] ROTORSpiner, GMB, RIETERR, 1995.
[12] S. Stefanovic, DETERMINATION OF THE VALUE OF SELECTED OSCILLATION FREQUENCY
MEASUREMENT POINT ANALYZED PARTS OE SPINNING - On theboxspinning, PRIYANKA
RESEARCH JOURNAL PUBLICATION, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Research
and Development (IJMERD) ISSN 2248-9347, India, 2012.
[13] S. Stefanovic, DETERMINATION OPERATION TIME RISK OF BOX SPINNING COMPONENTS -
OE SPINNING MACHINE American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-
ISSN : 2320-0936, 2013.
[14] S. Stefanovic, THE ANALYSIS OF FUNCTIONING OF BASIC COMPONENTS OF OE -
TECHNICAL SYSTEM, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, Tome XI (Year 2013).
Fascicule 1. str. 237-244, ISSN 1584 – 2665, ANNALS of Faculty Engineering Hunedoara, Romania.
[15] S. Stefanović, RESERCH INTO THE CAUSES OF INACCURACIES OF COMPONENTS OF
COMPLEX FOR COIL WINDING WITH FINISHED YERN AT OE. Lucrarea trimisă redacţiei
MetalurgiaInternational a fost acceptată spre publicare în numărul 2013., ISSN 1582 – 2214,
“METALURGIA INTERNATIONAL” is introduced in THOMSON SCIENTIFIC MASTER JOURNAL
LIST, letter M, position 440.
[16] Stefanovic, S., Ugrenović, M., Productivitymodernspinning machines, depending on the parametersof
diagnosticfailureinpower transmission systems, JournalTEHDISno.1/2002., Belgrade.
[17] S. Stefanovic, effects of the appearance of mechanical oscillations TO SAFE OPERATION circuit in
fluid power systems and textile machinery, Doctoral dissertation, University of Novi Sad 2006th

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-271-275
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Assessment of energy use pattern in residential buildings

of Kano and Kaduna Northern Nigeria
Yohanna Irimiya, Iortyer A. Humphery, Ierve I. Aondover,
1
E CWA , Goodne ws K at si t , P. O. B ox 432. Kaf anchan, Kaduna, Ni ge ri a
2
M ec h a n ic a l En g i n eer i n g Dep a r t men t Fed er a l Un i v er s i ty o f Ag ri c u lt u r e, M ak u r d i, 23 7 3 , Ni g er i a ,
3
Work s and Housi ng De part me nt , B uruk u Loc al Gov e rnme nt Counc il , B uruk u, Ni ge ri a ,

Abstract: - The energy consumption end use of some selected residential buildings in Kaduna and Kano in the
Northern part of Nigeria was studied by comparing their energy consumption pattern. The energy usage and
intensities of the buildings as-built (Coventional) and when retrofitted with green features were studied and the
impact of the green retrofits documented. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted at 0.05% which
indicates a significant difference in the Energy consumption between the Conventional and Green features in the
six study areas. From the study, the annual energy intensity of Kaduna for conventional buildings is 25.24
kwh/m2. With the introduction of green appliances, a drastic reduction in the buildings annual energy
consumption was recorded which stood at 20.57 kwh/m2 representing about 18.26% reduction in annual energy
consumption which indicates a significant energy saving. In Kano VAC consumed the highest energy 12.49
kwh/m2 of the total consumption of all end-users. When replaced with energy efficient appliances the
consumption dropped to 7.95 kwh/m2 representing 34.14% reduction. The use of energy efficient appliances is
recommended.

Keywords: - Energy use, Residential Buildings, Northern Nigeria

I. INTRODUCTION
Energy consumption all over the world is growing annually at an alarming rate. It’s on this note that
electricity utilities in many developing nations need to adopt the energy policy that encourages the efficient
usage of limited electricity supply. This has been a grievous issue in many nations (Nigeria inclusive). In line
with the recently held conference on Earth summit at Rio, it’s believed that for energy to be made available to
all, the developing nations need to reconsider their respective energy efficiency policy and strategies. This
becomes necessary looking at the critical situation with respect to the energy consumption pattern in most of
these nations which has left much to be desired [1].
According to [2] and [3] in collaboration with [4], the world consumes about 7,500Mtoe of energy
every year. While primary energy consumption will grow by almost 50% from 2005 to 2030, the shares of
different energy sources are not expected to change significantly in the near future. Also, according to [5], about
30-40% of all the primary energy is used in buildings worldwide. While in high and middle-income countries
this is mostly achieved from the use of fossil fuels and biomass. This shows that, in the near future, more fossil
fuels will be used to meet the energy demands of many nations. [3], also estimated that buildings account for
about 30-40% of the word’s energy consumption which is equivalent to 2,500 Mtoe every year. It is, therefore,
an established fact that the building sector is responsible for a large share of the word’s total energy
consumption.
Energy consumption patterns in the world today shows that Nigeria and indeed African countries have
the lowest rates of consumption. Nevertheless, Nigeria suffers from an inadequate supply of usable energy due
to the rapidly increasing demand, which is typical of a developing economy. Paradoxically, the country is
potentially endowed with sustainable energy resources. Nigeria is rich in conventional energy resources, which
include oil, national gas, lignite, and coal. It is also well endowed with renewable energy sources such as wood,
solar, hydropower, and wind [6].

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The patterns of energy usage in Nigeria's economy can be divided into industrial, transport,
commercial, agricultural, and household sectors [7]. The household sector accounts for the largest share of
energy usage in the country - about 65%. The major energy-consuming activities in Nigeria's households are
cooking, lighting, and use of electrical appliances. Cooking accounts for a staggering 91% of household energy
consumption, lighting uses up to 6%, and the remaining 3% can be attributed to the use of basic electrical
appliances such as televisions and pressing irons [8]
Energy consumed by households includes electricity, gas, diesel, kerosene, inverters, candles, lanterns
etc. However, consumption is dominated by electricity. The enormity of Nigeria’s energy problem creates a
greater need for energy efficiency practice to be adopted by residential households as electricity demand in
Nigeria far outstrips the supply which is epileptic in nature [9]. Energy efficiency has become the key driver for
sustainable development. If we use energy more efficiently it will lead to saving of personal income and reduce
the need for more power stations in the country [10], [11]. In the last few years more stringent environmental
laws and souring energy prices has increased the need for household to react and participate in energy reduction
and housing sustainability [12].
In most Nigerian homes, it is evident that energy efficiency is not factored in the choice of household
appliances and electrical fittings. It could therefore be argued that electrical energy utilization in Nigeria is far
from being efficient as in most homes; filament bulbs of wattages ranging from 40 watts to 120 watts per hour
are still used.
The energy crises the country is facing coupled with population and infrastructural growth and the
unrelenting rise of energy prices have stimulated research interest towards finding ways of alleviating or
eliminating the unnecessary use of energy. Limited literatures on energy use in residential buildings have been
reported:
[13], st udi ed th e m on thl y el e ct r i c en er gy c on sum pt i on of a t ot a l of 17 h ousi n g un it s a t
ki n g Fah d Un i ver si t y of p et r ol eum a n d m in er a l s, Dh ahr an, S a udi Ara bi a over a per i od of
a bout fi ve yea r s. Th e y foun d t h e ann ua l a ver age t ot a l el e ct r i c en er gy c on sum pt i on for
4. 3. 2 an d 1 bedr oom h ousi n g un i t s t o be 193, 208, 217 an d 224 kwh / m 2 r espect i vel y. T h e y
r epor t ed t h a t on a ver a ge, t h e a ir – c on di t i on in g en er g y a cc oun t ed for a bout 73% of t h e
t ot a l en er gy c on sum ed i n th e st udi ed h ousi n g un it s. In an ot h er st udy, wh i ch com pa r ed
en er gy c on sum pt i on pa t t ern s of l ow – en er g y bui l di n gs t o con ven t i on a l bui l din gs in
Ma l a ysi a . The aim of this study is compare the impact of green buildings on efficient energy utilization in
Nigeria. The objectives:
1. To identity the green features that can be retrofitted into buildings to enhance energy efficiency and
conservation;
2. To highlight several dividends accruable from green buildings;
The importance of this work will among other things include, Identifying energy-saving measures (i.e.
green retrofits) in buildings adaptable to the climate of our region, which will help in maximizing the total
energy need of the nation; Provide a comprehensive database for identifying and quantifying projected benefits
from investment in green building projects.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Materials
The materials used are the Surveyor tape, Engineering Compass, the single phase Lanvis Analogue electric
Meter.

2.2 The study area

Kano state is the second largest industrialized State in Nigeria. It is the centre of commerce and economy
in Northern Nigeria. It lies between latitudes 120 23’ and 90 33’ north and longitudes 90 29’ and 70 43’ east. It
has a population of 9, 383,682 in 2006. The estimated total land area is 20, 760 square kilometers. It has 44 local
government areas. Kaduna State is a State in central Northern Nigeria,. Its capital is Kaduna. It has coordinates
100 27’N 70 45’ and an area of 46,053km2. It ranks between 3rd out of the 36 States and has a population
6,066.552 in 2006.

2.3 Data collection

The required data for the work were identified and classified as electrical energy-dependent appliances.
The appliances were sub-categorized into ventilation and air-conditioning (VAC), lighting, cooking, food
preservation, water heating, electronic and laundry. In order to determine the energy consumption of the
selected buildings, parameters of household appliances such as energy rating, number of units consumed, hours
of operation and the cost were collated as the primary data. Other parameters included the size of building and

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building orientations. Summary of the parameters is presented in Table 1. The buildings investigated were 3 bed
room flats.
Table 1: Summary Data of Buildings
Building Location Type Area (m2) Orientation
Kaduna 1 Afaka, Mando 3-Bedroom 137.5 S75E
Kaduna 2 Ungwan Rimi 3-bedroom 72 S40E
Kaduna 3 NAF BASE 3-Bedroom 160 S30W
Kano 1 AKTH, KANO 3-Bedroom 168 N50E
Kano 2 AKTH, KANO 3-Bed room 168 N50E
Kano 3 Sallari, Kano 3-Bed room 162 East

2.4 Experimental procedure

A data collection form was designed for easy documentation of all the parameters collected from
various buildings. The data measured included the size of the building in square meters, the orientation of the
buildings and of the windows. The duration, in hours, of the building access to power supply from Power
Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) was also recorded. The orientations of some of the buildings investigated
shade them away from the direct incidence and impact of sunlight when the sun is at its peak. The buildings
enjoy power supply from PHCN for 7-18 hours per day on the average. The buildings’ household devices
depended largely on electricity for their operation.
The physical characteristics (orientations and locations) of the green building were taken to be the same
with their conventional counterparts. However, the conventional buildings were retrofitted with green products,
which varied from one building to the other depending on the power consumption of the appliance incorporated
into the buildings. Some of the green devices retrofitted into the building were lighting, cooking, cooling,
ventilation, and electronic devices. These are energy-efficient household appliances such as compact fluorescent
lamps, improved fridges, electric fans, air conditioners, and deep freezers. Each of these appliances was
connected to an electric power recording meter (Single phase Lanvis Analogue Meter) through which the energy
consumption of the appliance was observed and recorded. The Conventional Appliances were each connected to
a recording meter. The readings were collected for a period of six months after which the buildings were
retrofitted with more energy-efficient appliances and readings collected for another period of six months,
making one year, the energy intensity was determined from the floor area of building and the energy
consumption of each appliance.

2.5 Data Analysis

Monthly consumption for each type of appliance and the percentage breakdown of total consumption
were analysed descriptive statistics on Microsoft Exec 2007. The Energy Intensity (EI), which determines the
ratio of the energy consumed in kWh to the floor area of building in square meter, was calculated using equation
1. A computer application software (micro soft Excel) was employed in the preparation, interpretation and
analysis of the collated data. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out on the energy intensity data of the
conventional and green buildings using sigma Plot 11.0 software version in order to determine if there are
significant differences between their means.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (1)
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

III. RESULTS
3.1 Analysis of variance for the conventional and energy efficient appliances for the study area
Then data was subjected to analysis of variance at 5% to test for significant differences. The Anova test
shows that, there was significant difference at 95% for the seven appliances (rows) indicating that there was a
difference in the energy intensity between the conventional and the energy efficient buildings appliances. The
Anova test shows no significant difference at 95% for the study areas (columns), implying that the study was
standardized. The mean values for the entire study was then considered for analysis.

Table 2: ANOVA for conventional and energy efficient appliances for the study area
ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Rows 175.5414 5 35.10827 4.080773 0.007598 2.602987
Columns 24.99242 5 4.998484 0.580994 0.714171 2.602987
Error 215.0834 25 8.603338
Total 415.6172 35

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

𝑯𝒐: 𝑭 ≤ 𝑭𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕. ∝ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑯𝒂: F≥ 𝑭𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕.

3.2 Energy end use in the study area

Table 3 shows the breakdown of energy consumptions by the various energy end-users in Kaduna.
From the Table 3, energy intensities of VAC, lighting, cooking, preservation, water heating, electronic and
laundry devices were 4.16kwh/m2, 5.08 kwh/m2, 10.19 kwh/m2, 3.47 kwh /m2, 0.53 kwh /m2, 1.09 kwh /m2,
0.71 kwh /m2while consumption for the retrofitted building was 3.4 kwh /m2, 3.16 kwh /m2, 9.36 kwh /m2, 2.63
kwh /m2, 0.48 kwh /m2, 0.88 kwh /m2 and 0.65 kwh /m2 representing 16 %, 32%, 8.39%, 24.25%, 9.43%,
14.93%, 8.45%, reduction respectively of the total energy consumption of the conventional buildings in
Kaduna. The least energy was consumed by water heating with 0.53 kwh/m2 representing 9.43 % savings of the
overall energy consumption while the highest was consumed by cooking, 10.19 kwh/m2. The annual energy
intensity of Kaduna for conventional buildings is 25.24 kwh/m2. With the introduction of green appliances, a
drastic reduction in the buildings annual energy consumption was recorded which stood at 20.57 kwh/m 2
representing about 18.26% reduction in annual energy consumption which indicates a significant energy saving.
Energy consumptions pattern in Kano for both conventional and efficient appliances is presented in Table 4.
VAC consumed the highest energy 12.49 kwh/m2 of the total consumption of all end-users. When replaced with
energy efficient appliances the consumption dropped to 7.95 kwh/m2 representing 34.14% reduction. Details of
energy consumption in kWh/m2 in Kano are as shown in Table 4.
Fig. 1 shows the overall energy intensity for the entire study. Lighting and VAC has the highest annual
consumption (42.19 kwh/m2 and 15.92 kwh/m2) followed by preservation and cooking (3.97 kwh/m2 and 3.87
kwh/m2) electronic, laundry and water heating have the lowest consumption of (1.24 kwh/m2, 0.06 kwh/m2 and
0.05 kwh/m2).

Table 3: Energy consumption and savings for conventional and energy efficient buildings in Kaduna
Conventional Energy Efficient Energy savings
Usage Energy savings kw/m2
kw/m2 kw/m2 (%)
VAC 4.16 3.4 0.76 16
Lighting 5.08 3.16 1.85 32
Cooking 10.19 9.36 0.83 8.39
Preservation 3.47 2.63 0.84 24.25
Water heating 0.53 0.48 0.05 9.43
Electronic 1.09 0.88 0.21 14.93
Laundry 0.71 0.65 0.06 8.45
Total 25.23 20.56 4.6 113.45

Table 4: Energy consumption and savings for conventional and energy efficient buildings in Kano

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IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study has shows that overall energy intensity for the entire study was Lighting and VAC has the
highest annual consumption (42.19 kwh/m2 and 15.92 kwh/m2) followed by preservation and cooking (3.97
kwh/m2 and 3.87 kwh/m2) electronic, laundry and water heating have the lowest consumption of (1.24 kwh/m 2,
0.06 kwh/m2 and 0.05 kwh/m2).
It can therefore, be concluded that green buildings impacts positively on energy consumptions in
residential buildings in Nigeria. This is evident in the low energy consumptions recorded in the green buildings
compared to those of the conventional buildings. Hence, the contribution of this research finding will bring
about considerable energy savings in conventional buildings in Nigeria. Energy consumptions of residential
building in Nigeria should be adequately monitored and data collected on monthly basis. This would give exact
representation of residential buildings energy consumptions.

REFERENCES
[1] www.punchng.com/feature/power-talkback/case-for-energy-efficient-appliances/
[2] IEA, World Energy outlook, 5-7, 2002
[3] IEA, Key World Energy Statistics, 25-30, 2005
[4] Energy Information Administration, E1A. World Energy Overview, 1993-2003. Energy
information Administration Washington DC 2005
http://www.eia.doe.govr/emeu/overview/htm/.
[5] UNEP, Buildings and Climate Change Status, Challenges and opportunities’’ United Nations
Environmental programme, 2007
[6] Okafor ECN, Joe-Uzuegbu CKA, Challenges To Development Of Renewable Energy For
Electric Power Sector In Nigeria. International Journal Of Academic Research 2(2):211- 216,
2010
[7] Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN) National Energy Policy. Federal Republic of
Nigeria,Abuja. 2003
[8] Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN), Renewable Energy Master Plan. 2005
[9] Sule, B.F., Ajao, R.K., Ajimotokan, A.H. and Garba, M.K. Compact Fluorescent Lamps and
Electricity Consumption Trend in Residential Buildings in Ilorin, Nigeria, International Journal
of Energy sector Management,5 (2): 162-168, 2011, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, UK
[10] Otegbulu, A.C. Economics of Green Design and Environmental Sustainability, Journal of
Sustainable Development,. 4(2); 240-248, 2011, Canadian
[11] CREDC, Energy Efficiency Survey in Nigeria, Community Research Development Centre (CREDC)
Benin City, 2009
[12] Eves, C. and Kippen, S. (2010) Public Awareness of Green and Energy Efficient Residential
Property: An empirical survey based on data from New-Zealand, Property Management, 28(3),
193-208 2010, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, UK
[13] Elhadidy, M.A and Manzoor-ul-Haq, A.AElectric energy consumption in selected resident ion
buildings at King Fahd University of petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 2011

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-276-281
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

An inverse steady state thermal stresses in a thin clamped

circular plate with internal heat generation
C. M. Bhongade1 and M. H. Durge2
1
Department of Mathematics, Shri. Shivaji College, Rajura, Maharashtra, India
2
Department of Mathematics, Anand Niketan College, Warora, Maharashtra, India

Abstract: - This paper deals with the determination of temperature, displacement and thermal stresses in a thin
clamped circular plate with internal heat generation. A clamped circular plate is subjected to arbitrary known
interior temperature. Under steady state, the fixed circular edge and lower surface of circular plate are thermally
insulated. Here we modify Kulkarni (2008) and designed most general solution of displacement potential, radial
stresses and angular stresses. The governing heat conduction equation has been solved by the method of
integral transform technique. The results are obtained in a series form in terms of Bessel’s functions. The results
for temperature change, displacement and stresses have been computed numerically and illustrated graphically.

Keywords: - Inverse problem, thin clamped circular plate and internal heat generation.

I. INTRODUCTION
During the second half of the twentieth century, nonisothermal problems of the theory of elasticity
became increasingly important. This is due to their wide application in diverse fields. The high velocities of
modern aircraft give rise to aerodynamic heating, which produces intense thermal stresses that reduce the
strength of the aircraft structure.
The inverse thermoelastic problem consists of determination of the temperature of the heating medium,
the heat flux on the boundary surfaces of the thin clamped circular plate when the conditions of the
displacement and stresses are known at the some points of the thin clamped circular plate under consideration.
Noda et al. (1989) discussed an analytical method for an inverse problem of three dimensional transient
thermoelasticity in a transversely isotropic solid by integral transform technique with newly designed potential
function and illustrated practical applicability of the method in engineering problem. Sabherwal K. C. (1965)
studied an inverse problem of heat conduction. Greysa et al. (1989) investigated an inverse temperature field
problem of theory of thermal stresses. Deshmukh and Wankhede (1998) studied an inverse transient problem of
quasi static thermal deflection of a thin clamped circular plate. Ashida et al. (2002) studied the inverse transient
thermoelasticity problem for a composite circular disc constructed of transversely isotropic layer. Most recently
Bhongade and Durge (2013) considered thick circular plate and discuss, effect of Michell function on steady
state behavior of thick circular plate, now here we consider a thin clamped circular plate with internal heat
generation subjected to arbitrary known interior temperature. Under steady state, the fixed circular edge and
lower surface of circular plate are thermally insulated. Here we modify Kulkarni (2008) and designed most
general solution of displacement potential, radial stresses and angular stresses. The governing heat conduction
equation has been solved by the method of integral transform technique. The results are obtained in a series
form in terms of Bessel’s functions. A mathematical model has been constructed for thin clamped circular plate
with the help of numerical illustration by considering aluminum (pure) circular plate. No one previously studied
such type of problem. This is new contribution to the field.
The inverse problem is very important in view of its relevance to various industrial mechanics subjected to
heating such as the main shaft of lathe, turbines and the role of rolling mill.

II. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

Consider a thin clamped circular plate circular plate of thickness 2h defined by 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎, −𝑕 ≤ 𝑧 ≤
𝑕. Let the plate be subjected to arbitrary known interior temperature 𝑓(𝑟) within region−𝑕 < 𝑧 < 𝑕. With lower

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
surface 𝑧 = −𝑕 and circular surface 𝑟 = 𝑎 are thermally insulated. Under these more realistic prescribed
conditions, the unknown temperature 𝑔 𝑟 , which is at upper surface of the plate. Temperature, displacement
and stresses in a thin clamped circular plate with internal heat generation are required to be determined.
Following Roy Choudhuri (1972), assume that for small thickness h plate is in a plane state of stress. In fact
the smaller the thickness of the plate compared to its diameter, the nearer to a plane state of stress is the actual
state. Then the displacement equations of thermoelasticity have the form
1+𝑣 1+𝑣
𝑈𝑖,𝑘𝑘 + 1−𝑣 𝑒,𝑖 = 2 1−𝑣 𝑎𝑡 𝑇,𝑖 (1)
𝑒 = 𝑈𝑘 ,𝑘 ; 𝑘, 𝑖 = 1,2. (2)
where
𝑈𝑖 - displacement component
e - dilatation
T – temperature
and 𝑣 and 𝑎𝑡 are respectively, the Poisson’s ratio and the linear coefficient of thermal expansion of the plate
material.
Introducing
𝑈𝑖 = 𝑈,𝑖 𝑖 = 1, 2.
we have
∇1 2 𝑈 = 1 + 𝑣 𝑎𝑡 𝑇 (3)
𝜕2 𝜕2
∇1 2 = 𝜕𝑘 1 2
+ 𝜕 𝑘22
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 2𝜇 𝑈,𝑖𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑈,𝑘𝑘 , 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 = 1, 2. (4)

where 𝜇 is the Lames constant and 𝛿𝑖𝑗 is the Kronecker symbol.

In the axially-symmetric case
𝑈 = 𝑈 𝑟, 𝑧 , 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟, 𝑧
and the differential equation governing the displacement potential function 𝑈 𝑟, 𝑧 is given as
𝜕 2𝑈 1 𝜕𝑈
+𝑟 = 1 + 𝑣 𝑎𝑡 𝑇 (5)
𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑈
𝑈 = 𝜕𝑟 = 0, 𝑟 = 𝑎 for all time t. (6)
The stress function 𝜎𝑟𝑟 and 𝜎𝜃𝜃 are given by
−2𝜇 𝜕𝑈
𝜎𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 (7)
𝜕2𝑈
𝜎𝜃𝜃 = −2𝜇 𝜕𝑟 2 (8)
In the plane state of stress within the plate
𝜎𝑟𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜎𝜃𝑧 = 0 (9)
Temperature 𝑇(𝑟, 𝑧) of the circular plate satisfying heat conduction equation as follows,
𝜕2𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝑞
+ + 2+ = 0 (10)
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑘
with the conditions
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑟
= 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑎, −𝑕 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑕 (11)

𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑧
= 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −𝑕, 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 (12)
𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑟 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝜉 , −𝑕 ≤ 𝜉 ≤ 𝑕, 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 (13)

and
𝑇= 𝑔 𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑕 , 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 (14)

where k is the thermal conductivity of the material of the plate, q is the internal heat generation.
Equations (1) to (14) constitute the mathematical formulation of the problem.

III. SOLUTION
To obtain the expression for temperature T ( r, z ), we introduce the finite Hankel transform over the
variable r and its inverse transform defined as in Ozisik (1968)
𝑎
𝑇 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑧 = 𝑟′=0 𝑟′ 𝐾0 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑟 𝑇(𝑟, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑟′ (15)
𝑇(𝑟, 𝑧) = ∞𝑚=1 𝐾0 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑟 𝑇 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑧 (16)

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
2 𝐽 0 (𝛽 𝑚 𝑟 )
where 𝐾0 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝐽 0 (𝛽 𝑚 𝑎)
and 𝛽1 , 𝛽2 … .. are roots of the transcendental equation
𝐽1 𝛽𝑚 𝑎 = 0 (17)
where 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 is Bessel function of the first kind of order n.
On applying the finite Hankel transform defined in the Eq. (15) and its inverse transform defined in Eq. (16) to
the Eq. (10), one obtains the expression for temperature as
cosh 𝛽 z+h
2 𝐽0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑟
– 𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , ξ − 𝐹 𝛽𝑚 cosh 𝛽𝑚 h+ξ
∞ 𝑚
𝑇 𝑟, 𝑧 = 𝑚 =1 1 𝑑𝐴 𝛽 𝑚 ,−h sinh 𝛽 𝑚 z−ξ
(18)
𝑎 𝐽0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑎
−𝛽 𝑑𝑧 cosh 𝛽 h+ξ
+ 𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑧
𝑚 𝑚
where 𝐴 βm , z is particular integral of differential Eq. (10) and 𝐹 𝛽𝑚 is Hankel transform of 𝑓 𝑟 .
The unknown temperature 𝑔 𝑟 can be obtained by substituting 𝑧 = 𝑕 in Eq. (18) as
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑕 2𝛽 𝑕
2 𝐽0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑟
– 𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , 𝜉 − 𝐹 𝛽𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑕 𝛽 𝑕𝑚+𝜉
∞ 𝑚
𝑔 𝑟 = 𝑚 =1 1 𝑑𝐴 𝛽 𝑚 ,−𝑕 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑕 𝛽 𝑚 𝑕 −𝜉
(19)
𝑎 𝐽0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑎
−𝛽 𝑑𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑕 𝛽 𝑕 +𝜉
+ 𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑕
𝑚 𝑚
To obtain displacement potential 𝑈 𝑟, 𝑧 using Eq. (18) and Eq. (5), one obtain,
2 ∞ 𝐽 0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑟 −𝐽 0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑎
𝑈 𝑟, 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑣 𝑎𝑡 𝑚=1
𝑎 𝛽 𝑚 2 𝐽0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑎
cosh 𝛽 𝑚 z+h
𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , ξ − 𝐹 𝛽𝑚
cosh 𝛽 𝑚 h+ξ
× 1 𝑑𝐴 𝛽 𝑚 ,−h sinh 𝛽 𝑚 z−ξ
(20)
−𝛽 + 𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑧
𝑚 𝑑𝑧 cosh 𝛽 h+ξ
𝑚
Now using Eqs. (18) and (20) in Eq. (7) and (8), one obtains the expressions for stresses respectively as
2 2𝜇 ∞ 𝐽0 ′ 𝛽 𝑚 𝑟
𝜎𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟
1 + 𝑣 𝑎𝑡 𝑚 =1 𝛽 𝐽 𝛽 𝑎
𝑚 0 𝑚
cosh 𝛽 z+h
𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , ξ − 𝐹 𝛽𝑚 cosh 𝛽𝑚 h+ξ
𝑚
× 1 𝑑𝐴 𝛽 𝑚 ,−h sinh 𝛽 𝑚 z−ξ
(21)
−𝛽 + 𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑧
𝑚 𝑑𝑧 cosh 𝛽 h+ξ 𝑚
2 2𝜇 𝐽 ′ 𝛽 𝑟
𝜎𝜃𝜃 = − 1 + 𝑣 𝑎𝑡 ∞𝑚 =1 𝐽1 𝛽 𝑚𝑎
𝑎 0 𝑚
cosh 𝛽 z+h
𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , ξ − 𝐹 𝛽𝑚 cosh 𝛽𝑚 h+ξ
𝑚
× 1 𝑑𝐴 𝛽 𝑚 ,−h sinh 𝛽 𝑚 z−ξ
(22)
−𝛽 + 𝐴 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑧
𝑚 𝑑𝑧 cosh 𝛽 h+ξ 𝑚

IV. SPECIAL CASE AND NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS

1. 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑟2 (23)
applying finite Hankel transform as defined in eq.(15) to the eq.(23), one obtains
2 𝑎
𝐹 𝛽𝑚 = 𝐽0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑎
𝑎J1 βm a − 2𝐽2 𝛽𝑚 𝑎
2. 𝑞 𝑟, 𝑧 = 𝛿 𝑟 − 𝑟0 𝛿 𝑧 − 𝑧0
2 𝐽 0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑟0
𝑞 𝛽𝑚 , 𝑧 = 𝑎
𝑟0 𝛿 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝐽0 𝛽 𝑚 𝑎
where 𝛿 𝑟 is well known dirac delta function of argument r.
𝑎 = 1𝑚, 𝑕 = 0.1𝑚, 𝑟0 = 0.5𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧0 = 0.05𝑚.

4.1 Material Properties

The numerical calculation has been carried out for aluminum (pure) plate with the material properties defined as
Thermal diffusivity 𝛼 = 84.18× 10−6 m2 s−1 ,
Specific heat 𝑐𝜌 = 896 J/kg,
Thermal conductivity k = 204.2 W/m K,
Shear modulus 𝐺 = 25.5 𝐺 pa,
Poisson ratio 𝜗 = 0.281,

4.2 Roots of transcendental equation

The 𝛽1 = 3.8317, 𝛽2 = 7.0156, 𝛽3 = 10.1735, 𝛽4 = 13.3237, 𝛽5 = 16.4704, 𝛽6 = 19.6159 are the
roots of transcendental equation 𝐽1 𝛽𝑚 𝑎 = 0. The numerical calculation and the graph has been carried out
with the help of mathematical software Mat lab.

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V. DISCUSSION
In this problem, thin clamped circular plate is considered which is subjected to arbitrary known interior
temperature and determined the expressions for unknown temperature, displacement and stresses. As a special
case mathematical model is constructed for 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑟 2 and performed numerical calculations. The thermoelastic
behavior is examined such as temperature, displacement and stresses in a thin clamped circular plate with
internal heat generation.

Fig. 1 Temperature 𝑇(𝑟, 𝑧) in radial direction

Fig. 2 Displacement 𝑈(𝑟, 𝑧) in radial direction

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Fig. 3 Radial stress σrr in radial direction

Fig. 4 Angular stress σθθ in radial direction

From Fig. 1 Due to internal heat generation temperature is increasing for 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.2, 0.4 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.6 and
decreasing for 0.2 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.4, 0.6 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.8 along radial direction. The overall behavior of temperature is
decreasing and it is inversely vary with arbitrary known interior temperature along radial direction.
From Fig. 2 Due to internal heat generation displacement is decreasing for 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.2, 0.4 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.6 and
increasing for 0.2 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.4, 0.6 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.8 along radial direction. The overall behavior of displacement is
decreasing and it is inversely vary with arbitrary known interior temperature along radial direction.
From Fig. 3 Due to internal heat generation the radial stress is decreasing for 0.2 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.6 and increasing for
0.6 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.8 along radial direction. The overall behavior of radial stress is compressive and it is inversely
vary with arbitrary known interior temperature along radial direction.
From Fig. 4 Due to internal heat generation the angular stress is increasing for 0.2 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.4, 0.6 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.8
and decreasing for 0.4 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 0.6 along radial direction. The overall behavior of angular stress is tensile and it
is inversely vary with arbitrary known interior temperature along radial direction.

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VI. CONCLUSION
Due to internal heat generation temperature and displacement are decreasing and it is inversely vary with
arbitrary known interior temperature along radial direction. Due to internal heat generation the radial stresses are
compressive and the angular stresses are tensile and It is inversely vary with arbitrary known interior
temperature along radial direction.
The results obtained here are useful in engineering problems particularly in the determination of state of stress
in a thin clamped circular plate, base of furnace of boiler of a thermal power plant and gas power plant.

REFERENCES
[1] Noda N., Ashida F. and Tsuji T, An inverse transient thermoelastic problem of a transeversly isotropic
body, Journal of applied Mechanics, 56(4), 1989,791-797.
[2] Sabherwal K. C., An inverse problem of transient heat conduction, Indian Journal of Pure Applied
Physics, 3E(10), 1965, 397-398.
[3] Grysa K., Cialkowski M. J. and Kaminski H., An inverse temperature field problem of theory of thermal
stresses, Nucl. Eng. Des..64, 1981169-184.
[4] Deshmukh K.C. and Wankhede P. C., An inverse transient problem of quasi-static thermal deflection of a
thin clamped circular plate, Bulletin of pure and applied sciences, 17E(1), 1998 .
[5] Ashida F. and Sakata S., Tauchert, T. R. and Yamashita Y., Inverse transient thermoelastic problem for a
composite circular disc, Journal of thermal stresses, 25, 2002, 431-455.
[6] Bhongade C. M. and Durge M. H., Effect of Michell function on steady state behavior of thick circular
plate, IOSR J. of Mathematics, 8(2), 2013, 55-60.
[7] Kulkarni V. S., Study of some thermoelastis problem, Thesis, R. T. M. Nagpur University, Nagpur, 2008.
[8] Roy Choudhary S. K., A note of quasi static stress in a thin circular plate due to transient temperature
applied along the circumference of a circle over the upper face, Bull Acad Polon Sci, Ser, Scl,Tech, 20,
1972, 21.
[9] M. N. Ozisik, Boundary Value Problems of Heat Conduction, International Text Book Company,
Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1968.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-282-290
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Assessment of the Chemical Characteristics of a Spring Water

Source at Ife-Owutu, Ezinihite-Mbaise, Southeastern Nigeria.
Ibeneme, S.I.1, Ukiwe, L.N.2, Essien, A.G.1, Nwagbara, J.O.1,
Nweze, C.A.2, Chinemelu, E.S.1 And Ivonye, C.A.1
1
Department of Geosciences, Federal University of Technology,Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Technology,Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.

Abstract: - The chemical characteristics of the Giri Giri Nwanjoku Spring in Owutu Ezinihitte-Mbaise, South
Eastern Nigeria was investigated to carefully determine some basic geochemical constituents of the water source
with a view to identifying those constituents whose concentrations are unacceptably high, compared with the
maximum permissible level of a regulatory body and as such determine its wholesome portability for diverse
usage. The resultant data conform to the Nigerian Industrial Standard (2007) and the World Health Organization
(2006) Standard. The water source is generally neutral with an average pH of 6.85. However, the samples gave
an average Calcium and Magnesium ion concentrations of 3.205mg/l and 0.82mg/l respectively and an average
hardness (as CaCO3) of 11.375mg/l, indicating that the water is relatively soft. The Stiff and Schoeller plots
show at a glance the spatial variations of the chemical constituents of the spring with Tri-oxo-carbonate and
Calcium dominating. From the Box and Whisker plot, the greater amount of the cations and anions lie within the
second quarter of the box ranging from 0.01meq/l to 0.05meq/l indicating similarity in origin. The Piper trilinear
diagram reveals an alkaline earth and weak acid group predominantly the Tri-oxo-carbonate and as such
classified as Ca-(Mg)-Na-HCO3 water facies which indicates portability. The Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR)
and Percentage Sodium (%Na) values of 0.27 and 34.20% respectively show that the water is good for
Agricultural use. The Pollution Index (PI) value of 0.6 (which is less than the critical value of unity) shows that
the spring water is not polluted. For industrial use, the Saturation Index (SI) value of -3.41 reveals that the water
may lead to moderate corrosion if not properly treated.

Key Words: - Eyelet, Hydrogeochemistry, Saturation Index, Spring, Water Facies.

I. INTRODUCTION
Water is the most abundant molecule on Earth’s surface. It can also be the most abundant natural
resource on earth. It constitutes about 75% of the Earth’s surface. Water is a vital component of life for both
plants and animals. It is available in forms of rain and snow thereby making rivers, oceans, streams, lakes,
springs etc. A spring can be described as any natural occurrence where water flows on to the surface of the earth
from below the surface. Some springs discharge where the water table intersects the land surface, but also they
occur where water flows out from caverns or along fractures, fault or rock contacts that come to the surface.
Spring may result from karst topography where surface water has infiltrated the earth’s surface (recharge area),
becoming part of the area’s ground water that travels through a network of cracks and fissures/openings ranging
from intergranular spaces to large caves. The water eventually emerges from below the surface, in the form of
spring. The forcing of the spring to the surface can be the result of a confined aquifer in which the recharge area
of the spring water table rests at a higher elevation than that of the outlet. The Giri Giri Nwanjoku spring occurs
at the scarp face of the Umuosita-Awaka mini-escarpment. This spring serves as water source for the inhabitants
of the area who utilize the water for their daily activities. Hence there arose the need to assess the quality of this
spring to make recommendations where necessary.

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II. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The principal aim of the study is to carefully determine some basic geochemical constituents of the
water source within the study area with a view to identifying those constituents whose concentrations are
unacceptably high and anomalous, compared with the maximum permissible level of a regulatory body and as
such determine its wholesome portability for diverse usage.

III. LOCATION, PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

The study area is bounded by longitudes 7o 16’E to 7o 23’E and latitudes 5o 26’ N to 5o 32’ N (Fig. 1).
The area is located within the Anambra/Imo river basin. Ife-Owutu is located within Ezinihitte Mbaise Local
Government Area of Imo state, south eastern Nigeria and is accessible through diverse road networks. The study
area lies within the tropical rain forest region of Nigeria. The region has four dry months in which precipitation
is less than 60mm, while the annual total rainfall ranges between 1800mm and 2600mm. The mean temperature
of the area is about 80oF [1]. The vegetative cover of the area is mainly shrub, rain forest and savannah
vegetation. It is dominated by grass species. The drainage pattern is dendritic. Geologically, Ife-Owutu area is
underlain by a sequence of sedimentary rocks belonging to the Benin Formation of Miocene to Recent age. It
comprises of a thick sequence of poorly consolidated to unconsolidated sandstones that are friable with sorting
ranging from poorly to fairly sorted [2]. Several grain sizes occur within the unit and the coarse and fine unit
alternate along the vertical sequence. The thick sandy units are frequently separated by thin and discontinuous
clay streaks and lenses. The clay beds are thin (less than 1m) and sometimes occur as lamination lining the
bedding plane of the unconsolidated sandstone beds. The Formation starts as a thin edge at its contact with the
Ogwashi/Asaba Formation in the north of the area and thickens southwards [3]. The Formation across the whole
Niger Delta is about 90% sandstone with minor shale intercalations.

Figure 1. Geological map of the study area.

IV. METHODOLOGY
Water sampling was carried out from two different eyelets (hair-like openings from which water oozes
out of a rock) of the spring and labeled GE I and GE II. The location of studied spring was taken with the help
of GARMIN GPSmap76CSx. The water samples were collected into 1 L polyethylene bottles which were pre-
cleaned with concentrated hydrochloric acid and distilled water. pH and temperature of the water samples were
measured on-site with a Thermo electron Corporation Orion 3 Star pH Benchtop. This was also done to avoid
unpredictable changes in characteristics as per the standard procedure [4]. Sampling protocols according to [5]
and [6] were adopted. Total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC) or specific conductance and
resistivity of collected water samples were measured using Delta Ohm HD 2306.0 conductivity meter. All the
water samples were preserved in a refrigerator to exclude microbial activity and unwanted chemical reaction
until analysis was completed within 2 days. The determinations of other physico-chemical properties of the

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water samples were performed within 2 days of sampling. HACH DR 2800 Spectrophotometer was used in the
determination of different hydro geochemical properties such as Na, K, HCO3, Cl, NO3, and SO4. Analytical
water test tablets prescribed for HACH DR Spectrophotometer 2800 using procedures outlined in the HACH
DR 2800 Spectrophotometer manual were used for the examination of the water quality. Other analyses such as
the determination of Mg and Ca concentrations were done by complexometric titration method. The analytical
data quality was evaluated by computing the sum of the equivalents of the cations with the sum of the
equivalents of the anions [7]. A positive result means that both an excess cations or insufficient anion exists, and
a negative result means the opposite. For freshwater, ionic balance is assumed to be good if it lies within the
range of ±10% [8]. In this study, ionic balance values ranged from -0.92 to + 0.22%. Table 1 displays the result
of the hydro geochemical analysis of the spring water sample, along with the Nigerian Industrial Standard [9]
and World Health Organisation Standard [10]. Such drinking water standards are generally based on two main
criteria [11]: (1) presence of objectionable taste, odour, and colour and; (2) presence of substances with adverse
physiological (health-effect) characteristics.
Table 1. Result of the hydrogeochemical analysis of the spring water samples, compared with the Nigerian
Industrial Standards (NIS 2007) and World Health Organization Standard (WHO 2006).

Table 2. Concentration of the major Cations and Anions in (meq/l)

PARAMETER Concentration (meq/l)
Calcium(mg/L) 0.1599
Magnesium(mg/L) 0.0675
Potassium(mg/L) 0.0279
Sodium(mg/L) 0.0903
TOTAL 0.3456
Sulphate(mg/L) 0.0085
Nitrate(mg/L) 0.0015
Chloride(mg/L) 0.0214
Bicarbonate(mg/L) 0.3633
TOTAL 0.3947

V. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

The major parameters measured in water samples collected from the study area include hardness, Total
Dissolved Solids, Temperature, Colour, Concentration of the major cations and Concentration of the major
anions. The mean values were compared against the Nigerian Industrial Standard for Drinking water Quality
(2007) and the World Health Organization Standard for drinking water (2006) to determine its potability.
The pH is a parameter that indicates the acidity of a water sample. The operational guidelines [NIS
(2007) and WHO (2006)] recommended that drinking water is to maintain pH between the values of 6.5 to 8.5.

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The idea behind controlling the pH is to produce water that is neither acidic nor excessively basic. From the
results of the analysis carried out, the mean pH value of the water sample is 6.9 which falls within the limit. The
mean colour value of the water sample is 5.25 TCU which is within the range of the maximum permitted levels
set by the regulatory bodies. Higher concentration affects the appearance of the water. The mean turbidity of the
water samples is 4.00 NTU and conforms to the standards. Higher concentrations of turbidity also affect the
appearance of water. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) refers mainly to the inorganic substances dissolved in water.
The mean TDS value of 22.95 mg/l lies within the allowable limit. The mean value of Calcium concentration
obtained from the water sample is 3.205mg/l while the maximum concentration level set by the WHO 2006 is
75mg/l. This means that the calcium content is minimal though it has the highest concentration among the
cations analyzed (Fig. 2). The problem with high concentration of Calcium in water is that it leads to scale
formation and hardness. Magnesium has a mean value of 0.82mg/l and it falls within the range of the WHO
2006 standard which is less than 30mg/l. High concentrations of Magnesium leads to water hardness and
gastrointestinal irritation. Potassium has a mean concentration value of 1.09mg/l and it falls within the range of
200mg/l set by the regulatory bodies (NIS 2007 and WHO 2006). The presence of Potassium in water may be
due to agricultural activities. Sodium has a mean concentration value of 2.075mg/l which falls within the range
of 200mg/l set by the NIS 2007. High levels of Sodium in water are noticeable in the taste of the water. The
Sulphate content in the water sample gave a mean value of 0.41mg/l which meets the standard set by the NIS
2007 of 100 mg/l. High concentration of Sulphate lead to taste in water and corrosion. A major percentage of
Nitrates in water originates from organic sources or from industrial and agricultural chemicals [12]. The Nitrate
content in the water samples gave a mean value of 0.09 mg/I which falls within the range set by the regulatory
bodies. High concentration of Nitrate leads to physiological problems. Chloride is a common non-toxic material
present in small amounts in drinking water and possesses a detectable salty taste. The mean Chloride ion
concentration of the water samples is 0.76 mg/l which is within the range set by the regulatory bodies. The
Bicarbonate content concentration from the analysis gave a mean value of 22.17 mg/l. This is the most dominant
anion in the spring (Fig. 3).

Figure 2. Cation concentration (in Mg/l) of the spring water.

Figure 3. Anion concentration (in Mg/l) of the spring water.

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The classification of water for agricultural purposes is based on specific conductance expressed as
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Sodium content and Boron concentration [13]. The Sodium content can be said to
be the most important element used to determine water quality for the basis of agriculture because it is the
reaction of sodium with soil that determines soil’s permeability.
To determine the Sodium content, a formula called the Sodium Absorption Ration (SAR) is used:

SAR= [Na+ ] …………..(1)

[Ca2+ + Mg2+]1/2
After determining the SAR, a table adapted from [13] (Table 3) was used to classify the SAR value so as to
determine the water class for agricultural purposes.

Table 3. Water Classification for Agricultural purposes (Adapted from [13]).

SAR WATER CLASS
(for agricultural purposes)
0 - 10 Excellent
10 – 18 Good
18 – 26 Fair
 26 Poor

The SAR is 0.27; so from Table 3, the water falls within the excellent range (0-10), indicating that the
water is very good for agricultural purposes. The Stiff (Fig. 4) and Schoeller (Fig. 5) plots are generated using
the milli equivalents per litre (meq/l) values of the parameters of the samples collected (Table 2). These values
are plotted against their various corresponding parameters and show at a glance the distributions of these
parameters. A Box and Whisker plot is equally done using the milli equivalent per liter (meq/l) values of the
major cations and anions present in the water samples (Fig. 6). It shows the degree of clustering of the
dorminant species. The parameters of the spring are observed to concentrate within the second quarter of the
box ranging from 0.01meq/l to 0.05meq/l indicating similarity in origin. From the Piper’s trilinear diagram, the
spring water sample falls within the region that indicates the dominance of alkaline earth and weak acids and
the water facies classified as Ca-(Mg)-Na-HCO3 water (Fig. 7). Water of this facies is generally portable for
domestic use.

Figure 4. Stiff Diagram displaying the relative concentrations of the Cations and Anions.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
GEI
GEII
GEIII

10

2
▪
▪
▪
1.0
9

0.1

Ca Mg Na K NO3 Cl SO4 HCO3

Figure 5. Schoeller Plot showing the relative concentrations of the Cations and Anions.

1st Q nd rd
4th Q
2 Q 3 Q

GEI

0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.2 0.4

0.001 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.3 0.5
Meq/l

1st Q 4th Q
2nd Q 3rdQ
GEII

0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.2 0.4

Meq/l 0.001 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.3

Figure 6. Box and Whisker plot of the spring water parameters.

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Figure 7. Piper Trilinear Diagram of the spring water samples.

To further assess the portability of the spring water source, the pollution index was determined using
the relation proposed by [18]:
PI = √IMax(Gij/Wij)]2 + [Mean(Gij/Wij)]2
2 ………………. (2)
Table 4. Data for calculating the Pollution Index of the Spring water.
PARAMETER MEAN VALUE (Gij) WHO 2006 (Wij) (Gij/Wij)
PH 6.58 6.5-8.5 0.810
Turbidity 4.00 5 0.800
Conductivity 56.00 100 0.560
T.D.S 22.95 1000 0.023
Calcium 3.21 75 0.043
Magnesium 0.82 <30 0.027
Potassium 1.09 200 0.005
Sulphate 0.41 400 0.001
Nitrate 0.09 10 0.009
Chloride 0.76 200 0.004
TOTAL 2.282
MEAN 2.28/10 0.228

The Pollution Index (PI) calculated using (2) above gave a value of 0.6. This value, which is less than the
critical value of unity, shows that the spring water is not polluted.
The Langelier Saturation Index (SI) is a means of evaluating water quality data to determine its tendency to
form a chemical scale [19].
The Saturation Index is;
SI = PH - PHS …………………………. (3)
Where;
PH = the actual PH measured in the water sample
PH s = the PH at saturation in Calcite or Calcium Carbonate and is defined as:
PHS (9.3 + A + B) – (C+D) …………………………. (4)
Where;
A = (Log10 [TDS] – 1)/10 …………………………. (5)

B = -13.12 x Log10 (Temperature + 273) + 34.55 ………………………. (6)

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C = Log10 [Ca2+ as Calcium Carbonate] – 0.4 ………………………. (7)

D = Lo10 [Alkalinity as Calcium Carbonate] …………………………. (8)

With these relations, and combining (3)-(8), the Saturation Index (SI) was obtained as -3.41. This value is
compared against table 5 below.

Table 5. Quality Classification of water for industrial purposes

SATURATION INDEX DESCRIPTION GENERAL RECOMMENDATION
-5 Severe Corrosion Treatment Recommended
-4 Severe Corrosion Treatment Recommended
-3 Moderate Corrosion Treatment Recommended
-2 Moderate Corrosion Treatment may be Needed
-1 Mild Corrosion Treatment may be Needed
-0.5 None-Mild Corrosion Probably no Treatment
0 Near Balance No Treatment
0.5 Some Faint Coating Probably no Treatment
1 Mild Scale Coating Treatment may be Needed
2 Mild to Moderate Coating Treatment may be Needed
3 Moderate Scale Forming Treatment Advisable
4 Severe Scale Forming Treatment Advisable

From table 5, the ideal range for the saturation index is -0.5 to 0.5, values below -0.5 are considered corrosive
while values higher than +0.5 indicate the formation of scales.

VI. CONCLUSION
From the results obtained, it indicates that the concentrations of the constituents are within the recommended
range as provided by the Nigerian Industrial Standard (2007) and WHO (2006) and as such good for
domestication. The spring water is excellent for agricultural purposes sequel to the Sodium Absorption Ratio
(SAR) value of 0.27 and the Percentage Sodium value of 34.20%. The spring water is not polluted because the
pollution index value of 0.6 is less than the critical value of unity (1). The Piper plot indicates that the water
samples in the study area belonged to Alkaline Earth group and classified as Ca-(mg)-Na-HCO3 facies. The
Saturation Index of – 3.41 revealed that the spring water needs some sort of treatment before put into industrial
use to avoid moderate to severe corrosion.

REFERENCES
[1] P. E. S. Inyang, Climatic Region in Ofomata G.E.K. (ed), Nigeria in maps, Eastern States (Benin Nigeria
Ethiope 1975) 22-29
[2] A.C. Onyeagocha, Petrography and Depositional Environments of the Benin Formation, Journal of
Mining Geology 17 (2), 1980, 147-150.
[3] A. A. Avobovbo, Tertiary Lithostratigraphy of Niger Delta, Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol 62, 1978, 295-
306.
[4] APPHA, Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. American Water Works
Association, Water Environment Federation, 1995.
[5] M. Barcelona, J.P.Gibb, J.A. Helfrich, E.E. Garske, Practical guide for groundwater sampling.
Champaign: Illinois State Water Survey ISWS Contract Report 374, 1985.
[6] H. C. Classen, Guidelines and techniques for obtaining water samples that accurately represents the
quality of an aquifer, Lakewood: US Geological survey open file report 82-1024, 1982, 49.
[7] A.W.Hounslow, Water Quality data analysis and interpretation (New York: Lewis, 1995).
[8] L. Celesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaten, Standard method for the examination of water and waste
water, American Public Health Association, Washington, 1998, 134.
[9] Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS 554:2007), Nigeria Standard for Drinking water Quality, ICS
13.060.20, 2007, 15-19.
[10] WHO, Guide line for Drinking Water Quality. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2nd Edition (2) 2006,
281-308.
[11] S. N. Davis and R.J.A. Dewiest, Hydrology (New York: John Wiley and sons, 1966).
[12] R. Sugisaki, Water supply treatment and distribution (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
1978).

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
[13] J.O. Etu-Efeotor, Preliminary Hydro geochemical investigation of subsurface waters in parts of the Niger
Delta, Jour. Min. Geol. 18, (1), 1981, 103-106.
[14] J.R. Stiff, L. E. Davis, A method for predicting the tendency of oil field water to calcium carbonate, Pet.
Trans. AIME 195, 213, 1951.
[15] H. Schoeller, Utility of the notion of the basic exchanges for the comparison of the water sources, Fr.
Soc. Geo. Journal 5th Edition, 1953, 651-657.
[16] G. E Box, D. R Cox, An Analysis of Transformation. JRSS, B26, 1964, 221-243
[17] A.M. Piper, A Graphic Procedure in the Geochemical Interpretation of water Analysis. Washington D.C,
US Geol. Survey. ISBN ASIN: B0007H2Z36, 1953.
[18] R.K. Horton, An Index Number Rating system for rating Water quality, J. Water pollution control
federation 37, 1965, 300-306.
[19] W. F. Langelier, The Analytical Control of Anticorrosion water Treatment, Journal of the American
water works Association (AWWA) 28 (10) 1936, 1500-1521.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-291-297
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Physico-Chemical Properties of Bio-diesel from Wild Grape Seeds

Oil and Petro-Diesel Blends
M. U. Kaisan, G. Y. Pam and D. M. Kulla
1
Energy Commission of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria

Abstract: - The swiftly depleting conventional fossil fuel resources and increasing environmental distress has
considerably popped up research curiosity in renewable energy fuel for internal combustion engines.
Accordingly, in this research work, biodiesel from wild grape seed (Lannea Microcarpa) was blended with
petro-diesel in a ratio of 5:95, 10:90, 15:85 and 20:80 and pure fossil diesel designated B5, B10, B15, B20 and
B0 respectively. The physico chemical properties of the biodiesel/petro diesel blends were determined. The
properties are specific gravity, viscosity, flash point, calorific value, sulphur content, copper strip corrosion,
colour, diesel index, cetane number, and cloud point. It was observed that, 9 out of the 10 properties determined
conform to ASTM standards except for the colour which was dark brown for the oil and biodiesel, and brown
for the automotive gasoline oil. The specific gravity and viscosity increase with percentage increase of biodiesel
in the blends. The sulphur content, calorific values, cetane number and diesel index decrease with increase in the
percentage biodiesel from the blends. The colour of the samples does not conform to the ASTM standards. All
the samples have the best ASTM value for copper strip corrosion and as such, they could be run in any diesel
engine without any fear of corrosion tendencies. Whence, Wild Grape seed biodiesel is physically okay,
chemically stable, environmentally friendly and economically viable for use in compression ignition engine as a
blend to partly replace the automotive gasoline oil.

Keywords: – Biodiesel, Blend, Physico-Chemical Properties, Wild Grape Seeds

I. INTRODUCTION
Biodiesel means fatty acid methyl ester or mono-alkyl esters derived from vegetable oil or animal fats
for use in diesel engines (Nigerian Bio-Fuel Policy and Incentives, 2011). Biodiesel is an alternative for or an
additive to diesel fuel, that is derived from the oils and fats of plants, like sunflower, canola, Jatropha, neem
seed oil (Ambumani and Sing, 2010). With fuel prices increasing and growing environmental awareness, the
need to consider alternative energy and fuel sources are becoming a necessity. One alternative is the use of
biodiesel fuel which is becoming more and more popular today (Haresh, 2008).
The physico-chemical properties of fuel are the fuel specifications that define and set the quality
standards. For biodiesel, physico-chemical properties are a set of property specifications measured by specific
American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM) test methods such as ASTM 6751 – 02 (Gerpen et al.,
2004). This specification must be met for a fatty acid ester product to carry the designation “biodiesel fuel” or
“B100” or for use in blends with any petroleum-derived diesel fuel (Gerpen et al., 2004). These properties are
termed physico-chemical properties which include but not limited to: specific gravity, viscosity, flash point,
calorific value, cetane number, acid value, volatility, and saponification value.
There exist in Nigeria, a set of problems due to exploration, refining, transportation and final
combustion of the petroleum products in which diesel fuel is not an exception. There are environmental
catastrophes like oil spills, acid rains and depletion of the ozone layer. Recently, the Federal Government of
Nigeria has removed its subsidy on petroleum products which lead to rise in prices of the products. Therefore,
there is need to surmount these challenges and as such, we have to search for alternatives and or additives that
will wholly or partially replace the expensive petroleum products. There alternatives are supposed to be locally
abundant, environmentally friendly and economically viable. In the light of the above, this work therefore seeks

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to evaluate the physical and chemical properties of transesterified wild grapes seeds oil/petro-diesel blends.
Result of this study is expected to contribute to the existing database of locally available alternative energy
resources with the objective of reforming the global energy and environmental predicaments.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Sample Collection
The seeds to be used in this work is botanically called lannea microcarpa; it is also referred to as wild
grapes in English and ”Faru” in Hausa, the main language in Northern Nigeria. The sample was obtained from
Kankia local government, Katsina State of North Western Nigeria.
2.1.2 Extraction Procedure and Biodiesel Production
Seed sample was washed and dried, oil was extracted from the sample using the mechanical press
engine driven expeller. The oil yield from the sample was initially 12.5% with very high free fatty acid (FFA),
and then later increased to 37.5% after the free fatty acid was reduced using acid esterification reactions on the
sample. The free fatty acid was 42% but reduced to 2.52 after a repeated esterification reaction. Alkali
esterification reaction was carried out on the sample and bio-diesel was produced. The biodiesel was blended
with fossil diesel in a ratio of 5:95, 10:90, 15:85 and 20:80 and a pure petro-diesel sample kept for control
purpose as B5, B10, B15, B20 and B0 respectively
2.2 Determination of Physico-Chemical Properties
The physico chemical properties of the biodiesel produced were determined as follows:
2.2.1 Measurement of the specific gravity:
The specific gravity of the samples was measured at room temperature of 27 0C using a Fisher brand
hydrometer (size 0.795-0.910, accuracy 0.001). The measurement was performed according to the method
adopted by Coronado et al. (2009). The hydrometer is a graduated glass tube filled with air and fitted with a
weight.
• To measure specific gravity, a hydrometer and a large graduated cylinder were obtained
• The graduated cylinder was filled with the sample and the hydrometer was then dropped into the blend.
• The point at which the hydrometer floats gives the measurement of the specific gravity.
• Hydrometer readings were taken at temperatures between 16 0C to 30 0C.
2.2.2 Measurement of viscosity:
The viscosities of the samples were measured with a viscometer at 40 0C (Siivaramakrishnan et al.,
2011). According to Adebayo et al. (2011) the viscosity at 40 0C (313k) is measured following the ASTM D445
method using a calibrated viscometer with a calibration constant of 0.1057. In this research, the determination
of viscosity was done following the Institute of Petroleum (IP) method by Milner and Whiteside, (1986).
This involves measuring the time of flow of the sample between two marked points on the Ostwald viscometer
(Nafi’u et al., 2012).

2.2.3 Flash point

The flash point of the biodiesel/diesel blends was determined by the method of ASTM D93, using the
Pensky-Martens closed cup tester. The determination of the flash point of biodiesel was done in the temperature
range of 60 °C to 190 °C by an automated Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus according to the standard
method of testing flash point. The flash point determination was carried out by heating a sample of the fuel in a
stirred container and passing a flame over the surface of the liquid. If the temperature was at or above the flash
point, the vapour was ignited and an easily detectable flash would be observed. The fire point has
produced sufficient vapour to maintain a continuous flame (Babgy et al., 1987).
2.2.4 Cetane number:
The cetane number was determined using a portable cetane/octane metre. The cetane index of the
biodiesel-diesel blends was determined by the ASTM D.976 method (Kywe and Oo, 2009).

2.2.5 Cloud point:

The cloud point was determined by visually inspecting for a haze to become visible as the fuel is
cooled in a refrigerator.
2.2.6. Calorific value
The calorific values of the biodiesel/diesel blends were measured using a bomb calorimeter. A known
amount of fuel was placed in a crucible. The crucible was then placed over a ring and a fine magnesium wire
touching the fuel sample is stretched across the electrodes. The lid was tightly screwed and the bomb was filled
with oxygen up to 25 atmosphere pressure. The initial temperature was recorded.
The electrodes were then connected to a 6 V battery and the circuit was completed. As soon as the
circuit was completed and the current was switched on, the fuel in the crucible burnt with the evolution of heat.

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Heat liberated by burning of the fuel increases the temperature of water and the maximum temperature attained
was recorded.

2.2.7 Pour point:

The pour point was determined by the ASTM D.97 method (Kywe and Oo, 2009). 3.0 g of the blend
was placed into a test tube in which a thermometer was inserted through a cork which was used to cover the
mouth of the test tube. The test tube was placed in a refrigerator and observed at 10 minute intervals for a
period of two hours. The test tube was removed and tilted to ascertain if the oil flowed or moved, until it
showed no movement when the test tube was held horizontally for seconds; it was said to be solidified. The
pour point was then taken at the temperature of 5 0C above the solid point.

2.2.8 Total sulphur Content:

The total sulphur content was determined using X-ray analyses of the fuel samples. This test method
covers the determination of total sulphur by monochromatic, wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence
(MWDXRF) spectrometry in single-phase biodiesel, diesel fuels, and refinery process streams used to blend
bio-diesel and petro-diesel. The precision of this test method was determined by an inter laboratory study using
representative samples of the fuels.

2.2.9 Copper strip corrosion

A three inch copper strip was prepared by cleaning and polishing all sides so that no discoloration or
blemishes were visible. The strip was then placed in the test samples and held for 3 hours at 100 °C as the
typical starting point. At the end of the exposure period, the strip was removed, wiped cleaned and matched with
coloured reproduction strips characteristic of the descriptions.
2.2.10 Diesel Index
The diesel index was calculated using the following equation:
𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡(0 𝐹)𝑋𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠𝐴𝑃𝐼 600 𝐹
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
100

III. RESULTS
The physico chemical properties of the various biodiesel blends with pure diesel are presented in table 1and
illustrated in figures 1 to 7.

Table 1: Physico Chemical Properties of Biodiesel from Wild Grape Seeds/Diesel Blends

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Specific Gravity of Blends

0.868
0.867
Specific Gravity

0.866
0.865
0.864
0.863
B0 B5 B10 B15 B20
Biodiesel Blends

Figure 1: Specific Gravity of Biodiesel Blends

Sulphur Content of Different Blends

0.25
Sulphur Content (% wt)

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
B0 B5 B10 B15 B20
Biodiesel Blends

Figure 2: Total Sulphur of Biodiesel Blends

Calorific Values of the Blends

10832
10830
10828
Calorific Values

10826
10824
10822
10820
10818
10816
10814
B0 B5 B10 B15 B20
Biodiesel Blends

Figure 3: Calorific Values of biodiesel Blends

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Flash Points of the Blends (0C)

80
70
Flsah Point (0C)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
B0 B5 B10 B15 B20
Different Biodiesel Blends

Figure 4: Flash Points of Biodiesel Blends

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IV. DISCUSSIONS
The graph of specific gravity against blends is presented in figure 1. From the graph, pure diesel (B0)
and 5% biodiesel blend (B5) have the lowest specific gravity of 0.8645 each, B10 has 0.8655 with B15 and B20
having 0.8665 and 0.8675 respectively. The ASTM standard for specific gravity for diesel fuels and biodiesels is
from 0.8000 to 0.9000, and all the blends fall within this range and hence, conform to the required standard for
specific gravity. Therefore, the specific gravities of all the samples B0, B5, B10, B15 and B20 of wild grape
seeds biodiesel/diesel blends are within the acceptable limit.
The sulphur content of the biodiesel blends are shown in figure 2. It is seen that, sulphur content
decreases with increase in the percentage biodiesel from the blends. The sulphur content of the petro diesel is
0.202 by weight from test. It reduced to 0.191, 0.181, 0.171 and 0.155 with increase in biodiesel content from 5
% through 10% and 15 % up to 20 % respectively. This shows that the wild grape seed biodiesel is capable of
reducing the emission of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. The sulphur content of the pure biodiesel which
was not captured on the table is 0.04 wt %. This is within the standard range of ASTM D5453 which allows a
maximum of 0.05 wt % for total sulphur content in a given biodiesel.
The calorific values of the pure diesel as well as the different blends are presented in figure 3. B0 and
B5 blends have the same calorific values, while there was decrease in the values with increase percentage of
biodiesel in the blends. The calorific value of B20 was the lowest and that of the B0 was the highest. The
calorific values are decreasing with percentage increase of biodiesel in the blends. The calorific value of B0 and
B5 are the same; this is because, with 5 % of biodiesel in the blend, the quantity of biodiesel in the blend is not
enough to alter the calorific value of the blend.
Figure 4 shows the respective flash points of the pure diesel and the biodiesel blends B0, B5, B10, B15
and B20. The minimum flash point for biodiesels according to ASTM 6751-02 D93 test method is 100 0C and
the maximum is 170 0C. The flash point range for pure diesel is 60 0C to 80 0C. While the ones obtained in this
test have the highest flash point as 75 0C of the petro diesel which is within the standard. The lowest was 40 0C
for B15 and B20. From B5 to B10, there was a slight decrease in flash point and further decrease was also
observed between B10 and B15.
Figure 5 presents the graphical variation in viscosity of the biodiesel blends. The viscosity of the pure
diesel was 3.93 mm2/s at 40 0C. There was increase in viscosity with corresponding increase in biodiesel
percentage in the blends. B5 has a viscosity of 4.19mm 2/s and B20 has 4.42 mm2/s. The ASTM range for
viscosity is between 1.9mm2/s and 6.0mm2/s. The standard for diesel fuel is 1.3mm2/s to 4.1mm2/s. Hence, both
the petro diesel and the blends have conforming viscosities.
The various cetane numbers are presented in the figure 6. The ASTM standards for cetane number of
biodiesel are 48-65. It was observed that, with increase in biodiesel blends, there was a corresponding decrease
in cetane number from B10 through B15 to B20.

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Therefore, the knocking tendency of the engine increases with an increase in the percentage of the
blend. However, at 5 % blend, there was no any change in cetane number; it was same 44 as the petro diesel
cetane index, this is because, there is no any significant change with 5 % blend as compared to B0 as it was also
observed with specific gravity and calorific value.
The values of the cloud point of the samples are presented in table 2. According to Gerpen et al. (2004)
there is no any standard limit for cloud point. From the table 3, however, the cloud point of the samples are: -5
0
C, -15 0C, -12 0C, -15 0C and -18 0C for B0, B5, B10, B15 and B20 respectively. The trend of the curve starts
from its highest value for B0, then goes down to the lowest value for B20.
The petro- diesel used in this experiment has a very bad colour likewise the biodiesel produced and the
blends. The colour of the biodiesel was dark brown (Coffee Colour), while that of the pure diesel used (B0) was
light brown. From table 2, the values of the colours for B0 and B5 were >3.5 and 6.5 respectively, these are the
minimum colour codes of the samples produced. The ASTM standards for colour codes of biodiesels is <3.
Hence the colour of the samples does not conform to the ASTM standards.
From table 2, the respective values for copper strip corrosion for B0, B5, B10, B15 and B20 were
presented as 1a each. This is very interesting, as it shows that all the samples have the best ASTM value for
copper strip corrosion and as such, they could be run in any diesel engine without any fear of corrosion
tendencies. The ASTM value for copper strip corrosion is 3max (Maximum value of 3).
The diesel indices of the pure diesel and those of the blends are presented in figure 7. The diesel
indices of pure diesel and 5 % biodiesel are the same, whereas for B10, B15 and B20 it reduces with increase in
the percentage of the biodiesel present in the blends.

V. CONCLUSIONS
The specific gravity and viscosity of the biodiesel blends increase with percentage increase of biodiesel in the
blends. With increase in the percentage biodiesel there was corresponding decrease in sulphur content, calorific
values flash point, diesel index and cetane numbers.
The pure diesel used in this experiment has a very bad colour likewise the biodiesel produced and the blends.
The colour of the biodiesel was dark brown (Coffee Colour), while that of the pure diesel used (B0) was light
brown.
The entire blends have the best ASTM value for copper strip corrosion and as such, could be run in any diesel
engine without any fear of corrosion tendencies. Besides the colour, all the physico chemical properties of the
blends conform with ASTM standards.

REFERENCES
[1] Adebayo, G. B. Ameen, O. M. and Abbas, L. T. (2011). Physico-Chemical Properties of Bio-diesel
Produced from Jatropha Curcas Oil and Fossil diesel, Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
Research, Scholars Research Library, J. Micro-biol. Bio-tech, 1(1): 12-16
[2] Anbumani, K. and Sing, A. P. (2010). Performance of Mustard and Neem Oil Blends with Diesel Fuel in
C.I. Engine, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 5(4): 14-21
[3] Bagby, M. O. Freedman, B. and Schwab, A.W. (1987). Seed Oils for Diesel Fuels: Sources and
Properties. ASAE Paper No. 87-1583, presented at the International Winter Meeting of the ASAE,
Chicago
[4] Coronado, M. Yuan, W. Wang, D. and Dowell, F. E. (2009). Predicting the Concentration and Specific
Gravity of Biodiesel-Diesel Blends Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, Applied Engineering in
Agriculture. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, 25(2): 217-221
[5] Garpen, J. V. Shanks, B. Pruszko, R. Clements, D. and Knothe, G. (2004). Biodiesel Production
Technology, National Renewable Energy Laborotory Press, Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado, USA, PP.
1-27
[6] Haresh, K. (2008). Production of Biodiesel. Transesterification Process. Retreived on 23rd July, 2012,
from http://www.brighthub.com/environment/renewable-energy/articles/6718.aspx.
[7] Kywe, T. T. and Oo, M. M. (2009). Production of Bio-diesel from Jatropha Oil in Pilot Plant. World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology. 50: 477-483
[8] Nafi’u, T. Ike, P.O. Usman, B.B. Malami D. I. and Matholo A. (2012). Trace Elemental Analysis of
Nigerian Petroleum Products Using AAS Method, International Journal of Scientific and engineering
Research, 3(2): 1-5
[9] Nigerian Bio-Fuel Policy and Incentives (2011). Unpublished Policy Document of Nigeria National
Petroleum Corporation, PP.4-23. NNPC Approved Ethanol Policy Draft, NNPC Towers, Abuja, Nigeria
[10] Siivaramakrishan, K. and Ravikumar, P. (2011). Determination of Higher Heating Values of bio-diesel.
International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 3(11): 7981-7987.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-298-307
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Design, Analysis and Implementation of a Robotic Arm- The

Animator
Md. Anisur Rahman1, Alimul Haque Khan1, Dr. Tofayel Ahmed3,
Md. Mohsin Sajjad2
1. Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Bangladesh University (BU).
2. Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET).
3. Cowater, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).

Abstract: - A humanoid robotics is a new challenging field. To co-operate with human beings, humanoid
robots not only have to feature human like form and structure, but more importantly, they must prepared human
like behavior regarding the motion, communication and intelligence. The model number of this beginner is ASR
K-250. This paper we consider the mechanism and mechanical structure of ASR K-250 (Beginner) and its
implementation.

Keywords: - Degrees of freedom, kinematic structure, ellipsoid, redundancy, elbow pitch, Hardware interface,
joint speed

I. SUMMARY
In the field of robotics the beginner can contribute many functional operations in the world. This arm
can solve many human’s limitations. Many people cannot move from one place to another place for their
limitation but they have needed to move for collect something like mug, jog, and so on. For that they require
getting help from other persons. When they use this type of robot they can solve their problem easily without
help other person for its easy operation system. For an example when a person has needed to carry an object
from drawing room to bed room he can use this robot. It can move surround also collect photo and other
information. When earthquake will be occurred by using these types of robot people can unseat many weight
full objects from destroyed area to a safety place.
Introduction:
The application of robotics field is broadly used in the field of research, laboratory based work,
industrial work to automate process and reduce the human errors. This paper is describing the design of
mechanical structure of a robotic arm. This robotic arm is often indicated to move an object from one place to
another place. One kind of example of this application is in an industrial area where need to move a weighable
object like tank or container or other object. The advantage of automated process results is faster completion
time with lowest errors. This paper also describes the implementation of a robotic arm with switching
controlled. The application of the force controlled function can be seen in the industrial/manufacturing
environments.

Overview of the arm:

Degrees of freedom: 5
Payload capacity: 180gm (Experimentally)
Joint speed (approximate):40-60 rpm
Hardware interface: 2 pin connector
Base spin: 180 degrees
Shoulder base spin: 160 degrees
Elbow pitch: 160 degrees
Finger opening (Max): 10cm

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II. MECHANICAL STRUCTURE
The mechanical design of a robotic arm is based on a robotic manipulator with similar function like a
human arm. In order to establish a generalized operating systems and the technological systems for the analysis,
design, integration and implementation of a humanoid robotic arm.

For operating DC motor we need DC power supply that’s way we attached an AC to DC converter for getting
DC power. This DC power supplies each motor. In this robot arm each and every motor is connected with
external gear with external gearbox.

III. CALCULATED TORQUE

Torque means measure of how much force are acting on an object reasons that object to rotate. Torque is
denoted by T. Torque (T) is defined as a moving “force” and is calculated using the following equation:
T=F*L …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. (1)
Where T is torque F means calculated force and L is denoted the length from a pivot point. The force is
accelerating on an object due to gravity (g = 9.81m/s2) multiplied by its mass.
F=M*g ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. (2)
Mass (M) and gravity (g)
The force (F) is also considered of an object’s weight (W)
W = M*g………………………………………………………………………………………………….. (3)
The torque required to hold a mass at a given distance from a pivot point is showing therefore
T = (M*g)*L……………………………………………………………………………………………… (4)
The length L is the perpendicular length from a pivot point to the force. This equation can found by similar
doing a torque balance about a point.

Fig. 2 torque balance

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
∑T = 0 = F*L – T……………………………………………………………………………………….. (5)
Therefore, replacing the force (F) with mass and gravity (m*g) we can find out the same equation above.
This is the more accurate way to find out the torque by using the torque balance.
M*g*L = TA ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... (6)
In order to estimate the torque required at each joint, we can must chose the worst case scenario.

Fig. 3 required torque at each joint

From the above figure we can see a link of required length L is rotate clockwise. Only for
perpendicular component of the length (L) between the pivot point and force (F) is taken into account. We can
observe that the distance of length (L) is decreasing from length L3 to length L1. Since from the torque equation
the length (L) or distance multiplied by the force (F), the greatest value will be obtained by using L3, The force
(F) does not change. We can rotate the link counterclockwise similarly and observe the same effect.
The weight of the object (load) being held as Indicated in the Figure 4 by A1, which is multiplied by the
distance its center of mass and the pivot point gives the torque required at the pivot. The tool takes into the
consideration that the links may have a significant weight (W1, W2……) and its center of mass is located at
roughly the center of its length (L).
The torque caused by this difference masses must be added. The torque required at the first joint is therefore.
T1 = L1*A1+L1*W1 (“A” is weight of the actuator or the load.) ……………………................... (7)
We may consider that the actuator weight A2 which is as shown in the diagram below is not included when
calculating the torque at that point. This is because by the length (L) between its center of mass and the pivot
point is zero. The torque required at the 2nd joint must be re-calculated with the new lengths, which is as shown
in the following figure. (The applied torque shown in green color like T1 and T2)

Fig. 4 calculation of applied torque

T2 = L3*A1+ L1*W1+ L 2*A2+L4*W2 ………………………………………………………………………………………. .… (8)

Knowing that the link weight (W2, W2) are located in the center point of the lengths, and the distance between
the actuators (L1 and L3 shown in the diagram above) we can re-write the equation as follows:
T2 = (L1+L2)*A1+ (L1+L3)*W1+ (L 2)*A2+ (L2)*W2 ……………………………………………. (9)
Only for the tool requires that the user enter the lengths (L) of the each link, which would be L1 and L3 above
so the equation is showing accordingly. The torques at each subsequent of the joint can be found similarly, by
re-calculating the lengths between each new pivot point and each weight.

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IV. THE KINEMATIC STRUCTURE OF BEGINNER ARM
The following figure shows the reference and link coordinate systems of 5- DOF arm using the first step of the
animator. The values of the kinematic parameters are listed below in the table (I). Where lu, ls and lf are the link
lengths of the shoulder, back arm and forearm respectively.

Fig. 5 The coordinate system of the arm

Defined a frame of each link, the coordinate transformation is describing the position and orientation of the end-
effectors with respect to (wrt) the base frame is given by

Allude the basic construction of the forward kinematics function by composing the coordinate transformations
into the one homogeneous transformation matrix. The actual description of the coordinate transformation system
between frame i and frame I – 1 is given by homogeneous transformation matrix.

C θi - C αi S θi Sαi Sθi αiC θi

S θi C αi C θi - SαiC θi αi S θi …………………………………… (11)

Ai = 0 Sαi C αi di

0 0 0 1

Where S θi and C θi are Sαi and C αi , respectively.

Table 1 the parameters of the arm

i θi α a i(mm) d i(mm) range
1 θ1 -90° ls 0 - 90°…….90°
2 θ 2 - 90° -90° 0 0 - 90°…….90°
3 θ 3+180° 180° 0 lu - 180°…...180°
4 θ4 -90° lh 0 0………180°
5 θ5 90° 0 lf - 45°…….45°

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Where θ is denoted by the vector of the joint variables, a, b and c are the unit vectors of the frame attached to the
end- effectors.

V. CONSIDERATION OF ELBOW POSITION

The main description is the intersection of the ellipsoid and the sphere mentioned above is analytically difficult.
To make this task mathematically tractable, firstly we determine the intersection between the ellipsoid and the
sphere at Z = ze. The redundancy curve of the arm can eventually be obtained by combining all such
intersections for all values of ze in the interval. (Note that Zemin and Zemax are the minimal and the maximal
values of the Z coordinate of the elbow for a given position and orientation of the end-effectors.)

The intersection of the sphere with the plane Z = Ze results in a circle. Then the radius r 2 and the center c2 of this
circle can be determined as follows.
Basically there are two points like C1 and C2 provided by the intersection of the circles represents two possible
positions of the elbow. The unit vectors of the frame (x4, y4 and z4) attached to the elbow position must be
established.

Fig. 6 Plane Z = Ze and ellipsoid

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The vector z4 lies along the forearm and points to the wrist. The vector y4 is perpendicular to the upper arm (r u)
and fore arm (rf). The vector x4 completes the right handed coordinate.

The redundancy of the arm:

The redundancy of the animator robots’ arm can be described by the rotation
of the center of the elbow joint about the axis. The base frame (x0, y0, z0) of the feasible position of the elbow
around this axis is defined by the curve. This curve can be described from the ending point of the upper arm
which can be describes an ellipsoid. The centered of the origin of the base coordinate system (x 0, y0, z0) and
that the starting points of the forearm derived a sphere centered on the wrist position (x w, yw, zw) which
corresponds to the origin of the coordinating system (xs, ys, zs) which is as shown in the following figure.

Fig. 7 work space of the upper arm and forearm of this arm

Since this two points have to same to looking the redundancy of the curve results from the intersection of the
ellipsoid and the sphere. Mathematical equation is given as follows:
X y z
(ls+l0)2 + (ls+l0)2 + (l0)2 = 1 …………………………………………… (16)
And also
W = (xw ,yw ,zw)T = p - ih. c ……………………………………………………………………… (17)

Gear:
Gear is a rotating machine part which having cut teeth or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in
order to transmit the torque. A gear can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be
considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, torque and direction of a power source.
A particular gear train is made up of two or more gears. Between an input and output shaft; there will be a
change in angular velocity and torque. The basic speed relationship of their is given by
Gearboxes:
A gear train is made up of 2 or more gears. In these types of robot there will be a change in the
angular velocity and torque between an input and output.

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Fig. 8 Attached with another teeth or cogs.

The gear is increased by attaching external gearboxes in this robot arm. The mathematical relationship of speed
is given below
𝜔𝑖 𝑁0 𝑥3
𝑛 = ± 𝜔0 = ± 𝑁𝑖
+ 3!
……………………………………………………………………………… (18)
𝜔𝑖𝑛 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁3
𝑛 = ± 𝜔 0𝑢𝑡 = − − = ………………………………………………………… (19)
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁1
Where Ni and N0 are the number of teeth of the input and output gear. ωi and ω0 are the angular velocity of the
input and output gear. These types of robot we use spur type gear.

Fig. 9 increasing torque by adding external gear

In general, any two of the three components (like flexspline, circular spline and wave generator) that
build up the gearbox can be used as the input to, and also the output from, the gearbox, giving the designer
considerable flexibility. The robot need to increasing the gear for his hand work successfully.
This arm the required gear added by using external gear with motor.
Motor:
In these types of robot we consider the DC electric gear motor. Actually a DC motor is designed to run
on DC electric power. The AC or DC power electric motor is an electromechanical device that can converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The moving part of the electric motor is called rotor and the stationary
part of the electric motor is known as stator.

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Fig. 10 A DC gear motor and torque related curve.

In order to obtain more torque which is as shown in figure 10? The exact or containing speed of a DC
or AC induction motor is influenced by an applied load and the consequences slip. The torque of the motor
produces by also a function of the slip. If we can produce more slip ultimately we can produce more torque.
Actually a DC electric motor is designed to start on DC electric power.
Series connected and shunt connected DC type motor:

Fig. 11 series and shunt connected DC motor.

Basically there are there basic types of DC motor. Most of them are series motors, shunt motors and compound
motors.

Motor Power Rating:

How can we apply high voltage to a motor? All motors are operated to a certain rated
voltage. The inefficiency of energy conversion is directly related to heat output. When produce too much heat,
the coils of a motor melt will be occurred. So it is highly preferred to maintain a sustainable power for usable
motor. We can explain the power rating of a motor by a simple equation. The related equation is given below

Power (in watts) = Voltage * Current

Switch:
These types of robot arm we bonhomie and adjust DPDT switch. It stands double pole and double
through. These types of switch can flow electricity both clockwise and anti clockwise. For continuing the work
of this arm we need to rotate both ways. For up and down of this arm need to flow current in both ways so that
the DPDT switch attached perfectly.

Some function of a DPDT switch is given below:

 A DPDT can be used in any application that requires a NO, that means normally open and NC, that means
normally closed wiring system.
 DPDT can be used in such cases for block controlled due to the ease and flexibility of the wiring.

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 Block controlled allows the relay coil to be triggered remotely, while another relay is controlling by another
block.

Fig. 12 DPDT switches construction and circuit diagram

Table 2 Switch connection with motor and its mechanism.

Input A Input B Motor Function
0 0 Motor Stopped (OFF)
1 0 Motor Rotates Forward
0 1 Motor Rotates Reverse
1 1 Not Allowed

In the table 2 we describe about the operation system of DPDT switch. When input and output will
both 0 then the motor speed 0 that means motor is stopped. When input is 1 and output 0 then motor will rotate
with forward kinematics or clockwise direction. On the other hand when input is 0 and output 1 then the motor
will rotate inverse kinematics or anticlockwise direction.

VI. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The generation of the human-like manipulation motions has been implemented and also tested
successfully for the 4 degrees of freedom (DOF) arm of the humanoid robot. The presented approach does not
consider the dynamics of the robot arm. This would be necessary to generate realistic velocity distribution for
the manipulation motions. In this paper has reviewed the characteristics of the main mechanical structure and
construction of a humanoid robotic arm. From this arm the exploration of afterwards will be a full body which is
controlled by body switch. The final step of this robot is auto learner, in this stage this robot can learn
automatically. The real/exact position and orientation of the arm can be obtained significantly large
modifications of the joints θ1, θ2 and θ3. The assistive robotic arm will must be able to contribute most of the
challenges in our daily life. However, the resulting configuration is not guaranteed to be human-like.
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are very grateful to Almighty for giving the strength and encourage to completing this project.
The authors also would like to acknowledge to contribution for made by the university authors (BU) who give
us an environment where we work more time. We are really grateful to Bangladesh University of Engineering &
Technology (BUET) for their logistic and technical support. We want to thank to all who have been directly
related to this thesis for their support and encouragement. We also thank all the personnel at the general library
and reference library for providing us with the books and thesis papers to complete this thesis.

REFERENCES
[1] www.springerlink.com/index/V67J235820033K72.pdf
[2] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural environment
[3] www.societyofrobots.com/robot_arm_tutorial.shtml
[4] ai.stanford.edu/~ang/.../icra11-LowCostCompliantManipulator.pdf
[5] www.societyofrobots.com/robot_arm_tutorial.shtml
[6] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_robot
[7] www.allonrobots.com/spherical-robots.html
[8] www.allonrobots.com/cylindrical-robot.html
[9] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCARA
[10] www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-articulated-robot.htm
[11] www.robotshop.com/robot-arm-torque-tutorial.html
[12] www.robotshop.com/robot-arm-torque-tutorial.html
[13] www.mbfys.ru.nl/~stan/gielen-MotorControl-2004.pdf
[14] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)
[15] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy

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[16] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motoren.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_electric_motor en.wikipedia.
org/ wiki/DC_motor www.wisegeek.org/what-is-a-dc-motor.htm en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor
[17] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor
[18] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Gear.html
[19] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caster
[20] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_connector whatis.techtarget.com › ... › Networking › Network hardware
whatis.techtarget.com › ... › Networking › Network hardware
[21] www.conwire.com/
[22] www.kpsec.freeuk.com/breadb.htm
[23] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)
[24] physics.tutorvista.com/.../torque.html -
[25] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_adapter
[26] www.ehow.co.uk › Home wiki.answers.com › ... › Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning
www.diyguitarmods.com/push-pull-potentiometer.php

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-308-313
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Automotive Parking Lot and Theft Detection through Image

Processing
Md.Towhid Chowdhury, Ebad Zahir.
1
(EEE, AIUB, Bangladesh)\ 2(Faculty, AIUB, Bangladesh)\

Abstract: - Automotive parking lot and theft detection through image processing is a smart parking lot which
will save time for the owner to park his car in a more organized way and also prevent theft of the car. It is a
technology to optimize the checkout process by analysing a database of images of number plates of cars. The
heart of the project is based on image processing. The images of number plates will be detected by Matlab and a
picture of the driver will be saved in a similar database. As soon as both the images are saved, the garage
entrance pole will shift 90 degrees upward using a DC MOTOR and will remain in that position for 30 seconds
to allow the car to enter. After 30 seconds it will return back to its previous position. When the car exits the
earlier steps will be repeated and Matlab will match both the images that were taken during entering and
leaving. Meanwhile the seven segment display will show that a car has left the parking lot, by decrementing a
number from its display. The cars are controlled by a microcontroller which is also able to detect and display if a
vacant parking space is available. If there is no vacancy a red LED lights up, where as a green LED is used to
display presence of parking space along with how many parking spots are available. It is applicable to be used in
super market car parking lots and also apartment garages.

Keywords: - Parking Automation, Accident detection and avoidance, Obstacles detection, Vehicle tracking.

I. INTRODUCTION
With an increasing number of vehicles being used in our country, it is getting difficult to manually
accommodate the cars in big parking spaces. Because in a big parking space no one can systematically control
the entry and exits of the numerous cars; because this is very difficult to know how many cars and vacant places
are available in the parking lot at any given time. But this system shows digitally how many places are vacant
and how many cars can enter the parking space. This system also saves the cars’ number plates and driver’s
pictures in a database for security measures. In order to automate the processes and make it more effective, a
system is required to easily identify a vehicle. The important question here is how to identify a particular
vehicle? The answer to this question is – by using the vehicles’ number plate and tagging it to its driver’s picture
from the database. Vehicles in every country have a unique license number, which is imprinted on its license
plate. This number which also includes letters distinguishes one vehicle from the other, which is useful
especially when both are of same make and model. In Bangladesh the license plate has numbers and letters
imprinted in Bengali.

PARKING SYSTEM WHICH IS NOT THE MAIN CONCERN OF OUR PROJECT.

Figure 1: - Parking System

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II. MAIN TECHNOLOGY USED

1.1 Obstacle detection & indication sensor
The main objective of this project was to design and develop a model of an automotive car parking lot
and theft detection through image processing. The processing is controlled by Matlab which gives the command
to the microcontroller to allow Exit or Entry of a car and the save the car’s plate number in the database with the
driver’s picture. When that same car is ready to exit the parking garage, the software will match the number with
the one collected earlier at the point of entry. If the number plate does not match, the microcontroller will not
raise the gate and therefore the car cannot exit. Automotive car parking lot and theft detection through image
processing needs the following components:
1, Atmega16
3, Serial Port RS232
4, IC ULN2003A
5, Adapter (Power Source)
6, Seven segment display
7, Stepper motor, camera and display.

Figure 2:- Block Diagram of the overall project.

1.2 Optical character reader (OCR) in Bengali by Matlab:-

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing created by Math Works in 1984.
Matlab uses a high-level language and interactive environment to enable you to perform computationally
intensive tasks faster than with traditional programming languages such as C, C++, and FORTRAN. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are
expressed in familiar mathematical notation.

1.3 Acquiring the image

After the picture has been taken by the camera, Matlab will import the picture and begin processing the data
manipulation.

Figure 3: - Number plate of the car

2.4 Template created:-
To match the number plate at first we have to make a Bengali template database from 0 to 9. These
templates will save on the bin box. These templates will match, when the Matlab code calls for the template
acquired from the number plate.

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Figure 5: - Bengali Template

2.5 Matlab code execution flow:-

Before matching the template with the saved digits, a concatenation process is performed to separate
them. After the matching process, the numbers will show in the variable 'id' in lines as 124420. It will show
when the templates and numbers on the plates match. If they do not match, it will not show in the monitor.
Figure 6 below shows the overall flow of the executed code. If the number plate and the template does not
match than the output shows an error. If the template matches with the number plate, then it shows the output
digits and the Entry or Exit gate will open; and an additional step will be to save the number in memory which
can increase security in future operations.

Figure 6: - Matlab steps execution

2.6 Results
Figure 7 below shows the results after a correct execution of the code.

Figure 7: - Matlab execution and display of results

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3.1 Circuit Diagram Description

Figure 8 below shows the complete circuit diagram of the automotive parking lot. Here the interfacing
of some peripherals and ICs with the microcontroller ATMEGA 16 is shown. The circuit is initially simulated
on Proteus, which is basically an electronic circuit simulation tool on windows platform. The camera here
monitors the car during entrance and exit to capture the images. After the images are taken and saved to
memory, data is transferred to the microcontroller through a serial communication cable. The gate opens and pin
no. 40 controls this entrance. The recorded sample is stored in the microcontroller by pin number 14 and 15.
Pull-up network resistances of 10KΩ are provide at each port. Since we are not using the LCD display RS
(Resister Select), R/W (Read/Write) and E (Enable) are not needed. The Reset switch connects at pin 9 of
microcontroller to provide a manual reset of the microcontroller. If any problem occurs or if the system hangs
we can push the reset button to reboot the whole system. When any vehicle reaches the parking lot and after the
data is transferred to the microcontroller, the systems registers an increase in the number of vehicles and records
the count. The Count is for current recording time. Pin no. 22 to 29 controls the seven segment display. After
completion of recording interval this count value is saved in the memory. The microcontroller is connected to
the computer through a serial communication cable. Matlab instructs the microcontroller to send the recorded
data for monitoring. It can also ask the microcontroller to erase previously recorded data after analysis is
completed.
The seven segment display will get positive voltages from pins 2 and 3. The green LED is switched on
to show that there are spaces available in the parking lot. Pin no. 1 is for the red LED which will turn on when
there are no spaces available. Pin no. 12 and 13 have not been used in our project. Pin no. 39 controls the exit.
Pin no. 18 to 21 controls the stepper motors. Pin no. 10 is for the Vcc supply and 11 is for ground. Figure 8
below shows the entire circuit for the project. It is operated with a voltage level of 0-5V. It also uses a 0V to 9V
transformer to step down the 220V AC supply to 9V AC. It is further filtered through a 1000 uF capacitor and
then regulated using IC 7805 to get +5V. To isolate the output voltage of +5V from noise further filtering is
done using a 220uF capacitor.
As for the power requirement of the hardware of the system for the microcontroller, we used a supply
voltage of +5V w.r.t GND and 12V for the two stepper motors. Matlab transfers the recorded data to the
microcontroller by serial communication. This data is used for matching both the images taken during entrance
and exit. To interface the UART and PC all 4 outputs are connected through the microcontroller for the signal
conversion. A data transfer protocol is implemented through the software. Matlab collects all the recorded data.

VCC

R3 R4
10K 10K

EXIT_GATE

EXIT ENTRY
D3 D4
1N4148 1N4148

VCC

D1 R1
POWER 10K D2 U1
1N4148 9 22
RESET RESET PC0/SCL
23
PC1/SDA
12 24
RESET XTAL1 PC2/TCK +12V +12V
13 25
XTAL2 PC3/TMS
R2 PC4/TDO
26
220 C1 40
PA0/ADC0 PC5/TDI
27
0.1u 39 28
PA1/ADC1 PC6/TOSC1
38 29
PA2/ADC2 PC7/TOSC2
37
PA3/ADC3
36 14
PA4/ADC4 PD0/RXD U2
35 15
PA5/ADC5 PD1/TXD
34 16 9
PA6/ADC6 PD2/INT0 COM
33 17 1 16
PA7/ADC7 PD3/INT1 1B 1C
18 2 15 +88.8
PD4/OC1B 2B 2C
X1 1
PB0/T0/XCK PD5/OC1A
19 3
3B 3C
14
2 20 4 13
PB1/T1 PD6/ICP1 4B 4C +12V
3 21 5 12
PB2/AIN0/INT2 PD7/OC2 5B 5C
4 6 11
PB3/AIN1/OC0 VCC 6B 6C
5 7 10
8MHz PB4/SS 7B 7C +12V
6
PB5/MOSI
C2 C3 7
PB6/MISO AREF
32 ULN2003A
22pF 22pF 8 30
PB7/SCK AVCC
ATMEGA16 U3
9
COM
1 16
1B 1C
2 15 +88.8
2B 2C
3 14
D5 D? 4
3B 3C
13
4B 4C
5 12
5B 5C
6 11
6B 6C
LED-RED LED-GREEN 7 10
7B 7C
ULN2003A

Figure 8: - Schematic of the overall project

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3.2 Entry processes

Figure 9: - Hardware implementation showing availability of parking space

Figure 9 above shows two motors for the exit and entry gates and also the 7segment display which will
show how many cars are already in the parking lot (as shown by the green display of the number 03). It also
means that there are still available places for parking and the green LED indicates this. Another green LED (in
the middle) represent that the whole system is running.

3.3 Red light

Figure 10: - Hardware implementation showing that the parking lot is full

This project was modeled for only 20 cars. Since the display is showing the number 20, it means there
are no more parking places left. The Red LED (at the bottom) is lit to further indicate this. Note that the green
LED (in the middle) is representing that the whole system is still running error free.

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Figure 11: - The Entire Model

III. FURTHER APPLICATION

1. Notifying the owner the exact location of the car inside the parking lot by SMS.
2. Adding a finger print scanning and password option for added security.

IV. CONCLUSION
This project presented a recognition method in which the vehicle plate image is obtained by digital
cameras and the image is processed to get the number plate information. The model of the entire system was
designed and tested thoroughly. By identifying the car’s number plate as a reference on image detection, it
makes the process of detecting images as a reference more efficient compared to the use of a moving object. The
conceptualization of this project is to establish a sophisticated and smart parking system by using image
processing instead of using sensor based security methods. An intelligent parking system is developed using an
integrated image processing approach to reduce cost of sensor and wiring hassle. Detecting the number plate and
taking a picture is shown as a technique that can save time and manpower while also reducing theft. All these
features put together make it a very attractive package.

REFERENCES
[1] (2013) HTS website. [Online]. Available: http://www.htsol.com/
[2] Robertson, Patrick (1974). The book of firsts. C. N. Potter : distributed by Crown Publishers. p. 51.
Retrieved 13 August 2011.
[3] Friedrich, Markus; Jehlicka, Prokop; Schlaich, Johannes (2008). "Automatic number plate recognition for
the observance of travel behavior" Universität Stuttgart Institut für Straßen und Verkehrswesen.
Retrieved 2013-07-02.
[4] Road Transport (Permits) Act, CHAPTER 69:03
[5] Friedrich, Markus; Jehlicka, Prokop; Schlaich, Johannes (2008). "Automatic number plate recognition for
the observance of travel behavior". 8th International Conference on Survey Methods in Transport:
Harmonisation and Data Comparability, May 2008, Annecy, France. Universität Stuttgart Institut für
Straßen und Verkehrswesen. Retrieved 2013-07-02.
[6] Leslie Howard Saunders. An Orangeman in public life: the memoirs of Leslie Howard Saunders.
Britannia Printers, 1980 pg. 97
[7] Hugh McGee (2003). NCHRP Synthesis 310. National Cooperative Highway Research Program. p. 12.
[8] (2012) The IEEE website. [Online]. Available: http://www.ieee.org/
[9] M. Shell. (2002) IEEEtran homepage on CSD. [Online]. Available:
http://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/icinis/2012/4855/00/4855a009-abs.html
[10] Met given real time c-charge data" BBC. 17 July 2007. Archived from the original on 13 September
2007.
[11] "Transport for London". Cclondon.com. 17 July 2011
[12] Speeding tickets can potentially be avoided by changing lanes" The Daily Mail (London). 15 October
2006. Retrieved 2012-01-24. "The Home Office admitted last night that drivers can avoid being caught
the by hi-tech 'SPECS' cameras which calculate a car's average speed over a long distance."

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-314-321
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Optimal design of two feeder system: simulation studies for techno-

economic feasibility
Haider Hussain, Dr. A. I. Khandwawala
1
(Research Scholar, Bhagwant University Ajmer (Rajasthan), India)
2
(Ex. Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, SGSITS, Indore, India)

Abstract:- In the casting technology, defect free casting had been the primary goal since the inception of the
technology. However in the present casting arena, emphasis on the precise and defect free casting has got
greatly increased due to energy saving, environmental and economy considerations apart from the stringent
product quality standard requirements. In order to achieve this level, computer simulation is inevitably
necessary. FEM based simulation software is used to find solidification related defects specially shrinkage
porosity very precisely. In the present work ANSYS, an FEM based versatile software has been used for hot
spots identification in a two feeder system. The feeders have been designed and optimized. ANSYS has been
used for transient thermal analysis and then optimization process has been performed. Path of two feeder
optimization for sand casting on ANSYS have been searched. Conductive and convective heat transfer has been
taken in to consideration. The whole process is performed using traditional modulus approach also. The results
are compared. The comparison reveals that ANSYS optimizer provides better results for casting having two
feeders. It saves material and energy thus resulting into economy and environmental benefits too. Hence it may
be recommended as superior over modulus approach for two feeder system in sand casting.

Keywords: - Feeder design optimization, FEM, Modulus Approach, Sand Casting, Shrinkage porosity.

I. INTRODUCTION
Sand casting is the most widely used process for both ferrous and non – ferrous metals, and accounts
for approximately 90% of all castings produced [1]. In sand casting, sand mixed with binders and water is
compacted around wood or metal pattern halves to produce a mould. The mould is removed from the pattern,
assembled with cores and metal is poured in to the resultant cavities. After cooling, moulds are broken to
remove the casting. After casting is removed from the sand moulds, sand mould is destroyed [2]. This leads to
not only the loss of material but also to the loss of energy required for molding and remolding the material again
and again. in fact the repeated molding-remolding consumes huge amount of fuel ultimately contributing to the
global warming which is the greatest havoc for modern civilization. Hence the optimal design of feeder system
must be seen not only from the material saving point of view, it must simultaneously be pursued from the
environmental considerations too [16]. The modern casting processes not only require high precision and
accuracy, they require energy efficiency and environmental consistency too. The present work is a determined
step in this direction.
In sand casting, molten liquid metal is poured into a cavity which takes the negative shape of the object and the
mould is made from sands. Heat removal is by heat transfer in sand mould, the governing equations for heat
transfer are [3]
𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
=𝛼 2 (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕 𝑥
T 𝑥, 0 = 𝑇0 (2) T 0, 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑀 (Temperature at metal end) (3)

T ∞, 𝑡 = 𝑇0 (4)

Finite Element Method (FEM) is a powerful computational tool that is used to numerically solve many
engineering problems. Most of the Research on the area of casting processes modeling uses FEM as a solver to

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the casting Process model. The numerical simulation of solidification process using either Finite Difference or
Finite Element Methods (FDM/FEM) involves the following steps: [1]
1. Formulating an accurate mathematical model of the solidification process.
2. Specifying accurate values for thermal properties of material involved.
3. Performing the analysis to obtain the temperature history of casting and mould points.
4. Post – processing the results to visualize the solidification pattern and identify defects.
Feeders are designed to compensate the solidification shrinkage of a casting, and make it free of shrinkage
porosity. Feeder design parameters include the number, location, shape and dimensions of feeder. Feed path and
feeding distance influence the location and number of feeders. The volume of the feeders must be minimized to
increase the yield. The criterion is given by for getting feeder yield 𝐶𝐹3 :
𝐶𝐹3 =𝑁𝑐 𝑣𝑐 / 𝑁𝑐 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑖 𝑣𝑓𝑖 (5)
Finite element analysis based software ANSYS 12.0 has been used. Modal of casting is done in Pro E
wild fire and cylindrical feeders have been created in ANSYS modeling. Element selection and material
property feeding is done latter. Convective load have been considered after proper meshing. Proper boundary
values of temperature have been provided and then transient thermal analyses have been performed. DB log file
has been assigned to ANSYS optimizer and then design variable, state variable and objective functions have
been provided [5]. They are height of feeder, maximum temperature difference of feeder and respective casting
zone, inverse of feeder yield respectively with suitable allowances and factor of safety. First order optimization
has been performed through ANSYS 12.0.
In FEM, the field variables are the temperatures at all nodal points that vary with time .Thermal
properties like thermal conductivity, density, specific heat also vary with temperature and hence the problem
becomes non – linear transient in nature Galerkin’s weighted residual approach has been reported[7]. The
advantage of using FEM is the ability to handle complex boundaries, the ease in implementing boundary
condition. But this method requires much effort for formulation of problem, data preparation and need long
processing time [8].
In general, FEM is preferred as it allows a wider choice of element shapes and better accuracy, while
FDM based simulation programs are faster and easier to execute. Recent advances have been in the areas of
automatic preprocessing (mesh generation), adaptive remeshing for better accuracy in critical regions, heat
transfer models for considering the effect of variable air gap and mould coatings, convective and radiation heat
transfer and improving the efficiency of computation[9]. Feeder optimization has been performed using
topology optimization [10], poison equation approximation [11] and genetic algorithm [12].
P. Prabhakara Rao gives advantages of computer simulation based design enumerated. The procedures thus
described have been demonstrated with the above case study of application of Pro CAST simulation at G.S alloy
Foundry. It is demonstrated that the foundries can derive mileage by resorting to FEM simulations of the casting
process for process development and optimization. [13]
The application of casting simulation softwares in the foundries not only minimizes the wastages of
resources required for final castings, but also improves / enhances the quality and yield of castings, which
implies higher value addition and lower production cost. The experimental study represents the effect of sizes of
risers and necks on the solidification behavior of the aluminum alloy castings. The simulated results are more or
less similar with experimental results. [14]
The application of computer aided method, solid modeling, and casting simulation technologies in
foundries can able to minimize the bottlenecks and non value added time in casting development, as it reduces
the number of trial casting required on the shop floor. In addition, the optimization of riser neck reduces or
completely removes the occurrence of shrinkage defect in the casting. The application of casting simulation
software based on finite element method and vector element method shows good results and matched with the
experimental results.[15]

II. DATA COLLECTION

Multi feeder optimization has been performed on a dumbbell casting of Aluminium-06. Two feeders have been
considered.
Volume = 10.87-06 M^3 , Surface Area = 12.98e-2 M^2
Feeders can be optimized by modulus approach. The thickest section has highest value of modulus [1]. The
optimization can be performed on ANSYS12. [5]

III. FEEDER OPTIMIZATION

The use of negative of the gradient vector as a direction for minimization was first made by Cauchy in
1847. In this method we start from initial trial point X1 and iteratively move towards the optimum point.[4]

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The method of steepest descent may appear to be the best unconstrained minimization technique since each one-
dimensional search starts in the best direction. Design optimization works entirely with the ANSYS Parametric
Design Language (APDL) and is contained within its own module (/OPT). Design optimization is largely
concerned with controlling user-defined, APDL functions/parameters that are to be constrained or minimized
using standard optimization methods (e.g., function minimization, gradients, design of experiments).The
independent variables in an optimization analysis are the design variables. The vector of design variables is
indicated by: [4]
𝑋 = 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3 … 𝑋𝑛
(5)
Design variables are subject to n constraints with upper and lower limits, that is,
𝑋𝑖 ≤ 𝑋𝑖 ≤ 𝑋𝑖 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛
(6)
Where: n = number of design variables.
The design variable constraints are often referred to as side constraints and define what is commonly called
feasible design space. Now, minimize
𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑋) (7)
Where: f = objective function
Subject to
𝑔𝑖 (𝑋) ≤ 𝑔𝑖 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑚1 (8)
𝑕𝑖 ≤ 𝑕𝑖 𝑋 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑚2
(9)
𝑊𝑖 ≤ 𝑊𝑖 𝑋 ≤ 𝑊𝑖 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑚3 (10)
𝑔𝑖 ,𝑕𝑖 ,𝑊𝑖 = state variables containing the design, with underbar and overbears representing lower and upper
bounds respectively. (input as min, max on OPVAR command) 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 = number of state variables
constraints with various upper and lower limit values. The state variables can also be referred to as dependent
variables in that they vary with the vector x of design variables. [4]

IV. OPTIMIZATION OF DUMBBELL CASTING WITH MODULUS

APPROACH AND ANSYS
For removing shrinkage porosity defect, two feeders are designed here by modulus approach and
ANSYS 10.0 design optimizer for dumbbell casting. Dumbbell has been considered in four sections A, B, C, D.
First modulus approach has been used and then ANSYS Optimizer applied.
Modulus Approach-

Table 1: Dumbbell casting data (Section wise)

S Volume 𝑀3 Surface Area 𝑀2 Modulus=V/A
Area 𝑀2 𝑀1
A 8.0 × 10−6 2.4× 10−3 3.33× 10−3
B 1.131 × 10−6 4.90 × 10−4 2.3 × 10−3
A
C 6.4× 10−5 9.6 × 10−3 6.67× 10−3
D 1.131 × 10−6 4.9 × 10−4 2.3 × 10−3

Calculation for first feeder- 𝐷𝑓1 = 18.6 MM

Diameter of feeder = 𝐷𝑓1 , Height of Feeder = Hf1 Height of Feeder = 27.9 MM
Hf = 1.5 𝐷𝑓1 , Volume of feeder = 𝑉𝑓1 Diameter of Second feeder = 𝐷𝑓2
3
Vf = 0.375 π 𝐷𝑓1 Height of Second Feeder = Hf2
Area of feeder 𝐴𝑓 = 1.75 π 𝐷𝑓12 Hf2 = 1.5 𝐷𝑓2
𝑉 𝑓1 Volume of feeder = 𝑉𝑓2
Modulus of feeder Mf = 3
𝐴𝑓1 Vf2 = 0.375 π 𝐷𝑓2
Also Modulus of feeder = 0.214 𝐷𝑓1 2
Area of feeder 𝐴𝑓1 = 1.75 π 𝐷𝑓2
Modulus of feeder = 1.2 × modulus of region 𝑉 𝑓2
around Hot Spot. Modulus of feeder Mf1= 𝐴𝑓2
0.214 𝐷𝑓1 = 1.2 × 3.33× 10−3 M Also Modulus of feeder = 0.214 𝐷𝑓2

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Modulus of feeder = 1.2 × modulus of region 𝐷𝑓2 = 37.4 MM
around Hot Spot. Height of Second Feeder = 56.10 MM
0.214 𝐷𝑓2 = 1.2 × 6.67× 10−3 M So feeder yield by Modulus method is = 51.77%
The process of analysis of this case with Design optimizer of ANSYS 12.0 (An FEM Based general
purpose software) has been search out for two feeders. Here we have taken height of feeders as a design
variables, State variable S1 = FT1-CT1 (always positive), State variable S2 = FT2-CT2 (always positive) with
suitable allowances and factor of safety so that hot spot must not remain in casted part. It should be in respective
feeder. FT= maximum feeder temperature for respective zone, CT= maximum casting temperature of catchment.
Following are the graphs as a result of optimization. Figure1 is showing the temperature according to cooling. It
can be seen that higher temperature are with feeders as compare to casing. This assures that the shrinkage
porosity will be in feeders only.

Figure 1: Dumbbell shape casting with optimized feeders

Fig. 1 is showing the temperature variation on the central plane of Casting and Feedeers.

Figure 2: At centre plane of dumbbell shape casting with optimized feeders

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Figure 3: Feeder 01 Temperature remained higher than corresponding casting zone 01 temperature during entire
optimization process.

Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 are showing that maximum temperature of Feeder remained higher than respective casting zone
temperature.

Figure 4: Feeder 02 temperatures remained higher than corresponding casting zone 02 temperature during entire
optimization process.

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Figure 5: Feeder and corresponding casting deference during entire optimization process
Fig. 5 is showing drop of deference of feeder and casting temperature.

Figure 6: Volume of feeder 01 during entire optimization process

Fig. 6 and fig. 7 are showing drop of volume of feeder 1 and feeder 2 respectively.

Figure 7: Volume of feeder 02 during entire optimization process

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Figure 8: Height of feeder 01 during entire optimization process

Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 are showing the drop of feeder height during optimization process.

Figure 9: Height of feeder 02 during entire optimization process

Fig. 10 is showing the inverse of feeder yield which is continuously drop during optimization. Here objective is
to achieve higher feeder yield.

Figure 10: Inverse of feeder yield during entire optimization process

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V. CONCLUSION
Feeder yield obtained comes out from modulus method is equal to = 51.77 %. Feeder yield obtained
comes out from feeder optimizer is equal to = 86.88 %. So net advantage gained by ANSYS 12.0 design
optimizer is 35 %. Optimization on ANSYS works better for small castings. Importing IGES file, Modeling,
Meshing, in ANSYS may put forth produce problems for complicated complex shapes. After optimization of
feeder design, the suggested value can be checked by animation on the center plane and temperature contour can
be plot at every time step. Two feeder design optimization can be performed on ANSYS 12 which is low priced
general purpose FEM based software. ANSYS optimizer can produce precise feeder design as compare to
modulus approach for design of feeder but optimization process on ANSYS requires more time and skill
relatively.

VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the Bhagwant University for providing the support & facility and Dr Joshi, Prof. in
Mechanical Engineering, SGSITS, Indore for useful technical suggestions.

REFERENCES
[1] Ravi B., Metal Casting -computer aided design and analysis PHI, 2005.
[2] Jain R.K., Production Technology, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 15 th Edition Auguest,1995
[3] Qin Rongshan, Workshop: Heat management, Lecturer 7, Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology,
POSTECH computational metallurgy laboratory Korea, lecturer notes, seen on web in dec., 2008.
[4] Rao S.S., Optimization; Theory and Application, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1975.
[5] ANSYS help - Thermal Tutorial, First order optimization, ANSYS Inc.
[6] http://www.mece.ualberta.ca/Tutorials/ANSYS
[7] Joshi Durgesh and Ravi B., comparison of finite element method and vector element method for casting
solidification simulation, Indian Foundry Journal,22-23. vol. 54 no.9 September. 22-23, 2008, PP. 21-27.
[8] Venkatesan A., Rajadurai A., Effect of Air-Gap on Casting Solidification, American Foundary Society,
2006, PP.191-199.
[9] Ravi B. and Srinivasan M.N., casting solidification analysis by modulus vector method, International
Journal of Cast Metals Res., 1996, PP.1-7.
[10] Tavakoli R. And Davami P., Optimal riser design in sand casting process with evolutionary topology
optimization, Struct multidisc optim, accepted on 8 June 2008, DOI 10.1007/s00158-008-0282-z,Springer
– Verlag, 2008, PP. 1-10.
[11] Tavakoli Rohalla and Davami Parviz , Optimal riser design in sand casting by topology optimization with
SIMP method I : Poisson approximation of nonlinear heat transfer, equation, Struct multidisc optim ,
accepted on 29 October 2007, Springer – Verlag.2008, PP. 193-202.
[12] Elizabeth Jacob , Roschen Sasikumar , B. Praveen and V. Gopalakrishna , Intelligent design of feeders
for castings by augmenting CAD with genetic algorithms, Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing , 15,
2004, PP.299-305.
[13] P. Prabhakara Rao, G.Chakraverthi, A.C.S. Kumar, G. Srinivasa Rao, Modeling and Simulation of
Solidification in Alloy Steel Sand Castings, International Journal of Thermal Technologies, Vol.1, No.1
Dec. 2011, PP.121-127.
[14] T. Nandi, R. Behera, A. Chanda and G. Sutradhar, Study on Solidification Behaviour of LM6 Castings by
Using Computer -Aided Simulation Software, Indian Foundry Journal, Vol. 57,No. 3, March 2011,
PP.44-49.
[15] Behera Rabindra, Kayal.S, Sutradhar. G, Solidification behavior and detection of Hotspots in Aluminium
Alloy castings: Computer Aided Analysis and experimental validation, International Journal of Applied
Engineering Research, Dindigul, Volume 1, No 4, 2011,PP.715-726 .
[16] Belmira Neto, Carolien Kroeze, Leen Hordijk, Carlos Costad, Modelling the environmental impact of an
aluminium pressure die casting plant and options for control, Environmental Modeling & Software,
Volume 23, Issue 2, February 2008, PP.147–168

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-322-329
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Performance and Emission Analysis of Diesel Engine Using Fish

Oil And Biodiesel Blends With Isobutanol As An Additive
S. Kiran Kumar
Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering Bule hora university, Ethiopia

Abstract: - Biodiesel with fuel additives has been gaining increased attention from engine researchers in view
of the energy crisis and increasing environmental problems. The present work is aimed at experimental
investigation of Isobutanol as an additive to the diesel- biodiesel blends. Experiments were done on a 4-Stroke
single cylinder diesel engine by varying percentage by volume of isobutanol in diesel-biodiesel blends. The
effect of isobutanol on brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption, cylinder pressure, heat release
and exhaust emissions were studied. It was found that brake thermal efficiency is Increased with increase in
blend percentage both with 5% and 10% isobutanol. Addition of isobutanol shows negative impact on Brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC) which decreased with blend percentage while it increases with isobutanol
percentage.CO emissions and smoke capacity decreased significantly while NOx emissions decreased marginally
with the increase in isobutanol percentage.

Keywords: - Combustion characteristics, Diesel-Biodiesel blends, Isobutanol, Performance.

I. INTRODUCTION
Researchers have used different additives to petrol and diesel fuels for efficiency and emission
improvement. The addition of alcohol based fuels to petroleum fuels has been increasing due to advantages like
better combustion and lower exhaust emissions. Oxygenates like ethanol, I-propanol, I-butanol and I-pentanol
improved performance parameters and reduced exhaust emissions [1, 2]. Gasoline-ethanol blends with additives
such as cyclooctanol, cycloheptanol increased brake thermal efficiency when compared to gasoline with
reduction in CO,CO2 and NOx while HC and O2 increased moderately[3]. Gasoline with additives like ethanol
and ethanol-isobutanol increased the brake power, volumetric and brake thermal efficiencies and fuel
consumption. The CO and HC concentrations in the engine exhaust decreased while the NOx concentration
increased. The addition of 5% isobutanol and 10% ethanol to gasoline gave the best results[4]. Bio-additives
(matter extracted from palm oil) as gasoline additives at various percentages (0.2%, 0.4% and 0.6%) showed
improvement in fuel economy and exhaust emissions of SI engine[5]. Methyl-ester of Jatropha oil diesel blends
with Multi-DM-32 diesel additive showed comparable efficiencies, lower smoke, CO2 and CO [6]. The addition
of Di Methyl Carbonate (DMC) to diesel fuel increases efficiency marginally with reductions in NOx emissions
while PM and soot emissions were reduced considerably [7,8]. Biodiesel with Di Ethyl Ether in a naturally
aspirated and turbocharged, high-pressure, common rail diesel engine reduced NOx emissions with slight
improvement in brake thermal efficiency [9,10]. Ethanol addition to diesel-biodiesel blends increased brake
thermal efficiency with reduction in carbon monoxide and smoke emissions and at the same time hydrocarbons,
oxides of nitrogen and carbon dioxide emissions increased [11]. Some researchers have used cetane improvers
and some others have used additives in coated engines. Biodiesel blended fuel, and a cetane improving additive
(2-EHN) reduced PM emissions [12]. Addition of di-1-butyl peroxide and the conventional cetane improver, 2-
ethylhexyl nitrate additives to diesel fuel reduced all regulated and unregulated emissions including NOx
emissions [13].
Present work attempts to investigate performance, combustion and emission characteristics of diesel
engine with Isobutanol as an additive to the diesel-biodiesel blends. Isobutanol has higher energy density and
lower Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) which make it as a suitable additive for diesel-biodiesel blends. The
properties of Isobutanol are shown in Table.1.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Table.1 Isobutanol properties
Property Range
Flash Point, Tag Open Cup, °C 37.7
Specific Gravity, 20/20°C 0.8030
Viscosity at 20°C (Centipoise) 3.95
Auto ignition Temperature, °C 440
Surface Tension at 20°C(dynes/cm) 22.94

Heat of Combustion, Kj/kg 36162

II. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND PROCEDURE

2.1 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
The engine shown in plate. 2.1 is a 4 stroke, vertical, single cylinder, water cooled and constant speed
diesel engine which is coupled to rope brake drum arrangement to absorb the power produced. The engine crank
started. Necessary dead weights and spring balance are included to apply load on brake drum. Suitable cooling
water arrangement for the brake drum is provided. Separate cooling water lines fitted with temperature
measuring thermocouples are provided for engine cooling. A measuring system for fuel consumption consisting
of a fuel tank, burette, and a 3- way cock mounted on stand and stop watch are provided. Air intake is measured
using an air tank fitted with an orifice meter and a water U- tube differential manometer. Also digital
temperature indicator with selector switch for temperature measurement and a digital rpm indicator for speed
measurement are provided on the panel board. A governor is provided to maintain the constant speed.

Plate 2.1 Diesel Engine Test Rig

Table 2 Specifications of the Test Engine

Specifications of the Test Engine
Particulars Specifications
Make Kirloskar
Rated Power 3.7 kw(5hp)
Bore 80 mm
Stroke Length 110 mm
Swept volume 562 cc
Compression ratio 16.5:1 Compression ratio 16.5:1

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2.2 TEST FUELS
For experimental investigations, biodiesel derived from fish oil was mixed with diesel in varying
proportions 10%, 20% and 30% by volume and isobutanol as an additive was added as 5% and 10% by volume
respectively to all the blends.

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Calculate full load (W) that can be applied on the engine from the engine specifications. Clean the fuel
filter and remove the air lock. Check for fuel, lubricating oil and cooling water supply. Start the engine using
decompression lever ensuring that no load on the engine and supply the cooling water allow the engine for 10
minutes on no load to get stabilization. Note down the total dead weight, spring balance reading, time taken for
20cc of fuel consumption and the manometer readings. Repeat the above step for different loads up to full load.
Connect the exhaust pipe to the smoke meter and exhaust gas analyzer and corresponding readings are tabulated.
Allow the engine to stabilize on every load change and then take the readings. Before stopping the engine
remove the loads and make the engine stabilized Stop the engine pulling the governor lever towards the engine
cranking side. Check that there is no load on engine while stopping.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS USING OPTIMUM BLEND WITH IGNITION IMPROVER
The experiments are conducted on the four stroke single cylinder water cooled diesel engine at constant
speed (1500 rpm) with varying loads. Various performance parameters such as, The variation of Brake Thermal
efficiency with Brake Power is shown in Fig. 3.1From the plot it is observed as the BP increases there is
considerable increase in the BTE. The BTE of diesel at full load is 32.82% while the blends of F30 is 34.01%,
B30D69.5I5 is 35.14%, B30D69I10 is 34.01%, among the three the maximum BTE is 35.14% which is obtained
for B30D69.5I5. The increment in brake thermal efficiency due to better combustion because of adding ignition
improver it effects to decrease the viscosity. The variation of Mechanical efficiency with Brake Power is shown
in Fig. 3.2. From the plot it is observed optimum blend and various blends like F300D69.5I5, B30D69I10
slightly increases at full load conditions. The variation of volumetric efficiency with Brake Power is shown in
Fig. 3.3. From the plot it is observed optimum blend contains 75.95% at full load condition, but in case of after
adding the ignition improver blends slightly variation at compared to optimum blends. The variation of Brake
Specific Fuel Consumption with Brake Power is shown in Fig. 3.4. The plot it is observed that as the load
increases the fuel consumption decreases, the minimum fuel consumption is for F30D69I10 is 0.25 as to that of
F30 is 0.258. The BSFC of after adding ignition improver of Bio-diesel is slightly increases as compared with
optimum blend (F30) at full load condition. The variation of Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption with Brake
Power is shown in Fig. 3.5. From the plot it is observed that F30D69.5I5 line varies similar with the optimum
blend, The ISFC of after adding ignition improver of Bio-diesel is increases slightly as compared with optimal
blend at full load condition. The variation of Air-Fuel Ratio with Brake Power is shown in Fig. 3.6. From the
plot it is observed that decreases compare with optimum blend at full load condition of F30D69.5I5. As load
increases more power is to be developed by the engine to compensate the load. The only way to increase the
more power development is to inject the more amount of fuel into the cylinder which tends to reduce the air fuel
ratio.
40

35

30

25
BTE (%)

20

15

10 D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
5 F30D69IB1
F30
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)
Fig. 3.1 Variation of Brake Thermal Efficiency with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver

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80

Mechanical Efficiency(%)
60

40

20 D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
F30D69IB1
F30
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)

Fig. 3.2 Variation of Mechanical Efficiency with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver

100

90
Volumetric Efficiency(%)

80

70

D100
60
F30D69.5IB0.5
F30D69IB1
F30
50
0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)
Fig. 3.3 Variation of Volumetric Efficiency with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver
0.55
D100
0.50 F30D69.5IB0.5
F30D69IB1
F30
0.45
BSFC (Kg/kW-hr)

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)

Fig. 3.4 Variation of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver

D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
0.4
F30D69IB1
F30
ISFC (Kg/kW-hr)

0.3

0.2

0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)

Fig. 3.5 Variation of Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver

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70 D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
F30D69IB1
60 F30

50

A/F Ratio
40

30

20

0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)
Fig. 3.6 Variation of Air Fuel Ratio with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver

3.2 EMISSION ANALYSIS USING OPTIMUM BLEND WITH IGNITION IMPROVER

The experiments are conducted on the four stroke single cylinder water cooled diesel engine at constant
speed (1500 rpm) with varying loads. Various emission parameters in the sense of, the variation of Smoke
density with Brake Power is shown in Fig. 3.7. The plot it is observed that the Smoke is nothing but solid soot
particles suspended in exhaust gas. Figure 12 shows the variation of smoke level with brake power at various
loads for different blends like F20, F30D69.5I5, and F30D69I10 tested fuels. It is observed that smoke is higher
for optimum blend at full load conditions compared to ignition improver blends. Better and optimum fuel air
mixture obtained for F30D69.5I5.The variation of CO emission with Brake Power is shown in Fig. 3.8. The plot
it is observed that is interesting to note that the engine emits more CO for diesel as compared to biodiesel blends
under all loading conditions. The CO concentration is decreases for the blends of F30D69.5I5 and F30D69I10
for all loading conditions. At lower biodiesel concentration, the oxygen present in the biodiesel aids for
complete combustion. However as the biodiesel concentration increases, the negative effect due to high
viscosity and small increase in specific gravity suppresses the complete combustion process, which produces
small amount of CO. The variation of CO emission with Brake Power is shown in Fig. 3.9. The plot it is
2
observed that the CO emission increased with increase in load for all blends. The lower percentage of biodiesel
2
blends emits less amount of CO in comparison with diesel. Blends F30D69.5I5 and F30D69I10 emit very low
2
emissions. Using higher content biodiesel blends, an increase in CO emission was noted, which is due to the
2
high amount of oxygen in the specified fuel blends which converting CO emission into CO 2 emission contents.
The variation of HC emission with Brake Power is shown in Fig. 3.10. The plot it is observed that the HC
emission variation for different blends is indicated. That the HC emission decreases with increase in load for
F30 and it is almost slightly decreases for adding ignition improver blends where some traces are seen at no load
and full load. The variation of NO emission with Brake Power is shown in Fig. 3.11.
x

90

80

70
Smoke Density

60

50

40

30 D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
20 F30D69IB1
F30
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)

Fig. 3.7 Variation of Smoke Density with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver.

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The plot it is observed that for different blends is indicated. The NO emission for all the fuels tested
x
followed an increasing trend with respect to load. The reason could be the higher average gas temperature,
residence time at higher load conditions. A reduction in the emission for all getting after adding the ignition
improver blends as compared to optimum blend was noted. With increase in the fish oil content of the fuel,
corresponding reduction in emission was noted and the reduction was remarkable for F30D69.5I5 and
F30D69I10.The variation of unused oxygen emission with brake power is shown in Fig.3.12. From the plot
reveals that the as load increases the unused oxygen decreases. At full load condition the unused oxygen
obtained are 18.62%, 19.50%, 15.97% and 14.91% for the fuels of diesel, F30, F30D69.5I5 and F30D69I10
respectively. The decrement of unused oxygen is due to better combustion and CO emission converted into CO 2
emission.

0.14 D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
F30D69IB1
0.12 F30

0.10
CO (%)

0.08

0.06

0.04
0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)

Fig. 3.8 Variation of Carbon Monoxide with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver
12

10

8
CO2(%)

4
D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
F30D69IB1
2
F30

0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)

Fig. 3.9 Variation of Carbon Dioxide with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver
60

D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
F30D69IB1
40 HC
HC (ppm)

20

0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)

Fig. 3.10 Variation of Unburned Hydrocarbons with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver

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1400

1200

1000

800

NOx (ppm)
600

400
D100
F30D69.5IB0.5
200
F30D69IB1
F30
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)
Fig. 3.11 Variation of NOx Emissions with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver
30
F30
D100
27 F30D69.5IB0.5
F30D69IB1

24
O2(%)

21

18

15
0 1 2 3 4 5
BP (kW)
Fig. 3.12 Variation of Unused Oxygen with Brake Power Using Ignition Improver

IV. CONCLUSIONS
The test is conducted on the engine by taking the blend F30 along with the addition of ignition
improver isobutanol in the quantity of 5ml (F30D69.5I5) and 10ml (F30D69I10) at the same operating
conditions. Among these two compositions the one F30D69.5I5 has given the better performance in the
following parameters.
 Brake thermal efficiency is observed as the BP increases there is considerable increase in the BTE. The
BTE of diesel at full load is 32.82% while the blends of F30 is 34.08%, F30D69.5I5 is 35.14%, F30D69I10
is 34.01%, among the three the maximum BTE is 35.14% which is obtained for F30D69.5I5. The BTE of
fish oil is increases up to 0.364% and 0.823% as compared with to fuels of optimum blend and diesel at full
load condition.
 Brake specific fuel consumption is observed that as the load increases the fuel consumption decreases, the
minimum fuel consumption is for F30D69.5I5is 0.25 kg/kW-hr as to that of F30 is 0.258 kg/kW-hr at full
load condition.
 Smoke density is observed that smoke is higher for optimum blend at full load conditions compared to
ignition improver blends. At full load condition the smoke density obtained are 79.6 HSU, 61.34 HSU,
86.92 HSU and 86.69HSU HSU for the fuels of diesel, F30, F30D69.5I5 and F30D69I10. It is observed that
smoke is increases for fish oil blends at full load conditions as compared to optimum blend.
 Carbon monoxide is observed that is interesting to note that the engine emits more CO for diesel as
compared to fish oil blends under all loading conditions. The CO concentration is increases for the blends
of F30D69.I5 and same as the diesel for F30D69I10. At full load condition the CO emission obtained are
0.05%, 0.09%, 0.06% and 0.05% for the fuels of diesel, F30, F30D69.5I5 and F30D69I10 respectively.
 Unburned hydrocarbons are observed that the HC emission variation for different blends is indicated. At
full load condition the unburned hydrocarbons are obtained 58ppm, 8ppm, 15ppm and 24ppm for the fuels
of diesel, F30, F30D69.I5 and F30D69I10 respectively. The unburned hydrocarbons of after adding ignition
improver of Fish oil decreases up to 24.44% as compared to diesel at full load condition.

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 The NO emission for all the fuels tested followed a decreasing trend with respect to load. At full load
x
condition the NOx emissions obtained are 1236ppm, 1044ppm, 769ppm and 619ppm for the fuels of diesel,
F30, F30D69.I5 and F30D69I10 respectively.

REFERENCES
[1] M. Mani , C. Subash , G. Nagarajan, “Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics of a DI
Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Oil”, Applied Thermal Engineering , Vol. 29 ,2009, pp 2738–2744.
[2] Jagannath Balasaheb Hirkude a, Atul S. Padalkar “Performance and emission analysis of a compression
ignition Engine operated on waste fried oil methyl esters”, Applied Energy, Vol.90, 2012,pp 68–72.
[3] Sharanappa Godiganur b,, C.H. Suryanarayana Murthy c, Rana Prathap Reddy, “Cummins engine
performance and emission tests using methyl ester mahua (Madhuca indica) oil/diesel blends” ,
Renewable Energy ,Vol.34, 2009,pp 2172–2177
[4] Sharanappa Godiganur a,, Ch. Suryanarayana Murthy b, Rana Prathap Reddy, “Performance and
emission characteristics of a Kirloskar HA394 diesel engine operated on fish oil methyl esters”,
Renewable Energy,Vol.35, 2010,pp 355–359
[5] N.R. Banapurmath a,, P.G. Tewari a, V.S. Yaliwal b, Satish Kambalimath c, Y.H Basavarajappa, “
Combustion characteristics of a 4-stroke CI engine operated on Honge oil, Neem and Rice Bran oils
when directly injected and dual fuelled with producer gas induction”, Renewable Energy, Vol.34, 2009,
pp1877–1884
[6] Hary Sulistyo, Suprihastuti S. Rahayu, Gatot Winoto, I M. Suardjaja, “Biodiesel Production from High
Iodine Number Candlenut Oil”, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology.vol.no 48,
2008
[7] Xiaohu Fan, Rachel Burton and Greg Austic, “Preparation and Characterization of Biodiesel Produced
from Recycled Canola Oil” ,The Open Fuels & Energy Science Journal, Vol.2,2008,pp113-118
[8] S. Murugana, M.C. Ramaswamya and G. Nagarajan. “The use of tyre pyrolysis oil in diesel engines”,
Vol. 28, 2008, pp 2743-2749
[9] G Lakshmi Narayana Rao, S Sampath, K Rajagopal, “Experimental Studies on the Combustion and
Emission Characteristics of a Diesel EngineFuelled with Used Cooking Oil Methyl Ester and its Diesel
Blends”, International Journal of Applied Science, Engineering and Technology vol no 4;1 2008
[10] Dennis Y.C. Leung , Xuan Wu, M.K.H. Leung ,“A review on biodiesel production using catalyzed
transesterification”, Applied Energy vol no:87 2010,pp.1083–1095

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-330-337
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

UNIVERSE IS LIKE SPACE SHIP

M.Arulmani, V.R.Hema Latha
B.E. (Engineer) (A New Theory on J-Hook and Anchor)
M.A., M.Sc., M.Phil.(Biologist)

Abstract: - A scientific research in this article focus that the whole Cosmo Universe shall be considered as a
“SPACE SHIP”. The Space Ship shall be considered as ANCHORED to the base of universe with three-in-one
space elements SUN, EARTH, MOON for its stability and symmetry. Further the Anchor of Universe shall be
considered fastened to the “J-Hook” through strong THREAD consists of three core or strand for its “Centre of
Buoyancy”.
The Space Ship shall be considered as a suspending pendulum. The base of the pendulum considered like
Anchor which is fastened to J-Hook through a cable of three core and in “Standstill State”.
The human populations, life organisms spread all over the EARTH shall be considered as Passengers.
Other space objects such as Planets, Comets, Asteroids, Matters, Molecules having definite mass shall be
considered as CARGO existing in the Upper Deck of Human Passengers and other life organisms.
The “J-Hook” shall be considered as having infinity energy level and any weight added to the base of
space ship during the course of expanding universe shall not affect the centre of buoyancy of ship and the ship
shall be considered as highly stable for ever (Highly Anchored) and become standstill.

Keywords: -
1) Philosophy of Absolute Symmetry. 6) Philosophy of Giza Pyramids.
2) Philosophy of J-Hook. 7) Philosophy of Pure Science.
3) Philosophy of Anchor. 8) Philosophy of Space Ship.
4) Philosophy of centre of Buoyancy 9) Philosophy of Three core Thread
5) Philosophy of Noah’s Ark. 10) Philosophy of J-Radiation.

I. INTRODUCTION
This article focus that the space ship was highly stable in Prehistoric time and the centre of buoyancy of
ship was well managed by proper aligning of Anchoring, when “Tamil based Indians” lived in “MARS” in
Prehistoric time.
It is speculated that during the course of expanding universe the Prehistoric populations have been
completely extinct at one stage and all the Prehistoric super high technology of “Space Management” might be
completely destroyed (or) lost.
It is speculated that in modern time there is slight asymmetry in the Anchored base of universe due to
asymmetry in relative position of SUN, EARTH, MOON and thereby the centre of buoyancy of ship might be
slightly dislocated and there by the ship gets “WOBBLED”.
It is speculated that he severe earth quake, unexpected cyclone, volcanic activity, unexpected sudden forest fire,
severe atmospheric temperature rise etc might be due to dislocation of centre of buoyancy of the space ship.

II. PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS

The philosophy of origin of first life and human, the philosophy of model Cosmo Universe, the philosophy of
fundamental neutrino particles have already been published in various international journals mentioned below.
Hence this article shall be considered as extended version of the previous articles already published by the same
author.
[2] Cosmo Super Star – IJSRP, April issue, 2013
[3] Super Scientist of Climate control – IJSER, May issue, 2013
[4] AKKIE MARS CODE – IJSER, June issue, 2013

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
[5] KARITHIRI (Dark flame) The Centromere of Cosmo Universe – IJIRD, May issue, 2013
[6] MA-AYYAN of MARS – IJIRD, June issue, 2013
[7] MARS TRIBE – IJSER, June issue, 2013
[8] MARS MATHEMATICS – IJERD, June issue, 2013
[9] MARS (EZHEM) The mother of All Planets – IJSER, June issue, 2013
[10] The Mystery of Crop Circle – IJOART, May issue, 2013
[11] Origin of First Language – IJIRD, June issue, 2013
[12] MARS TRISOMY HUMAN – IJOART, June issue, 2013
[13] MARS ANGEL – IJSTR, June issue, 2013
[14] Three principles of Akkie Management (AJIBM, August issue, 2013)
[15] Prehistoric Triphthong Alphabet (IJIRD, July issue, 2013)
[16] Prehistoric Akkie Music (IJST, July issue, 2013)
[17] Barack Obama is Tamil Based Indian? (IJSER, August issue, 2013)
[18] Philosophy of MARS Radiation (IJSER, August 2013)
[19] Etymology of word “J” (IJSER, September 2013)
[20] NOAH is Dravidian? (IJOART, August 2013)
[21] Philosophy of Dark Cell (Soul)? (IJSER, September 2013)
[22] Darwin Sir is Wrong?! (IJSER, October issue, 2013)
[23] Prehistoric Pyramids are RF Antenna?!... (IJSER, October issue, 2013)
[24] HUMAN IS A ROAM FREE CELL PHONE?!... (IJIRD, September issue, 2013)
[25] NEUTRINOS EXIST IN EARTH ATMOSPHERE?!... (Under peer review)
[26] EARLY UNIVERSE WAS HIGHLY FROZEN?!... (Under peer review)

III. HYPOTHESIS
1. The whole Cosmo Universe shall be considered as a “SPACE SHIP”. The base of ship is strongly anchored
with star/Delta structure. The centre of Star Point of base of ship is considered connected to the far end in the
“UPPER SPACE” through a strong cable containing Three Core Cable.
2. The SUN, EARTH, MOON shall be considered as Three-in-one Anchor having electromechanically actuated
deriving Electric power through three core cable from J-Hook point. J-Hook point shall be considered as the
source of “Energy transfer” for actuation of electro mechanical Anchor.

(i)

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
( ANCHOR )
(iv)

( MODEL COSMO UNIVERSE )

Region I – Perfect vacuum region (Anti-Neutrinos radiation)
Region II – Partial vacuum region (Neutrinos radiation)
Region III – Observable Vacuum region (EMR radiation)

3. The required electric energy shall be considered derived form the source of Three-in-one fundamental
Neutrinos existing in the Upper region of Universe (Region-II). J-Hook shall be considered as the “Energy
converter” (i.e) the three core cable shall be considered as the “WAVE GUIDE” for transmitting the electric
energy in the form of Electro Magnetic Radiation. The electromagnetic radiation shall be considered as having
transmitted through wave guides in the form of Optic, Electric, Magnetic component and travels in the absolute
speed of Light (i.e) 3x108 meter/sec. Further it is focused that the wave guide link shall be considered as strong
chain link connecting both J-Hook and star point of Anchor. The Anchor shall be considered containing inbuilt
“Antenna” for converting electromagnetic radiation wave into Electric energy required for actuating Armature
of Anchor for revolving and exact positioning of SUN, EARTH, MOON on their axis.

(ANCHOR ARMATURE)

IV. HYPOTHETICAL NARRATIONS

(a) Philosophy of J-Hook?
The J-Hook shall be considered as the point which is strongly fastened to the Cosmo origin point. In
other words the J-Hook shall be considered as of strong GRAVITY BINDING with Cosmo origin. The Cosmo
origin shall be considered as Highly “frozen” origin having very low temperature level or thousands of degree
below the level of “Absolute Zero” point.

The philosophy of “J-Hook” shall be defined within the following scope.

1. J-Hook shall be considered as the point of bearing the Heavy load of entire material universe through
“Neutrino thread” (3 core cable).

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
2. ”J-Hook” shall be considered as the source of energy which transforms the energy from the fundamental
Neutrinos Photon, Electron, Proton (Also called as God Particles) into Electromagnetic radiation (EMR).
3. ”J-Hook” shall be considered as the point where the light travels at absolute speed of 3x108 meter/sec.
4. “J-Hook” shall be considered as the point where the temperature of universe is maintained at “absolute Zero”.
5. “J-Hook” shall be considered as the point where Prehistoric human (Star human) lived with super wisdom
and with different genetic structure.
6. “J-Hook” shall be considered as the divine mechanism for executing the “law of super nature” (i.e) regulating
the Arms of Anchor of material universe.
7. “J-Hook” shall be considered as the symbol of Absolute symmetry and confidence.

“The philosophy of “JACK” might be derived from the philosophy of “J-Hook”.”

-Author
(b) Philosophy of Akkie?
The “Akkie” shall be considered as the Three-in-one Electromagnetic radiating source forming the base
of whole Cosmo Universe. The Akkie shall be considered three-in-one “Mega star” of universe. The mega star
shall also be called as “MAGI”. The Prehistoric Tamil word MAGI shall mean “Cosmo Super Star”
(MA+Akkie). Alternatively called as J+.

“Cosmo Super Star shall be considered as the CARGO of the Space Ship.”
-Author The philosophy of MAGI shall be defined within the following scope.
1. ”Magi” shall be considered as the “Electromagnetic base” of Cosmo Universe.
2. ”Magi” shall be considered as three-in-one existence of SUN, EARTH, MOON connected in Star/Delta
configuration.
3) ”Magi” shall be considered as located in the Region-III of universe where light can travel maximum at the
speed of 3.0 x 108 m/sec. In other words in Magi region the light can’t travel more than the speed of 3 x 108
m/sec.
4) “Magi” shall be considered as the “three-in-one inbuilt arms” having characteristics of Optic, Electric
magnetic property and the relative position of each arm shall be remote monitored and controlled by “J-Hook”.
5) “Magi” shall be considered as the divine mechanism revolving on its axis at star/delta configuration
connected to “master control” unit of “J-Hook” for precise positional control of Arms of Magi for precise
control of center of buoyancy of Cosmo space ship

( ANCHOR BASE )

“The philosophy of “Anchor” might be derived from the philosophy of “MAGI” (ma-akkie).- Author

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
(c) Philosophy of Absolute symmetry?
It is hypothesized that the philosophy of Absolute symmetry shall be considered as the Three-in-one
existence with angular displacement of 1200. It is hypothesise3d that the fundamental Neutrinos Photon,
Electron, Proton shall be considered as the super nature which make up the “Material Universe”. All other
particles such as Quarks, Muon, Electron, Tau, Supernova and other unknown particles shall be considered as
“species” to the fundamental Neutrinos. “J-Hook” shall be considered as the located in Neutrino radiation
(Region-II).

( Fundamental Neutrino Oscillation )

Further the fundamental Neutrinos shall be considered symmetrically displaced by 120 0 and have
“SUSTAINED OSCILLATION”. The existence of sustained Neutrinos oscillation shall be considered as
responsible for the existence of three fundamental property Optic, Electric, Magnetic of Universe.

(d) Philosophy of NOAH’S ARK?...

It is hypothesized that the NOAH Origin (as evidenced from Biblical study) shall be considered as the
2nd generation of Human populations who started living on EARTH at much later period with different genetic
structure. The first generation of human populations shall be considered as prehistoric human lived in MARS
Planet and expert in Astrophysics, Astronomy.
Further it is focused that the “NOAH’S Ark” shall be considered as “IMAGE” of “Cosmo Space Ship”.
In other words NOAH might have constructed the “ARK” based on the philosophy of Cosmo Space ship
considering the relative position of SUN, EARTH, MOON and the Centro mere point of “J-Hook”. “The Noah’s
Ark shall be considered as “ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIP” with super scientific technology rather than
Mechanical type ship built by Modern scientists”.

(e) Philosophy of Giza Great Pyramids?

It is hypothesized that the Great Pyramid and three associated Pyramids located along the same axial
route shall be considered as the local energy transfer centre. In other words the Great Pyramid shall be
considered as the Master energy transforming source (Master local Antenna) and the three other Pyramids shall
be considered as Three-in-one “Armature” for controlling the relative position of Sun, Earth, Moon on its axis.
In Prehistoric time the existence of MON OLYMPUS Pyramid located in MARS shall be considered as the J-
Hook point of material Universe. The Sun, Earth, Moon shall be considered as the TRINITY Pole of Universe.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

(TRIPOLE UNIVERSE)

“The Giza Great Pyramids shall be considered as the Energy transfer and local control units of the “Cosmo
space ship” rather than “Memorial of Paraoah” of Egypt”. -Author

(f) Characteristics of fundamental Neutrinos?

It is hypothesized that the three fundamental Neutrinos shall be considered as responsible for make up
of whole Universe. Further the three Neutrinos shall be considered as having Optic, Electric, Magnetic Property
which be considered as fundamental characteristics responsible for existence of Universe.

“No Fundamental Neutrinos shall mean N

No existence of Universe”. - Author

(a) “J” Neutrino --- Proton (Magnetic)

(b) “K” Neutrino --- Electron (Electric)
(c) “A” Neutrino --- Photon (Optic)

(g) Etymology of word Jack?...

It is hypothesized that the word Jack might be derived from the Prehistoric Tamil phonetics “CHEI”, “CHISU”

“CHEI, CHISU SHALL MEAN “INFANT”;

INFANT SHALL mean EARLY UNIVERSE.” - Author

It is speculated that in the early Universe the fundamental Neutrinos right have been evolved at one stage. The
fundamental Neutrinos might have been called as “JAK” (Pronounced as JACK) JAK shall mean “three-in-one”
fundamental Neutrinos (Minute Particles). The three Particles shall also be called as “TAMIL NEUTRINOS”.
The three fundamental Neutrinos shall be considered as having “Zero mass” but having definite charge property.
The fundamental neutrinos shall also be called as JAK (God Particles).
(a) Proton Neutrino -- “J” (+ve polarity)
(b) Electron Neutrino -- “K” (-ve polarity)
(c) Photon Neutrino -- “A” (Neutral polarity)

(h) History of word “Jack”?...

The word Jack is believed to have originated from Hebrew origin pronounced as “JAK”. JAK in
Hebrew shall mean “God is gracious”. Further the word Jack (JAK) is normally referred to applied to Male
gender, Boy.
In English language slang “you don’t know Jack” means “you don’t know anything “Jack” in this situation.
Further American President John F.Kennedy was more well known as “JACK”. Case study shows that
American actors Jack Nicholson, Jack Palance and Jack Lemmon are famous bearers of the name.
In Fiction, Literature, Music, Comics, Nursery rhymes, Video games also the word Jack has wide meanings and
being applied. Further another way the word “Jack-s th” is used to denote a smaller version of something (ie) the
word Jack-s th shall mean things of “SMALLER THAN THE NORMAL SIZE”.
e.g. “Jack-bowl, Jack-brick, Jack-fish”
Further the word “Union JACK” shall mean “Redeem myself”. Jack flag culture are small flags such as
British Jack, French Jack, Dutch Jack used as ship signals to identify the nationality of the ship. In British use
the Jack has been since 17th centenary.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
(i) Philosophy of word “JACK”?...
It is hypothesized that the word “JACK” is more associated with Astrophysics, Astronomy meaning
“MINUTE PARTICLES” rather than name of Person in human culture. The word Jack shall mean Dark
Particles, Dark matter (“J-Akkie”) “J-Akkie shall mean fundamental Neutrinos”.

“JACK (JAK) shall alternatively means fundamental neutrinos (God Particles)” -Auhor

(j) Philosophy of pure science?

It is hypothesized that the philosophy of Pure science shall be considered as the Region-II of Universe
where the Particles exist with Zero mass. The fundamental Neutrinos shall be considered as “God Particles”
having Zero mass “J”-RADIATION shall be considered as the effect of God particles and the Region of Pure
Science (also called as origin of Super science). The three branches Physical, Chemical, Mathematical science
shall be considered as species to pure science. Further Pure science is the region where particles travel faster
than speed of “Light”.

“EMR shall be considered as species to J-Radiation” -Author

( J - The Pure Science )

(k) J-Radiation is matter?!...

It is hypothesized that J-Radiation shall be considered as the fundamental matter composed of particles
having Zero mass. The three state of existence of matter solid, liquid, vapour shall be considered as species to J-
Radiation and composed of particles having higher mass.

“The Existence of Matter in various form shall be due to Existence of EMR Particles in various angles.”
-Author

(l) Philosophy of evolution?!... Expanding Universe?!...

The process of evolution (or) Expanding Universe shall be considered as the continuous process when
the Fundamental particles of Universe gaining mass under various environmental conditions (i.e) UV, visible,
IR state.

“Evolution shall mean increase in Cell, Atom mass to the fundamental Cell and Atom.” -Author

(m) “J-Hook” is Super symmetric Balance?

J-Hook shall be considered as the living divine mechanism of super symmetry balance and weighs the
every form of matter and Energy with absolute accuracy level during the course of expanding Universe.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
“Anchor” shall be considered as the divine mechanism having exactly in line with (Tuned) to “J-Hook” to
maintain absolute centre of Buoyancy of “Cosmo Ship” for its stability and “everlasting Journey” towards the
path of PEACE.

(n) J-Radiation travels faster than speed of Light?!...

J-Radiation shall be considered as the most fundamental matter having particles of Zero mass and
travels faster than speed of Light.
“Dark Radiation (J-Radiation) shall be considered as upper region of Material Universe; EMR (White
Radiation) shall be considered as bottom region of Material Universe”.

V. CONCLUSION
J-Hook shall be considered as “SOUL” of every human, every matter existing in the Material Universe”. Anchor
shall be considered as stable life having absolute confidence. The whole Cosmo Universe shall be called as
HUGE SPACE SHIP rather than as “BUBBLE UNIVERSE”.

REFERENCE
[1] Intensive Internet “e-book” study through, Google search and wikipedia
[2] M.Arulmani, “3G Akkanna Man”, Annai Publications, Cholapuram, 2011
[3] M. Arulmani; V.R. Hemalatha, “Tamil the Law of Universe”, Annai Publications, Cholapuram, 2012
[4] Harold Koontz, Heinz Weihriah, “Essentials of management”, Tata McGraw-Hill publications, 2005
[5] M. Arulmani; V.R. Hemalatha, “First Music and First Music Alphabet”, Annai Publications,
Cholapuram, 2012
[6] King James Version, “Holy Bible”
[7] S.A. Perumal, “Human Evolution History”
[8] “English Dictionary”, Oxford Publications
[9] Sho. Devaneyapavanar, “Tamil first mother language”, Chennai, 2009
[10] Tamilannal, “Tholkoppiar”, Chennai, 2007
[11] “Tamil to English Dictionary”, Suravin Publication, 2009
[12] “Text Material for E5 to E6 upgradaton”, BSNL Publication, 2012
[13] A. Nakkiran, “Dravidian mother”, Chennai, 2007
[14] Dr. M. Karunanidhi, “Thirukkural Translation”, 2010
[15] “Manorama Tell me why periodicals”, M.M. Publication Ltd., Kottayam, 2009
[16] V.R. Hemalatha, “A Global level peace tourism to Veilankanni”, Annai Publications, Cholapuram, 2007
[17] Prof. Ganapathi Pillai, “Sri Lankan Tamil History”, 2004
[18] Dr. K.K. Pillai, “South Indian History”, 2006
[19] M. Varadharajan, “Language History”, Chennai, 2009
[20] Fr. Y.S. Yagoo, “Western Sun”, 2008
[21] Gopal Chettiar, “Adi Dravidian Origin History”, 2004
[22] M. Arulmani; V.R. Hemalatha, “Ezhem Nadu My Dream” - (2 Parts), Annai Publications, Cholapuram,
2010
[23] M. Arulmani; V.R. Hemalatha, “The Super Scientist of Climate Control”, Annai Publications,
Cholapuram, 2013, pp 1-3

M.Arulmani, B.E. (Engineer) V.R.Hema Latha, M.A., M.Sc., M.Phil.(Biologist)

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-338-343
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Entropy and Enthalpy variations with Acoustic parameters of

Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate
Jatinder Pal Singh, Rajesh Sharma
Department of Physics, Post-graduate government college sector-11, chandigarh, India

Abstract: - The ultrasonic velocity (U), density (ρ), viscosity (η) have been measured for Cholesteryl oleyl
carbonate at different temperatures. From the experimental data, , Free Volume (VF)), Internal Pressure (πi),
Relaxation time (τ), Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG), Absorption Coefficient () and Enthalpy (H), Entropy(S) have
been calculated.Entropy is a thermodynamic state property, its value depends only on the state of a system, not
on the history of the system. Therefore, to determine the change in entropy of a system from one state to
another, it is sufficient to evaluate the change for a reversible process between those two states; the change in
entropy for any other process connecting the same two states will be the same as the change for the reversible
process The properties have been used to discuss the presence of significant interactions between the component
molecules.

Keywords: - Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate, Ultrasonic Velocity, Enthalpy(H), Entropy(S),Gibbs Free Energy
(ΔG), Absorption Coefficient ()

I. INTRODUCTION
The study of intermolecular interaction plays an important role in the development of molecular
sciences. A large number of studies have been made on the molecular interaction in liquid systems by various
physical methods like Infrared [1,2], Raman effect [3,4], Nuclear Magnetic resonance, Dielectric constant[5],
ultra violet[6] and ultrasonic method [7,8]. Cholesterol (C46H80O3, MOL WT-681.14) is a steroid alcohol that is
essentially insoluble in aqueous solutions. Cholesterol can be esterified with a fatty acid to form cholesteryl
esters. The latter form discrete lipid droplets in cells, especially in cells of steroidogenic tissues, and in the lipid
core of low-density lipoproteins in the blood. Cholesterol is a fatty lipid sparingly insoluble in water but soluble
in a number of organic solvents. Cholesteric materials are temperature sensitive and have color changing ability
upon temperature.Not only emulsifying and humectant properties but also liquid crystal properties of cholesterol
and its derivatives (salts and esters) make them useful in the commercial applications of cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals. Measurement of Ultrasonic Velocity is generally made either by continuous wave method or
by pulse methods. In the present study, the ultrasonic velocity was measured using a multi ultrasonic
Interferometer (Mittal Enterprises Make) for the observation of ultrasonic velocity (C) and knowing the
frequency we can find out various parameters such as adiabatic compressibility, acoustic impedance and
temperature variation using temperature bath. The density at room temperature was measured using specific
gravity bottle and single pan microbalance. Acoustical parameters were calculated using the measure values of
velocity, density. The values of ultrasonic velocity, Free Volume (VF)), Internal Pressure (πi), Relaxation time
(τ), Gibbs Free Energy (G), Absorption Coefficient (),Enthalpy(H), Entropy(S),of cholesteryl oleyl carbonate
at different temperatures (303K to 323K) are given in Table 1. When a liquid freezes the mobile molecules of
the liquid phase are forced to assume fixed positions in the solid phase This will normally reduce the molecular
disorder of the system, so there will usually be an entropy decrease that accompanies freezing. Since entropy is
a thermodynamic state property, its value depends only on the state of a system, not on the history of the system.
Therefore, to determine the change in entropy of a system from one state to another, it is sufficient to evaluate
the change for a reversible process between those two states; the change in entropy for any other process
connecting the same two states will be the same as the change for the reversible process. At the transition
temperature, any transfer of heat between the system and its surroundings is reversible, because the two phases
in the system are in equilibrium.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
II. SOME FORMULAE OF THE PARAMETERS TO BE CALCULATED
Gibbs free energy is calculated from acoustic relaxation time () following Eyring rate process theory
[19]:
∆G= RT ln(KT /h)
Where K = 1.23x10-23 J/K, T is the temperature,  is the relaxation time, h = 6.626x10-34 Js (Planck’s
Constant) . Acoustic relaxation time (is calculated using the following relation:
 C2
Acoustical relaxation time indicates the the presence of interactions. The internal pressure is calculated from
the free volume concept on the basis of statistical thermodynamics as,
i = bRT [ K  / C]1/2 [ 2/3 / M7/6 ]

Absorption coefficient (α) is calculated from the following equation  = 2 C

[19] where ω=2πf , C is the ultrasonic velocity,  is viscosity,  is the density and M is the molecular weight
of the cholesteryl oleyl carbonate taken .The enthalpy (H) is calculated from the relation
H = i (Vf)
Entopy(S) is calculated from the relation G =H –T S

Fig 1:

Variation of Entopy with Temperature

-71.8

-72.0

-72.2

-72.4
B
Entropy(S)

-72.6

-72.8

-73.0

-73.2

-73.4

300 305 310 315 320 325

Temperature

Fig 2:
Variation of Enthalpy with temperature
0.95

0.90

0.85
Enthalpy(H)

0.80

0.75

0.70

300 305 310 315 320 325

Temperature

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013

Fig 3:
Variation of Absorption Co-eficient and
Enthalpy with temperature
2.0

1.9

1.8

1.7
Absorption coeficient,Enthalpy
1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3 B
C
1.2

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

300 305 310 315 320 325

Temperature

Table 1:
∆G
Abs. Temp C m/s  (relaxation time) i  Vf
303 1748 1.11E-09 2.20E+04 6.11E+05 1.275022155 1.17E-06
304 1568 1.17E-09 2.22E+04 5.95E+05 1.498288025 1.27E-06
305 1492 1.20E-09 2.24E+04 5.87E+05 1.611565767 1.33E-06
306 1504 1.19E-09 2.24E+04 5.88E+05 1.585643054 1.33E-06
307 1420 1.23E-09 2.26E+04 5.80E+05 1.727882688 1.40E-06
308 1456 1.21E-09 2.27E+04 5.84E+05 1.663199766 1.38E-06
309 1616 1.15E-09 2.26E+04 5.99E+05 1.420397546 1.28E-06
310 1624 1.14E-09 2.27E+04 6.00E+05 1.407639041 1.28E-06
311 1644 1.13E-09 2.27E+04 6.01E+05 1.379806776 1.28E-06
312 1660 1.13E-09 2.28E+04 6.03E+05 1.357724825 1.28E-06
313 1764 1.09E-09 2.28E+04 6.12E+05 1.237459938 1.23E-06
314 1548 1.16E-09 2.30E+04 5.92E+05 1.502899463 1.36E-06
315 1500 1.18E-09 2.32E+04 5.88E+05 1.573109748 1.40E-06
316 1524 1.17E-09 2.32E+04 5.90E+05 1.533663903 1.39E-06
317 1468 1.19E-09 2.33E+04 5.84E+05 1.619692135 1.44E-06
318 1444 1.20E-09 2.34E+04 5.82E+05 1.657627099 1.47E-06
319 1468 1.19E-09 2.35E+04 5.84E+05 1.614606747 1.46E-06
320 1416 1.20E-09 2.36E+04 5.79E+05 1.701693416 1.50E-06
321 1388 1.21E-09 2.37E+04 5.76E+05 1.750711048 1.53E-06
322 1368 1.22E-09 2.38E+04 5.74E+05 1.786463329 1.56E-06
323 1284 1.26E-09 2.40E+04 5.65E+05 1.961563587 1.65E-06

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Fig 4:
Variation of surface tension,viscosity,absorption coeficient with temperature

4.6
4.4
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
sigma,eta,alpha

3.0
2.8
2.6
B
2.4
2.2
C
2.0 D
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

300 305 310 315 320 325

Temperature

Table2:
Absolute C(m/s) Sigmax10-4() Eta()  k g/m3)
Temp(T)  H S
303 1748 4.53 2.510051 982.9000 7.13E-01 -7.20E+01
304 1568 3.84 2.124227 980.7000 7.57E-01 -7.24E+01
305 1492 3.55 1.964224 978.6000 7.81E-01 -7.26E+01
306 1504 3.58 1.975388 976.5000 7.84E-01 -7.26E+01
307 1420 3.28 1.807604 974.3000 8.10E-01 -7.28E+01
308 1456 3.40 1.87161 972.2000 8.04E-01 -7.27E+01
309 1616 3.97 2.180629 970.1000 7.67E-01 -7.24E+01
310 1624 3.99 2.188548 968.0000 7.69E-01 -7.23E+01
311 1644 4.06 2.220686 965.9000 7.69E-01 -7.23E+01
312 1660 4.11 2.244912 963.9000 7.70E-01 -7.23E+01
313 1764 4.49 2.449869 961.8000 7.51E-01 -7.21E+01
314 1548 3.68 2.006363 959.7000 8.06E-01 -7.26E+01
315 1500 3.51 1.906749 957.7000 8.23E-01 -7.27E+01
316 1524 3.58 1.94553 955.7000 8.21E-01 -7.26E+01
317 1468 3.38 1.832349 953.6000 8.41E-01 -7.28E+01
318 1444 3.29 1.781042 951.6000 8.53E-01 -7.29E+01
319 1468 3.36 1.818934 949.6000 8.50E-01 -7.28E+01
320 1416 3.18 1.71683 947.6000 8.70E-01 -7.29E+01
321 1388 3.08 1.660052 945.6000 8.84E-01 -7.30E+01
322 1368 3.01 1.618347 943.6000 8.95E-01 -7.31E+01
323 1284 2.73 1.466207 941.6000 9.29E-01 -7.33E+01

An increase of entropy can cause numerous side-effects: Changes of volume, form, phase,magnetism,etc.
Entropy decreses with temperature upto 307 K but there is maximum entropy at 313 K, which may point to BP
II and BP I [3] phase transitions.

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III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 represents the experimentally measured values of ultrasonic velocity(U) , Gibbs free
energy(ΔG), Classical Absorption Coefficient, Free Volume (VF) , ), Internal Pressure(πi), Relaxation time(τ),
at different temperatures. Table 2 represents the variation of Enthalpy(H), Entropy(S),surface
tension,viscosity,density. The excess values of relaxation time, internal pressure, and Gibbs free energy indicate
that the interaction between the molecules does not seem to vary very much in strength with changing
frequency. Hence, intermolecular interaction in the case of cholesteryl oleyl carbonate is large. However, with
rise in temperature increase in free volume and decrease in internal pressure are noticed.From the table (1)
Gibbs Free Energy, Classical Absorption Coefficient increases with the increase in temperature.Increase in
Gibbs’ free energy suggests shorter time for rearrangement of molecules. Relaxation time is the time taken for
the excitation energy to appear as translational energy. The above fact confirms the minimum interaction
between the molecules in cholesteryl oleyl carbonate . Viscous relaxation time and the Gibbs’ free energy both
decreases as temperature increases. As temperature increases, excitation energy increases and hence relaxation
time decreases. Further, since the kinetic energy of the molecule increases, longer time is taken for
rearrangement of molecules and this suggest a decrease in Gibbs’ free energy. Free volume is the average
volume in which the centre of a molecule can move due to the repulsion of the surrounding molecules. . This
suggests that there is a closed packing of molecules inside the shield. Such an increase in internal pressure
generally indicates association through hydrogen bonding and hence supports the present investigation. Figure 1
shows variation of entropy with temperature. From the graph it is observed that the entropy decreases with the
increasing value of temperature, but a clearly visible change of the temperature evolution occurs at 307 and 313
, which may point to BP II and BP I [3] phase transitions. Recently the stabilization of blue phases over a
temperature range of more than 60 K including room temperature (260–326 K) has been demonstrated [17,18] .
Highly chiral liquid crystals, on the other hand, may exhibit one or more blue phases (BP) as they are heated
from the helical phase to the isotropic phase. In addition, the blue phases possess a much higher viscosity than
either the helical or isotropic phase. In both cases, it is likely that the crystalline ordering of the blue phases is
responsible for giving these liquids properties which one usually associates with solids. The phase of a
thermotropic liquid crystal is temperature dependent. As temperature is varied, the conditions on the
translational and orientational order of the constituent molecules which produce the most energetically favorable
system may also change.

IV. CONCLUSION
The results obtained for the present study indicate that the thermodynamic parameters are sensitive to
the molecular interaction present in cholesteryl oleyl carbonate . From Ultrasonic velocity and related acoustical
parameters for cholesteryl oleyl carbonate at varying temperature, it is concluded that there exists a strong
molecular interaction due to hydrogen bonding.

REFERENCES
[1]. G.K. Johri, and R.C. Misra, Acustica, 67, 292 (1989).
[2]. A.Ali and A.K. Nain, PRAMANA-journal of Phys1cs, 58, No.4, 695 (2002).
[3] D.C. Wright and N.D. Mermin. “Crystalline liquids: the blue phases.” Rev. Mod. Phys. 66, 385 (1989).
[4] Mason W. P. (1965). Effect of Impurities and phonon processes on the ultrasonic attenuation of
Germanium, Crystal Quartz and Silicon. In Physical Acoustics IIIB. W. P. Mason (Ed.). Academic Press
Inc., New York, 235-285.
[5] Brugger, K. (1964). Thermodynamic definition of higher order elastic constants. Physical Review, 133.,
6., A1611-A1612.
[6] P.K. Yadawa, D. Singh, D.K. Pandey & R.R. Yadav, Elastic and acoustic properties of heavy rare-earth
metals., The Open Acoustics Journal, 2., 80-86, 2009.
[7] C. S. Priya, S. Nithya, G. Velraj, A.N. Kanappan, Molecular interactions studies in liquid mixtures using
ultrasonic technique, Int. J. Adv. Sci. and Tech, Vol. 18, 59-73, 2010.
[8] E. Freedman, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 1784, (1955).
[9] A.N. Kanappan and V. Rajendran, Indian J. Pure and Appl. Phys., 30, 176, (1992).
[10] V.K. Syal, Anita Chauhan and Suvarcha Chauhan, J.Pure. Appl. Ultrason., 27, pp. 61-69 (2005).
[11] Rajesh Sharma, Study of Dielectric and Ultrasonic Properties of Organic liquids and Liquid Crystals,
Ph.D. Thesis, directed by. Dr. G.K. Johri submitted to C.S.J.M. University, Kanpur, INDIA (2002).
[12] Deep Chandra Gupta, Study of the Structure of Non-spherical Polar Molecules and Their Properties,
Ph.D. Thesis, directed by. Dr. G.K. Johri submitted to C.S.J.M. University, Kanpur, INDIA (1998).
[13] Mathieu Legay, Nicolas Gondrexon, Stéphane Le Person, Primius Boldo, and André Bontemps,
Enhancement of Heat transfer by ultrasound: Review and recent advances, Int. J. Chem. Engg.,
Vol.2011, Article ID 670108.

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[14] M. Nabeel Rashin and J. Hemalatha, Acoustical study on the interaction of coconut oil based copper
oxide nanofluid, World Academy of Science, Engg. And Tech., Vol.64, 2012, pp. 201-205.
[15] S.Sh. Hosseini, Adam N.M. and Goudarzi K., Effect of temperature increasing on nanofluid structure,
Australian J. Basic and App. Sci. Vol. 5(9), 2011, pp.979-984.
[16] R.R. Yadav, A.K. Gupta, S.K. Kor, and S. Ram, Ultrasonic properties in Au nanoparticles reinforced
PVA
[17] S. Meiboom, J. P. Sethna, P. W. Anderson and W. F. Brinkman, “Theory of Blue Phase of Cholesteric
Liquid Crystals.” Phys. Rev. Lett. 46, 1216 (1981).
[18] P. P. Crooker ,(1989): “Plenary Lecture. The blue phases. A review of experiments.” Liquid Crystals, 5:3,
751-775 solution, Vol. 10. No. 4, 2007, pp. 398-401.
[19] Umadevi M.1, Kesavasamy R Thermodynamics and Transport Properties of Ester with Cyclohexane in
Pentanol at 303,.2 Umadevi et al. Int. J. Res. Chem. Environ. Vol.2 Issue 3 July 2012(157-163)

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-344-353
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

5G Wireless Communication Systems

Saddam Hossain
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, The People’s University of Bangladesh (PUB)
Bangladesh

Abstract: - As a subscriber becomes more aware of the mobile phone technology, he/she will seek for an
appropriate package all together, including all the advanced features of a cellular phone can have. Hence, the
search for new technology is always the main intention of the prime cell phone giants to out innovate their
competitors. In addition, the main purpose of the fifth generation wireless networks (5G Wireless networks) is
planned to design the best wireless world that is free from limitations and hindrance of the previous generations.
5G technologies will change the way most high bandwidth users access their Mobile Radio Communication
(MRC). So, this paper represents, great evolution of 1G (First Generation) to 4G yield 5G, introduction to 5G
technologies, why there is a need for 5G, advantages of 5G networks technology, exceptional applications,
Quality of Service (QoS), 5G network architecture-The MasterCore as well as hardware and software for the 5G
MasterCore technology.

Keywords: - 5G, All IP Network, Cloud Computing , 5G architecture-The MasterCore, Quality of Service
(QoS), 5G-IU, Parallel Multimode (PMM).

I. INTRODUCTION
We are living in modern science. We can not think a single moment without science. Science makes
our life easy and comfortable. Modern world is being compressed due to the development of science and its
technologies. During the last few decades, the world has seen phenomenal changes in the telecommunications
industry due to science and technology. We have different mobile and wireless communication technologies,
which are mass deployed, such as WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 wireless and mobile networks) , Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11
wireless networks), LTE (Long Term Evolution), 3G mobile networks (UMTS, cdma2000) and 4G as well as
accompanying networks, such as personal area networks (e.g., Bluetooth, ZigBee) or sensor networks. Mobile
terminals include variety of interfaces, such as GSM is one, which are based on old-fashioned circuit switching,
the technology that is going into its last decade of existence. These technologies (mainly cellular generations)
differ from each other based on four main aspects: radio access, data rates, bandwidth and switching schemes
[1]. These differences have been noticed in previous generations (1G, 2G, 2.5G and 3G etc.). In accordance to,
we are exploring the most advance cellular technology, could be 5G.
5G Technology stands for 5th Generation Mobile Technology. 5G technology has changed to use cell
phones within very high bandwidth. 5G is a packet switched wireless system with wide area coverage and high
throughput. 5G technologies use CDMA and BDMA and millimeter wireless that enables seed is greater than
100Mbps at full mobility and higher than1Gbps at low mobility. The 5G technologies include all types of
advanced features which make 5G technology most powerful and in huge demand in the near future. It is not
amazing, such a huge collection of technology being integrated into a small device. The 5G technology provides
the mobile phone users more features and efficiency. A user of mobile phone can easily hook their 5G
technology gadget with laptops or tablets to acquire broadband internet connectivity. Up till now following
features of the 5G technology have come to surface- High resolution is offered by 5G for extreme mobile users,
it also offers bidirectional huge bandwidth [2], higher data rates and the finest Quality of Service (QoS) (i.e.
discussed below in the paper).
Now a days, all wireless and mobile networks are forwarding to all-IP principle, that means all data and
signaling will be transferred via IP (Internet Protocol) on network layer [3].The purpose of the All-IP Network
(AIPN) is to completely transform (―to change in composition or structure‖) the 100+ years of legacy network

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infrastructure into a simplified and standardized network with a single common infrastructure for all services
[15]. In order to implement 5G technology, MasterCore technique is needed to apply All-IP Network (AIPN)
properly. Hence, the Mastercore is designed. The 5G MasterCore is a convergence of Parallel Multimode
(PMM), Nanotechnology, Cloud Computing, and All IP Platform (Broadly mansion in section….) also 5G-IU
technology. These technologies have their own impacts on existing wireless networks which make them into
5G.

II. EVOLUTION OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES

This section mentions in short the evolution of wireless and cellular systems based on the four main key aspects:
radio access, data rates, bandwidth and switching schemes.

2.1 Review of Previous Fourth Generations Systems

2.1.1 First-Generation Systems (1G)
The 1st generation was pioneered for voice service in early 1980‘s, where almost all of them were
analog systems using the frequency modulation technique for radio transmission using frequency division
multiple access (FDMA) with channel capacity of 30 KHz and frequency band was 824-894 MHz [6], which
was based on a technology known as Advance Mobile Phone Service (AMPS).
2.1.2 Second Generation Systems (2G)
The 2nd generation was accomplished in later 1990‘s. The 2G mobile communication system is a
digital system; this system is still mostly used in different parts of the world. This generation mainly used for
voice communication also offered additional services such as SMS and e-mail. In this generation two digital
modulation schemes are used; one is time division multiple access (TDMA) and the 2nd is code division
multiple access (CDMA) [7] and frequency band is 850-1900 MHz. In 2G, GSM technology uses eight channels
per carrier with a gross data rate of 22.8 kbps (a net rate of 13 kbps) in the full rate channel and a frame of 4.6
milliseconds (ms) duration [14].The family of this generation includes of 2G, 2.5G and 2.75G.
2.1.3 Third Generation Systems (3G)
Third generation (3G) services combine high speed mobile access with Internet Protocol (IP)-based
services. The main features of 3G technology include wireless web base access, multimedia services, email, and
video conferencing. The 3G W-CDMA air interface standard had been designed for ―always-on‖ packet-based
wireless service, so that computer, entertainment devices and telephones may all share the same wireless
network and be connected internet anytime, anywhere [13]. 3G systems offer high data rates up to 2 Mbps, over
5 MHz channel carrier width, depending on mobility/velocity, and high spectrum efficiency. The data rate
supported by 3G networks depends also on the environment the call is being made in; 144 kbps in satellite and
rural outdoor, 384 kbps in urban outdoor and 2Mbps in indoor and low range outdoor [4]. The frequency band is
1.8 - 2.5 GHz [16].
2.1.4 Fourth Generation Systems (4G)
4G usually refers to the successor of the 3G and 2G standards. In fact, the 3GPP is recently
standardizing LTE Advanced [8] as future 4G standard. A 4G system may upgrade existing communication
networks and is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure IP based solution where facilities such as
voice, streamed multimedia and data will be provided to users on an "Anytime, Anywhere" basis and at much
higher data rates compared to previous generations. One common characteristic of the new services to be
provided by 4G is their demanding requirements in terms of QoS. Applications such as wireless broadband
access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content and Digital Video
Broadcasting (DVB) are being developed to use a 4G network.
2.1.4.1 LTE advanced
LTE release 10, also referred to as LTE-Advanced, is claimed to be the true 4G evolution step. Earlier
releases of LTE are included as integrated parts of LTE release 10, providing a more straightforward backwards
compatibility and support of legacy terminals, for example. The main requirement specification for LTE
advanced as approved in [8] are:
 Peak Downlink data rate: 1 Gbs, Peak Uplink data rate: 500 Mbps.
 Transmission bandwidth: Wider than approximately 70 MHz in DL and 40 MHz in UL.
 User throughput at cell edge 2 times higher than that in LTE.
 Average user throughput is 3 times higher than that in LTE.
 Spectrum efficiency 3 times higher than that in LTE; Peak spectrum efficiency downlink: 30 bps/Hz,
Uplink: 15 bps/Hz.
 Mobility: Same as that in LTE.
 Coverage should be optimized or deployment in local areas/micro cell environments with Inter Site
Distance (ISD) up to 1 km.

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III. FIFTH GENERATION SYSTEMS (5G)
5G Wireless Communication System is not deployed yet. The big challenge for the design and
deployment of 5G wireless system can be faced easily as proposed features and architecture (mentioned below)
that will increase system capacity and quality within the limited available frequency spectrum, whose frequency
band and Data Bandwidth will be ‗3-300GHz‘ and ‗1Gbps & higher (as demand)‘ successively. The remarkable
issue, there don‘t have any limitation in 5G as respect to user demands in the next 200 years. The 5G also
implies the whole wireless world interconnection (WISDOM—Wireless Innovative System for Dynamic
Operating Mega communications concept), together with very high data rates of the Quality of Service (QoS)
applications.

Figure 1: Evolution of Mobile Technologies

Table 1: Basic comparison among 3G, 4G and 5G Technology

Technology/ 3G 4G 5G
features
Data Bandwidth 2Mbps 2Mbps to 1Gbps 1Gbps & Higher (as demand)

Frequency Band 1.8 - 2.5 GHz [16] 2 - 8 GHz [16] 3-300GHz [16],[18]
Standards WCDMA All access convergence CDMA &
CDMA-200 including:OFMDA,MC-CDMA BDMA
TD-SCDMA [19] Network-LMPS [19]
Technology Broad bandwidth Unified IP Unified IP and seamless
CDMA,IP technology And seamless combination of combination of broadband,
[19] broadband LAN/WAN/ LAN/WAN/PAN/WLAN [19]
PAN and WLAN [19]; and technologies for 5G new
deployment (could be OFDM
etc.);
Service Integrated high Dynamic information access, Dynamic information access,
quality audio, video wear-able devices, HD wear-able devices, HD
and data streaming; global roaming; streaming; any demand of users;
upcoming all technologies;
global roaming smoothly;
Multiple Access CDMA CDMA CDMA & BDMA
Core Packet Network All IP Network Flatter IP Network &
Network 5G Network Interfacing(5G-NI)
Definition Digital Broadband, Digital Broad band, Packet data, Digital Broadband, Packet data
packet data All IP All IP, Very high throughput
Hand off Horizontal Horizontal & Vertical Horizontal & Vertical
Start from 2001 [12] 2010 [12] 2015 [12]

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3.1 Why is there a need for 5G?
This paper mainly focuses on how a 5G network can provide more facilities approach to a common
man to utilize his available possessions in an enormous way to make him to feel the real progress. As a user
point of view, the major difference between current generations and expected 5G techniques must be something
else than increased maximum throughput; other requirements include [1]:

 It could make better revenue for current global operators as well as interoperability will become more
feasible.
 Improved and innovative data coding and modulation techniques, which includes filter bank multi carrier
way in schemes.
 For wireless access and back haul use of millimeter wave frequencies is very useful.
 With the support of different conduction points with related coverage and surrounding the option of a
supple usage of resources for up link and down link transmission in each cell is achieved by superior
intrusion and mobility management.
 To make 5G practical for all sorts of radio access technologies there should be a common platform unique
for all the technologies.
 Lower battery consumption.
 Lower outage probability.
 Better coverage and high data rates available at cell edge.
 Multiple concurrent data transfer paths.
 Possible to1Gbps and higher data rate in mobility.
 More secure; better cognitive radio/SDR Security.
 Higher system level spectral efficiency.
 World Wide Wireless Web (WWWW), wireless-based web applications that include full multimedia
capability beyond 4G speeds.
 More applications combined with Artificial Intelligent (AI) as human life will be surrounded by artificial
sensors which could be communicating with mobile phones.
 Not harmful to human health.
 Cheaper traffic fees due to low infrastructure deployment costs.
 Smart beam antenna systems.

5G is to be a new technology that will provide all the possible applications, by using only one universal
device, and interconnecting most of the already existing communication infrastructures. The 5G terminals will
be an upgradable multimode and cognitive radio- enabled. It will have software defined radio modulation
schemes. All the required upgradable software should be downloaded from the Internet on the run. The 5G
mobile networks will focus on the development of the user terminals where the terminals will have access to
different wireless technologies at the same time and will consolidate various flows from various technologies.
Besides, the terminal will make the ultimate choice among different wireless/mobile access network providers
for a given service.

3.2 Advantages of 5G network of the MasterCore technology

The MasterCore technology has been designed for boundless wireless service; so that computer,
entertainment devices and mobile phone may all share the same wireless network and can be connected with
internet anytime, anywhere. It‘s designed for 5G communication system to fulfill the limitless target up to the
next two centuries, the common features as following;
 Files can be downloaded (even movies) within seconds.
 Pages will upload almost instantly.
 Can play easily online games.
 5G devices are comparatively less expensive than 3G and 4G devices.
 Using 5G the battery runs out very fast.
 Finest Quality of Service (QoS).
 All Networks can be gathered on a platform.
 Easily support previous generations.
 New deployments of 5G can be connected directly with The Mastercore by 5G -IU (5G Interfacing Unit)
without All IP concept.
 No limitation as user demands.
 Ability to support the new services.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
 World combination services are available.
 The MasterCore‘s hardware and software are upgradeable.
 Able to fill user‘s demand up to next century.
 Subscribers can store data in central storage.
 Remote PCs can be controlled by handsets.
 Subscriber can use application software without installation in own devices that provided by the
MasterCore.
 Security is distributed several layers.
 The MasterCore can manage all securities of PSTNs, MSC, and BTS etc.
 The high quality services of 5G technology based on Policy to avoid error.

3.2.1 Quality of Service (QoS)

Next Generation Networks (NGN) consists of support functionalities for data transport, and control
transport, as well as functionalities for support of services and applications. The measurement of traffic is a
basic control activity in order to provide Quality of Service, [5]. In addition 5G communication system is
designed by the finest Quality of Service (QoS).
Quality of Service (QoS) refers to a network‘s ability to achieve maximum bandwidth and deal with
other network performance elements like latency, error rate and uptime. Quality of service also involves
controlling and managing network resources by setting priorities for specific types of data (video, audio, files)
on the network. QoS is exclusively applied to network traffic generated for video on demand, IPTV, VoIP,
streaming media, videoconferencing and online gaming. The primary goal of quality of service is to provide
priority to networks, including dedicated bandwidth, controlled jitter, low latency and improved loss
characteristics. Its technologies supply the elemental building blocks that will be used for future business
applications in campus, wide area networks and service provider networks. There are three fundamental
components for basic QoS implementation [17]:
 Identification and marking techniques for coordinating QoS from end to end between network elements.
 QoS within a single network element.
 QoS policy, management, and accounting functions to control and administer end-to-end traffic across a
network.

3.3 Exceptional applications

The 5G MasterCore has some exceptional applications with common features as;
 One can know weather, temperature, and location etc. of each other when conversation is going on.
 Students can attend any class of any institute of the world without going there (by WCSM).
 A doctor can treat patients of other countries from a place.
 Possible to monitor any place of the world from anywhere.
 Batteries can be charged by using network without charger.
 It could be possible to visualize lively all the planets and the Universe.
 One can complete his/her works without going to the office.
 One can be able to locate his/her child when she/he is unfortunately missed.
 One can be able to predict tsunami/earthquake before it occurs.

3.4 A proposed 5G Network Architecture

Terminals and network components are dynamically upgraded (and adapted) to new situation. Network
operators use the upgradeability to introduce value-added services more easily. Upgradeability is based on
cognitive radio. Cognitive radio technologies include the ability of devices to determine their location and
location‘s information (i.e. temperature, weather etc.), sense spectrum used by neighboring devices, change
frequency, adjust output power and even alter transmission parameters and characteristics. A cognitive radio is a
transceiver (beam) that is able to understand and respond to its operating environment. Thus cognitive radio
concerns mobile devices and networks which are computationally intelligent about radio resources and related
communications to explore user communication needs and provide wireless services, be appropriate to those
needs. Hence, the radio is aware and cognitive about changes in its environment and responds to these changes
by adapting operating characteristics in some way to improve its performance. In addition, the appropriate
proposed architecture of the 5G MasterCore technology is shown below in figure 2.

3.4.1The MasterCore
The 5G potential will require the design of a single wireless user terminal able to self-explanatory operate in
different heterogeneous access networks.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
A fully upgradable terminal changes its communication functions depending on network and/or user
demands. In addition, the main challenge for an upgradable MasterCore is to deal with increasing number of
different radio access technologies based on solid interoperability criteria and mechanisms. A core could be a
convergence of the aforementioned nanotechnology, Parallel Multimode (PMM) technology, cloud computing
and cognitive radio, upgradable and based on All IP Platform and 5G-IU is called the MasterCore. The 5G
MasterCore is an upgradable and multi-technologies core. The MasterCore upgradability could be a self-
adaptation and made adaptation to a dynamically-changing environment or mission oriented adaptation to meet
a given set of mission requirements with the aim of improving service delivery and spectrum utilization. The
MasterCore changes its communication functions depending on network status and/or user demands.
Upgradability could be in both software and hardware. Hardware upgradability is mainly performed by
operators, adding additional equipments to increase network capacity at a specific time. However, in software
upgradability and with the power of SDR, network is dynamically upgradable, which means that the programs
(running on the upgradable processing elements) as well as the communication links between the processing
elements are upgraded at run-time. Upgradable hardware and software segments have been shown in the
MasterCore Technology (MCT) in Figure 3. Different processing elements are used for different purposes. The
general purpose processors are fully programmable to perform different computational tasks. The block diagram
of the MasterCore architecture is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The MasterCore Architecture

3.4.2 The MasterCore Technologies (MCT)

The 5G MasterCore is a convergence of below mention technologies. These technologies have their
own impact on exiting wireless network which makes them in to 5G. The different segments of the MasterCore
Technology (MCT) are displayed below in figure 3.
3.4.2.1 Parallel Multimode (PMM)
In 5G Wireless Communication Systems, The MasterCore can be operated into parallel multimode
such as All IP Network Mode, 5G Network Mode, where in All IP Network Mode controls all network
technologies of RAN and DAT (Different Access Networks) up to 5G new deployments. 5G Network Mode
manages all new deployments based on 5G as a result 5G network systems will be more efficiency, powerful
and less complicated. Any service mode can be opened under 5G-NDM (New Deployment Mode) as WCSM
(World Combination Service Mode).WCSM provides some services among subscribers that can be used in
special purposes for example, a lecturer writes on white board that display on another board without video in

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any country of the world and vice versa besides conversation and video. For Parallel Multimode, any new
service can be added easily so that system of the network no needs to change. In fact all modes run at a time
continuously (i.e. parallel).
3.4.2.2 All IP Network
The All-IP Network (AIPN) is an evolution of the 3GPP system to fulfill the increasing demands of the
cellular communications market. It is a common platform valid for all sorts of radio access technologies. AIPN
focused primarily on the enhancements of packet switched technology but now it provides a continued evolution
and optimization in terms of both performance and cost. The key benefits of AIPN architecture includes a
variety of different access systems‘ provision, lower costs, universal seamless access, and increased user-
satisfaction and reduced system latency. But with the advantages of IP come some dangers: as data flow more
freely and the internet is open not only to developers but also to all manner of criminals and viruses, developers
and operators face new security challenges which should be solved properly.

Figure 3: Segments of the MasterCore Technology (MCT)

3.4.2.3 Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is the application of nanoscience to control process on nanometer scale between 0.1 to
100nm.The field is also known as Molecular Nanotechnology (MNT) where MNT deals with control of the
structure of matter based on atom-by-atom and molecule by molecule engineering. Nanotechnology is
considered as the next industrial revolution, and the telecommunications industry will be radically transformed
by it in a few years. As the future applications will require more memory and computing power to offer higher
data rates, current technologies can not resolve these challenges. Fortunately, nanotechnology could provide
effective solutions for power efficient computing, sensing, memory enlargement, and humanmachine
interaction, [9], [10].
Nanotechnology has shown its impact on both mobile as well as the core network as follows.
 The mobile device has become more than a communication device in modern world; computation and
communication are ready to serve the user in an intelligent way. Mobile devices together with the
intelligence, embedded in human environments, will create a new platform that enables ubiquitous sensing,
computing, and communication. With nanotechnology mobile phones can act as intelligent sensors that
have applications in many industries, among them transportation, communications, medicine and safety.
 The core network requires high speed and a reliable capacity to manipulate and interoperate increasing
number of heterogeneous access technologies. At present, nanotechnologies are used in Digital Signal
Processing (DSP) Fabrication, introducing new perceptions in DSP designing that increases the overall
system speed & capacity.
Apart from this it has its own impact on sensor as well as security. This is considered as a most significant in
telecommunication.

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3.4.2.4 Cloud computing
―Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool
of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications,
and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider
interaction…” a definition from [11]. Hence, cloud computing is a technology that uses the internet and central
remote server to maintain data and applications. In 5G networks this central remote server could be a content
provider. Cloud computing allows consumers and business to use applications without installation and access
their personal files at any computer with internet access. The same concept is going to be used in multi-core
technology where the user tries to access his private account form a global content provider through cloud
computing.

3.5 MC Hardware and Software

3.5.1 Hardware
In MasterCore technology, assembly of hardware is set into several units to maintain whole network
system properly, also to troubleshoot in core network instantly.
As a result, efficiency of the core is suitable with demanded services. Hardware classified into different units as:
a) Remote Server Control Unit (RSCU) provides a great opportunity to control remote server of users‘ networks.
It indicates the immediate condition of remote server.
b) Network Control Unit (NCU) provides control of the communications among MS, BSC, MSC and PSTN.
c) Upgradeable Storage (US) refers to increase the storage as necessity as demand.
d) Upgradeable Central Control Unit (UCCU) provides the facilities to control all units centrally.
3.5.2 Software
Software Defined Radio (SDR) benefits from today‘s high processing power to develop multi-band,
multi-standard base stations and terminals. Although in future the terminals will adapt the air interface to the
available radio access technology, at present this is done by the infrastructure. Several infrastructure gains are
expected from SDR. For example, to increase network capacity at a specific time (e.g. during a sports event), an
operator will reconfigure its network adding several modems at a given. Base Transceiver Station (BTS). SDR
makes this reconfiguration easy. In the context of 4G systems, SDR will become an enabler for the aggregation
of multi-standard pico/micro cells. For a manufacturer, this can be a powerful aid to providing multi-standard,
multiband equipment with reduced development effort and costs through simultaneous multi-channel
processing.
1) 5G will be single unified standard of different wireless networks, including wireless technologies (e.g. IEEE
802.11), LAN/WAN/ PAN and WWWW, unified IP and seamless combination of broad band.
2) Software Defined Radio, Packet layer, implementation of packets, encryption, flexibility etc. In figure 2 are
shown different classification segments of 5G software such as:
a) Application: The MasterCore Application Software (MCAS) refers to all application software are needed as
to provide services and managements.
Subscriber‘s Application Software (SAS) is installed centrally so that subscriber runs a program without
installing on his own devices. All services of application software are provided from central server.
b) System: System Software is an Operating System (OS) for the 5G MasterCore networking.
c) Database: The MasterCore Database (MCDB) software refers to manage and store all data of whole system
those are needed. Client‘s Database (CDB) software manages all data of user‘s server those contain all essential
information of users and users‘ networks.
d) Security Management: Securities (users to the Mastercore) will be managed centrally by Security
Management (SM) software.

3.6 5G-IU
5G-IU (5G Interfacing Unit) acts to make the most powerful of 5G wireless communication system.
Because, all sorts of radio access technologies are combined in a common platform is complex form of
aggregation. It will be more complex in future when added new radio access technologies. This is why, 5G-IU is
used between new deployments and core network so that 5G wireless communication system is easily
manageable. It has some advantages are:
 Lower costs to establish networks.
 Lessen equipments.
 Improve network efficiency.
 Reduce complexity.
 Easily maintain high security.
 Impossible to occur any trouble.
3.7 The MasterCore Equipments (MCE)

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Mobile phone has become more than a communication device in modern world it has turned into an
identity of an individual. In 5G MasterCore these mobile and other devices (Laptop, local networking devices
etc.) are referred as the MasterCore Equipments (MCE) as they are improved with nanotechnology, Beam
Transceiver, Advance Optical Line Terminal (AOLT), Advance Arrayed Waveguide Gratings (AAWG).
Nanotechnology refers NanoEquipments (NE) are Morph, Graphene's Transistor, GPS, Micro-Micro Phones,
Liquid lens, Intelligent Batteries and Nanosensor [4]. We will broadly discuss about NE in our further papers.
These are classified into two categories one is user‘s device and another is internal devices of user‘s networks.
AOLT and AAWG are used in user‘s networks (LAN, WAN, MAN etc.) to increase faster data rate. We will be
discussing about AOLT and AAWG in our further slides. One of the central visions of the wireless industry
aims at ambient intelligence, computation and communication always available and ready to serve the user in an
intelligent and efficient way. This requires that the devices are mobile. Mobile devices together with the
intelligence and efficient that will be embedded in human environments – home, office, public places – will
create a new platform that enables ubiquitous sensing, computing, and communication Specs of MasterCore
Equipments given as follow:
 Self Cleaning – the phone cleans by itself.
 Self powered – the phone derives its energy/power from the sun, water, or air.
 Sense the environment – the phone will tell you the weather, the amount of air pollution present, etc.
 Flexible – bend but not break.
 More Reliable.
 Transparent – ―see through‖ phones.

IV. FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

5G network technology will reveal a new era in mobile communication technology. The 5G mobile
phones will have access to different wireless technologies at the same time and the terminal should be able to
combine different flows from different technologies. 5G technology offer high resolution for crazy cell phone
user. 5G technology will provide supper and perfect utilization of cellular communication in future. We can
monitor any place of the world from anywhere, observe space and watch TV channels at HD clarity in our
mobile phones without any interruption. There will be exciting amusement unbelievable services. The 5G
mobile phones will be a tablet PC and amazing. Many mobile embedded technologies will evolve.

V. CONCLUSION
In this paper we have discussed the existing and future wireless mobile communication generations and
cellular systems focusing on four main key factors: switching schemes, bandwidth, data rates, and radio access,
also 5G main development challenges and explained the necessity for 5G. The 5G mobile technology will be
implemented at the end of the current decade. We have proposed the MasterCore technology and its hardware
and software implementation. We expect that this Paper helps to uplift stronger links between people working in
different fields creating future concepts of mobile communication, Internet services, Quality of Service (QoS),
Cloud computing, All IP network, Nanotechnologies and concept of the MasterCore. The new coming 5G
technology is available in the market to fulfill user demands in affordable rates, bright and high peak future also
much reliability as well as exceptional applications.

REFERENCES
Books, Journal Papers or Theses:
[1] Dr. Anwar M. Mousa, ―Prospective of Fifth Generation Mobile Communications‖ International Journal
of Next-Generation Networks (IJNGN) Vol.4, No.3, September 2012
2] Sapana Singh & Pratap Singh, ―Key Concepts and Network Architecture for 5G Mobile Technology‖
International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET)Volume 1 Issue 5 pp
165-170 August 2012
[3] T. Janevski, ―Traffic Analysis and Design of Wireless IP Networks‖, Artech House Inc., Boston, USA,
2003.
[4]. Imthiyaz Ali, ―5G the Nanocore” March 5, 2011
[5] ITU-T, Y.2173, ―Management of performance measurement for NGN”, September 2008.
[6] Chen, YP; Yang, YH (2007), ―A new 4G architecture providing multimode terminals always best
connected services,” IEEE Wireless Communications, Volume: 14 Issue: 2 pp. 36-41.
[7] Xichun Li, AbudullaGani, RosliSalleh, Omar Zakaria 2009,‖ The Future of Mobile Wireless
Communication Networks,”2009 International Conference on Communication Software and Networks
[8] 3GPP TSG RAN TR 36.913 v8.0.0, Requirements for Further Advancements for E-UTRA
(LTEAdvanced).

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[9] Ermolov V. et al. ―Significance of Nanotechnology for future wireless devices and Communications”,
The 18th Annual IEEE International Symposium on PIMRC’07.
[10] R.K.Jain, Risal Singh, ―Role of Nanotechnology in future wireless and communication systems”,
National seminar proceeding, Academy of Business & Engineering Science Ghaziabad, pp-19-28, 16-
17th January 2009.
[11] Peter Mell and Timothy Grance, “The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing” US National Institute of
Standards and Technology Special Publication 800-145, September 2011.
[12] Engr. Muhammad Farooq, Engr. Muhammad Ishtiaq Ahmed, Engr. Usman M Al,“Future Generations of
Mobile Communication Networks” Academy of Contemporary Research Journal V II (I), 15-21, ISSN:
2305-865, January 2013
[13] Theodore S. Rappaport, “Wireless Communications Principle and Practice,” published by Pearson
Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd,. Second Edition, Chapter Two;
[14] Vijay K. Garg and Joseph E. Wilkes, “Principles & Applications of GSM,” Published by Dopling
Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia, First Impression, 2006;
URL:
[15] http://ytd2525.wordpress.com/category/all-ip-networks/
[16] http://www3.nd.edu/~mhaenggi/NET/wireless/4G/#3G%20Vs%204G%20
[17] http://www.techopedia.com/definition/9049/quality-of-service
[18] http://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/wireless/millimeter-waves-may-be-the-future-of-5g-phones
[19] http://www.slideshare.net/noorec786/generations-of-network-1-g-2g-3g-4g-5g
Let‘s go ahead…..To be continued…..

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-354-362
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Dependence of evaporation on meteorological variables at daily

time-scale and estimation of pan evaporation in Junagadh region
Gundalia Manoj J., And Dholakia Mrugen B.
1 Asst. Prof., Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. Subhash Technical Campus, Junagadh, Gujarat (India)
2 Professor of Civil Engineering, L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, Gujarat (India)

Abstract: - The significance of six major meteorological factors, that influence the evaporation were evaluated
at daily time-scale using the data from Junagadh station, Gujarat (India). The computed values were compared.
The solar radiation, maximum air temperature and vapour pressure deficit were found to be the significant
factors influencing pan evaporation (Ep). The negative correlation was found between relative humidity and
(Ep), while wind speed and bright sunshine hours were found least correlated and no longer remained controlling
factors influencing (Ep). The objective of the present study is to compare and evaluate the performance of four
different methods to select the most appropriate equations for estimating (Ep).
The Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (E) and refined Willmott’s index (dr) are used as performance
criterion. The results show that the Jensen equation (radiation based) yielded the most reliable results in
estimation of (Ep), especially for monsoon season. The Linacre equation (temperature based) produced reliable
estimates for summer and post-monsoon season. The Penman equation (mass transfer based) and the Jensen
equation resulted better for winter season while the Romanenko equation (humidity based) found comparatively
less reliable. The prediction equations fitted for different seasons and annual basis can be recommended for
estimating (Ep) in the study region.

Keywords: - Pan evaporation; Meteorological variables; Evaporation estimation methods

I. INTRODUCTION
Evaporation is influenced by number of agro-meteorological parameters and it is one of the integral
major components of the hydrological cycle. Estimation of evaporation amount is very important for
monitoring, survey and management of water resources, especially in arid and semi-arid areas where resources
are scares and seriously endangered by overexploitation [22]. Usually, estimates of evaporation are needed in a
wide array of problems in agriculture, hydrology, agronomy, forestry and land resources planning, such as water
balance computation, irrigation management, crop yield forecasting model, river flow forecasting, ecosystem
modelling. Irrigation can substantially increase crop yields, but again the scheduling of the water application is
usually based on evaporation estimates. It depends on the supply of heat energy and the vapour pressure
gradient, which, in turn, depends on meteorological factors such as temperature, wind speed, atmospheric
pressure, solar radiation, quality of water, and the nature and shape of evaporation surface (e.g. [14]). These
factors also depend on other factors, such as geographical location, season, time of day, etc. Thus, the process of
evaporation is rather complicated.
Because of its nature, evaporation from water surfaces is rarely measured directly, except over
relatively small spatial and temporal scales [12]. Evaporation can be directly measured from pan evaporation
(Ep) and lysimeter. But, it is impractical to place evaporation pans in inaccessible areas where accurate
instruments cannot be established or maintained. A practical means of estimating the amount of evaporation
where no pans are available is of considerable significance to the hydrologists, agriculturists and meteorologists.
Numerous investigators developed models for estimation of evaporation. Unfortunately, reliable estimates of
evaporation are extremely difficult to obtain because of its complexity. Many methods for estimation of
evaporation losses from free water surfaces were reported and it can be divided into several categories
including: empirical methods (e.g. [24]), radiation (e.g. [2]), water budget methods (e.g. [33], [20]), energy
budget methods (e.g. [10]), mass-transfer methods (e.g. [17]); temperature based (e.g. [4]; [18]); and

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
combination methods (e.g. [19]). In the direct method of measurement, the observation from Class A Pan
evaporimeter and eddy correlation techniques were used [27], whereas in indirect methods, the evaporation is
estimated from other meteorological variables like temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and solar
radiation [23]. Overviews of many of these methods are found in review papers or books (e.g., [32]; [29]; [26];
[15] and [13]). Many equations for determining evaporation are available. The wide range of data types and
expertise are needed to use these equations correctly, hence, it is difficult to select the most appropriate
evaporation method for a given study. Therefore, there is a need to analyse and compare the different existing
popular evaporation models and to develop a generalized model form.
In an earlier study, [30] evaluated and compared 13 evaporation equations, belonged to the category of
mass-transfer method, and a generalized model form for that category was developed. [31] further examined the
sensitivity of mass-transfer-based evaporation equations to evaluate errors in daily and monthly input data. [5]
analysed the dependence of evaporation on various meteorological variables at different time scales. Radiation-
based and temperature based evaporation methods were evaluated and generalised in the study of [6 and 7]. In
this study, the existing methods are compared and evaluated, with their optimised parameters values. Finally, the
overall applicability of the selected methods is examined in the order of their predictive ability for the study
region.

II. STUDY AREA AND DATA COLLECTION

Data of the Junagadh meteorological station located in the Gujarat state of India were used in this
study. This station is located at latitude of 210 31’ N and a longitude of 700 33’ E, 61 m msl. The region (Figure
1) is situated in semi-arid region; the mean annual precipitation for the region varies from a maximum of
1689.70 mm to minimum of 425 mm with an average value of 940 mm. The Junagadh region is characterized by
a semi-arid climate, with warm and dry summers and mild winter conditions. Mean maximum temperature
ranges from 33.230C to 34.910C and mean minimum temperature ranges from 19.440C to 29.670C. The highest
annual wind speed was 13.6 km/h occurred in April, 2000 and 14.1 km/h in April, 2001 whereas the lowest
annual wind speed was 8.6 km/h which occurred in October, 2001. The humidity has been changed between 88
% and 63%. Daily meteorological data, including air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, bright sunshine
hours and evaporation for 21 years (1992-2012) were collected from Agro meteorological Cell, Junagadh
Agricultural University. The associate parameters like solar radiation, dew point temperature and vapour
pressure deficit were computed with standard meteorological formula as described in FAO.

III. DEPENDENCE OF EVAPORATION ON METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES

For better comparative evaluation, the dimensionless standardized values of each variable were
computed and compared by using the transformation shown in equation (01).
(Xi − μ)
Zi = (01)
σ
Where X is a variate, i is the i value, µ is the mean of X and σ is the standard deviation of X. In view
th

of the above considerations, this paper first analyses and compares the roles of controlling variables influencing
pan evaporation with daily time-scale. The dominating factors affecting evaporation for daily time-scales are
determined, which then forms the basis for choosing the evaporation estimation method suitable for different
seasons. After that, different methods, which include temperature, humidity, mass-transfer, and radiation
methods, are examined and compared. The comparisons are shown in (Figure 2-7). (Figure 2-4), show that the
radiation (Rs), maximum air temperature (Tmax) and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) with R2 values 0.86, 0.75 and
0.66 respectively, remain as controlling factors of evaporation. Hence, the radiation based, temperature based
and mass transfer based methods for evaporation estimation comparatively give good results. The dependence of
evaporation on relative humidity (RH) is shown in (Figure 5). A negative correlation exists between RH and
(Ep) with R2 value 0.25. It is perceived from (Figure 6) and (Figure 7) that wind speed (WS) (R2 value 0.17) and
bright sunshine hours (BSS) (R2 value 0.38) are no longer remain a significant factors.

IV. EVAPORATION ESTIMATION METHODS

Many forms of the equation have been applied for estimating evaporation around the world. They can
be categorised into five major types of approach - based on water budget methods, temperature methods,
humidity methods, radiation methods, mass transfer (or aerodynamic) methods or combination (energy budget
and aerodynamic) methods. Unfortunately, most of the reliable methods are parameter rich methods and
therefore, not feasible for application in data scarce regions. On the other hand, accuracy and reliability of
simple methods vary widely according to regional climate conditions. Therefore, it is difficult for many
scientists to select the most suitable equation to use for a given study. Due to inaccuracy and unreliability in

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
estimation of the seepage rate, the water budget method was not used in the study. The equations and
climatological data requirements of selected methods are shown in (Table 1).

V. STATISTICAL CRITERION
To assess the performances of selected methods, dimensionless statistic Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency
coefficient (E) [21] is used. (E) is computed as shown in equation (02).
n 2
1 (Oi − Pi )
E = 1− 2 (02)
n
1 (Oi − Oi )
Where Oi is the observed Ep at time t = i; Pi is simulated Ep at time i; Oi mean observed Ep and n is the
number of observations. Values of (E) between 0.0 and 1.0 are generally viewed as acceptable levels of
performance, whereas values less than 0.0 indicate unacceptable performance. (E) is recommended for two
major reasons: (i) it is recommended by [1] and [8], and (ii) it provides extensive information on reported
values.
The refined Willmott’s index [3] method is applied to quantify the degree to which observed values of
evaporation are captured by the selected methods. The refined Willmott’s index (dr) is expressed as shown in
equation (03).
n O −P
1 i i
dr = 1 - 2 n O −O , when
1 i i
n n
1 Oi − Pi ≤ 2 1 Oi − Oi
(03)
2 n1 O i −O i
dr = n O −P − 1, when
1 i i
n
1 Oi − Pi > 2 n1 Oi − Oi
The range of (dr) is from -1.0 to 1.0. A (dr) of 1.0 indicates perfect agreement between model and
observation, and a (dr) of -1.0 indicates either lack of agreement between the model and observation or
insufficient variation in observations to adequately test the model.

VI. PARAMETER ESTIMATION

In this study, the objective function of minimising sum of squares errors between observed and
computed Ep (equation (04)) is selected to optimise the values of model parameters.
n
E min  Min  E po  E pc
2
(04)
i 1
Where Epo is the observed Ep; Epc is calculated Ep and n is the number of observations. The parameters
of equations are computed and optimised using Microsoft Excel spread sheet, Microsoft Excel built-in
optimisation tool Solver [16].

VII. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The performances of [11], [25], [19] and [28] methods against observed pan evaporation data were
evaluated by using Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (E) and the refined Willmott’s index (dr) statistical
parameters and the results are presented in (Table 2). Mean daily values of evaporation are computed for
different seasons with the four selected equations. The original empirical formulae may be reliable in the areas
and over the periods for which they were developed, but large errors, can be expected when they are
extrapolated to other climatic areas without recalibrating their parameters. Accordingly, modifications are made
to the original equations used here to improve the results. The original and optimised parameter values of
selected methods are presented in (Table 3).
It can be seen that the radiation based Jensen method is yielded the highest (E) and (dr) values 0.96 and
0.90 respectively, especially for monsoon season. For summer and post-monsoon seasons, the temperature based
Linacre method is earned (E) and (dr) values 0.80, 0.76 and 0.18, 0.79 respectively. The Penman and Jensen
methods are produced (E) and (dr) values 0.82, 0.81 and 0.83, 0.80 respectively for winter season, which are
much closer. The humidity based Romanenko method is yielded the lowest performance values for all seasons.
This means humidity based method has a poor relationship with evaporation. When methods are compared on
annual basis, the Penman method is found more appropriate that resulted (E) and (dr) values 0.85 and 0.83
respectively. The high variability of weather variables indicates their responsibility to influence pan evaporation
during different seasons (Fitzpatrick, 1963).
The fitted equations for different seasons with optimized parameter values are expressed as
Winter Season (Penman Equation)
Ep = 0.1293 (1 + 0.24 u2 )(es − eo ) (05)

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Summer Season (Linacre Equation)
975.3827 T m
(100 −L)
+ 5.4454 (Ta − Td )
Ep == (06)
(80 − Ta )
Post-monsoon Season (Linacre Equation)
475 .3079 T m
+ 8.5453(Ta − Td )
(100 −L) (07)
Ep =
(80 − Ta )
Monsoon Season (Jensen Equation)
Ep = (0.2478 Ta − 5.5146)R s (08)
When above equations are applied for annual basis, they produced (E) and (dr) values 0.98 and 0.93
respectively (Figure 8).

VIII. CONCLUSION
The evaporation estimates obtained from four selected methods viz. Linacre, Jensen, Penman and
Romanenko are compared to the observed pan evaporation for Junagadh region of Gujarat (India). Two
statistical criterions (E) and (dr) have been used to evaluate the performance of selected methods and establish
the optimal parameters. From the above analysis, it can be concluded that there is no single method to cover all
the seasons of the year in the study area. Among the selected four methods, the radiation based Jensen method is
found to be the most suitable for estimating (Ep) for monsoon season in this study area based on the entire
evaluation criterion. From a practical point of view, this method can be considered suitable to serve as a tool to
estimate evaporation for hydrologic models. It is observed that for winter season the Jensen and Penman
methods are best fitted while for summer and post-monsoon seasons, the Linacre method is found better.
Consequently, Linacre method is good choice for calculating evaporation in the study region for summer and
post-monsoon seasons. The Romanenko method has the lowest performance among all selected methods. The
parameters we determined will indeed be provided useful information for estimating evaporation in Junagadh
region. In view of the above we may infer that either and different methods need to be developed for this
location which may hold for all seasons, or additional factors need to be included in conventional methods. It is
hoped that the study, in general, will assist to select better methods in accordance to the availability of
meteorological data.

IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Agro meteorological Cell, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh (Gujarat), for
providing all necessary meteorological data.

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[5] C. Y. Xu and V. P. Singh, ―Dependence of evaporation on meteorological variables at different time-
scales and inter comparison of estimation methods‖, Hydrological Processes 12: 429–442, 1998.
[6] C. Y. Xu and V. P. Singh, ―Evaluation and generalization of radiation-based methods for calculating
evaporation―, Hydrological Processes 14: 339–349, 2000.
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evaporation‖, Hydrological Processes 15: 305–319, 2001.
[8] D. R. Legates and G. J. McCabe, ―Evaluating the use of ―goodness-of-fit‖ measures in hydrologic and
hydro climatic model validation‖, Water Resources Res. 35(1): 233-241, 1999.
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Journal of Applied Meteorology, 2, 780-792, 1963.
[10] E. R. Anderson, ―Energy-budget studies. In: Water Loss Investigations: Lake Hefner Studies‖, U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper. 269: 71-119, 1954.
[11] E. T. Linacre E. T,‖A simple formula for estimating evaporation rates in various climates, using
temperature data alone‖, Agricultural Meteorology, 18: 409–424, 1977.
[12] F. E. Jones, ―Evaporation of Water: with Emphasis on Applications and Measurement‖, Lewis Publ., Inc.,
Chelsea, MI, 200 pp, 1992.

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[13] F. I. Morton ―Evaporation research — a critical review and its lessons for the environmental sciences‖,
Critical Reviews in Env. Sc. and Tech. 24(3): 237–280, 1994.
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Water Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, Canada 31pp, 1968.
[15] F. I. Morton, ―Studies in evaporation and their lessons for the environmental sciences‖, Canadian Water
Resources Journal 15(3): 261–285, 1990.
[16] FrontLine, www. Solver.org. 8 November 2010.
[17] G. E. Harbeck ―A practical field technique for measuring reservoir evaporation utilizing mass-transfer
theory‖, Geological Survey Professional Paper 272-E: 101–105, 1962.
[18] H. F. Blaney, W. D. Criddle, ―Determining Water Requirements in Irrigated Areas from Climatological
Irrigation Data‖, US Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C., (19): 48
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[19] H. L. Penman, ―Natural evaporation from open water, bare soil and grass. Proceedings, Royal Society of
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principles‖, J. Hydrology 10(3): 282-290, 1970.
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Eng., 137 (7): 412-425, 2011.
[23] M. A. Benzaghta, T. A. Mohammed, A. H. Ghazali,and M. A. Mohd Soom, ―Study on Simplified Model
for Estimating Evaporation from Reservoirs‖, Australian J. of Basic and Applied Sciences, 4(12): 6473-
6482, 2010.
[24] M. A. Kohler, T. J. Nordenson and W. E. Fox, ―Evaporation from Pans and Lakes‖, U.S. Dept.
Com.Weather Bur. Res. Paper 38. 21 pp, 1955.
[25] M. E. Jensen and H. R. Haise, ―Estimating evapotranspiration from solar radiation‖, J. Irrig. Drainage,
Div. ASCE, 89: 15-41, 1963.
[26] M. E. Jensen, R. D. Burman, R. G. Allen, ―Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Water Requirements‖,
American Society of Civil Engineers: New York, 1990.
[27] R. K. Linsley, M. A. Kohler& J. L. H. Paulhus, ―Hydrology for Engineers‖. McGraw-Hill, 3rd edn.
London, 1982.
[28] V. A. Romanenko, ―Computation of the autumn soil moisture using a universal relationship for a large
area. Proceedings Ukrainian‖ Hydrometeorological Research Institute (Kiev) 3, 1961.
[29] V. P. Singh, ―Hydrologic Systems, Vol. II, Watershed Modelling‖. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1989.
[30] V. P. Singh, C. Y. Xu, ―Evaluation and generalization of 13 equations for determining free water
evaporation‖. Hydrological Processes 11: 311–323, 1997a.
[31] V. P. Singh, C. Y. Xu, ―Sensitivity of mass transfer-based evaporation equations to errors in daily and
monthly input data‖, Hydrological Processes 11: 1465–1473, 1997b.
[32] W. Brutsaert, ―Evaporation into the Atmosphere‖, D. Reidel: Dordrecht, 1982.
[33] W. J. Shuttleworth, ―Evaporation from Amazonian rainforest, proceeding of the Royal society of
London‖, Series B. Biological sciences, 233 (1272): 321-346, 1988.

Figure 1 Junagadh Region of Gujarat

State

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2.50 R2 = 0.7522
Tmax Ep
2.00

1.50
Standardized Values

1.00

0.50

0.00

-0.50 1 9 1725 2 101826 5 132129 6 142230 8 1624 1 9 1725 3 111927 4 122028 5 132129 7 152331 8 1624 2 101826

-1.00

-1.50

-2.00
Time in Days

Figure 2 Dependence of Ep on Tmax at Daily time-scale

2.50 R2 = 0.8659
Rs Ep
2.00
1.50
Standardized Values

1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50 1 9 1725 2 101826 5 132129 6 142230 8 1624 1 9 1725 3 111927 4 122028 5 132129 7 152331 8 1624 2 101826
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
Time in Days

Figure 3 Dependence of Ep on Rs at Daily time-scale

R2 = 0.6629
3.00 VPD Ep
2.00
1.00
Standardized Values

0.00
-1.00 1 101928 6 1524 4 132231 9 1827 6 1524 2 112029 8 1726 4 132231 9 1827 6 1524 2 112029 8 1726
-2.00
-3.00
-4.00
-5.00
-6.00
-7.00
Time in Days

Figure 4 Dependence of Ep on VPD at Daily time-scale

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R2 = 0.2465
2.50
RH Ep
2.00

1.50
Standardized Values

1.00

0.50

0.00

-0.50 1 101928 6 1524 4 132231 9 1827 6 1524 2 112029 8 1726 4 132231 9 1827 6 1524 2 112029 8 1726

-1.00

-1.50

-2.00
Time in Days

Figure 5 Dependence of Ep on RH at Daily time-scale

R2 = 0.1683
3.50 WS Ep
3.00
2.50
2.00
Standardized Values

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50 1 101928 6 1524 4 132231 9 1827 6 1524 2 112029 8 1726 4 132231 9 1827 6 1524 2 112029 8 1726
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
Time in Days

Figure 6 Dependence of Ep on WS at Daily time-scale

R2 = 0.3757
2.50
BSS Ep
2.00
1.50
Standardized Values

1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50 1 101928 6 1524 4 132231 9 1827 6 1524 2 112029 8 1726 4 132231 9 1827 6 1524 2 112029 8 1726
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
Time in Days

Figure 7 Dependence of Ep on BSS at Daily time-scale

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12.0 E = 0.98 dr = 0.93

Obs Ep

10.0
Cal Ep

8.0
Ep

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
1 10 19 28 6 15 24 4 13 22 31 9 18 27 6 15 24 2 11 20 29 8 17 26 4 13 22 31 9 18 27 6 15 24 2 11 20 29 8 17 26

Time in Days
Figure 8 Performance of fitted equations for annual basis

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-363-368
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Haulage Vehicle Traffic and Runoff Effect on Gully Growth on

Roadside Slopes of Unpaved Sand-Quarry Road, Uyo.
Obot Ekpo Essien*, Okon W. Emmanuel**
Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering, University of Nigeria, P. O. Box 4309, Uniuyo Post Office,
Uyo, Nigeria. Postal Code 520003.*
Graduate, Department of Agric. and Food Engineering, University of Uyo, P.O.Box 1014, Uyo, Nigeria. **

Abstract: - Rainfall runoff and sand haulage truck traffic count were quantified and regressed on gully soil loss
and gully morphometric volume growth on unpaved haulage roadside erosion. The gully erosion on unpaved
roadside was accelerated by the agency of runoff in splash wash from the road, and high axle sand haulage
trucks traffic. The effect of the Runoff discharge and traffic count, as independent variables and cumulative
quantities, on the cumulative soil loss from jagged side slope gullies, and the gully volume growth were very
significant at P < 0.01 generally. Predictive coefficient of determination, significant at P < 0.01, were very
perfect at R2 = 88.8 to 98.9%. Different regimes of association were obtained such as: high runoff and high
traffic count; high flow rate and low traffic count, and low runoff and high traffic count for effect and on gully
loss and gully volume growth, and they gave accurate and significant relationship. Regulation of sand-mining
over a catchment is recommended as it has otherwise destroyed landform and initiated unrestrained gullying.

Keywords: - Sand haulage road, sand quarry, unpaved roadside/mechanized soil excavation, runoff, truck
traffic count, gully soil loss, gully volume growth.

I. INTRODUCTION
Destructive land use leads to land degradation and structural inability. One destructive landuse is an
unplanned and unregulated sand mining that leads to gully initiation and growth. This is the case at Uyo peri-
urban where the whole subcatchment is quarried daily for laterite sand used for the extensive construction and
building projects in the urbanization expansion of the Uyo state capital, and some contiguous communities in
the rural-urban fringe. The process of sand quarrying in the study area uses different stages of mechanization.
Generally the land is cut into clods of sand heaped out before scooping with human labor into haulage trucks.
Soil surface vegetal cover and fallows and farms have been removed, and soil has been cut down to the
sublayer for laterite; leaving jagged undulations of localized depressions for sedimentation or ponding of water.
The haulage road was built up with the burrowed soil from the sand mine land to a height above the land mined
fields, resulting in steep sides slopes of the road, which also is cleared of vegetal cover and top soil, so that no
filtering strips was available to wedge runoff from the sides. The roadside slope is steep with no tuft or weed or
runoff collecting drains to reduce runoff cascades down the side slope.
Usually there is some kind of erosion taking place along the roadside [1], especially where road was
constructed by cut and fill method. Under rainfall characteristic and increase in slope length, soil erosion
increases on roadside [2]. The process of gully erosion on the roadside of unpaved haulage road on the sand
quarried landform involves the rainfall, the runoff, soil particle distribution and human factor – the high axle
haulage truck traffic; however only the effect of runoff and truck traffic count are considered in the study, since
rainfall and soil particles were considered in previous study [3].
When trucks of loaded laterite move up and down the haulage road, the loaded trucks tires cause
abrasion of the wet or dry soil surface, dislodging particles, digging out ditches across the crown and eventually
splash-washing the sediments laden water on traffic tyre impact to the roadsides, so that it flows down the road
side slope. It causes levees at first, then the levees are broken by runoff wash off and rainfall impact [4]. Rills
are created on the road crown across to the road side. Further runoff downstream finds the micro channels as
easy drainage routes for flow rivulet to the sides. Steady rills are formed as weak parts of sediment on side

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
slopes break up, and, eventually, these grow bigger into gully and the growth rate of the gullies need to be
determined as the degradation continues especially in the rainy season.
Roadside erosion could have been checked if tufting, sodding, pitching (agronomic method) or erection
of retaining wall or bench terracing (permanent structure) of slope of filled road took place [1]. As the weed
cover was removed during land mining and the road was unpaved and the side slope untamped and higher above
the quarried land surface, a check in erosion, gully initiation and growth was hardly possible as no authority
took functional responsibility on haulage road for sand quarrying, which is a private financial responsibility in
haulage business.
Thus, is the causative factors are anthropogenic degradation of landform through erosion agencies of
rainfall-runoff, splash wash and traffic abrasion. The objectives of these research aims to quantify these factors
and correlate them with gully growth and soil loss for erosion control check in such vulnerable land use areas.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Measurement of runoff discharge
A five-liter collector was used to fill a 20L container. A mouthpiece of metal plate was constructed and inserted
on the scarp head of the gully and water flowed on it to the collector. The time taken to fill each 5L container
was recorded using snap stop-watch. The total volume of container filled was divided by the total time taken, to
give the discharge rate of runoff at respective gully line. Filling was so managed that no spillage was allowed.
A fresh 5L – collector was waiting so as to change over and withdraw the filled sample collector without
allowing it to brim nor overflow.

2.2 Determination of gully parameters

2.2.1 Slope Length. The length of the main gully slope from the crest to the slope base on the road side slope
was measured with a 30m linen tape and expressed in metres. Five measurements were made in each
sampling location. The average value for each sampling area was computed.

2.2.2 Truck Traffic Count.

A check point was mounted at the road entrance. The number of trucks entering and leaving the unpaved
haulage routes were recorded, loaded or empty. A sentry was posted each day from 6am till 6pm.

2.3 Statistical Analysis

All data were organized into groups (see Results) and their description statistics, ANOVA, paired statistics,
correlations and regression were carried out using SPSS software version 17.

III. RESULTS
The results are tabulated in tables below. Runoff discharge (RO) and Traffic count (TR) are independent
variables.
Data collected were organized into three groups; namely:
(i) High traffic count (TR) and low runoff discharge (RO) and their combined effect on soil loss (SL) and on
gully growth volume (both as dependent variables (Table 1).
(ii) High runoff discharge (RO) and low traffic count (TR) as independent variables and the recorded gully soil
loss (SL) and on gully growth volume (GR) (Table 2);
(iii) High runoff discharge (RO) and high traffic count (TR) on gully soil loss (SL) and gully volume growth
rate (GR) (Table 3).

The fourth and fifth groups are the mixed magnitudes of independent variables and the point values of
each variable. These are too many to be presented here. Since the gully growth is additive geometric dimension
or cumulative morphometric degradation over time, it is essential to relate the variables in cumulative values.
Hence, the values in Tables 1 – 3 are presented as cumulative magnitudes of the variables.

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Table 1. High traffic count and low runoff discharge effect on soil loss and gully volume growth rate.
S/N High traffic count (TR) Low runoff discharge (cumulative) (RO) Soil loss (SL)
1. 18 1.1 4.25
2. 38 2.0 8.75
3. 90 2.7 12.13
4. 113 3.8 16.76
5. 135 4.4 19.21
6. 159 5.1 23.71
7. 189 5.9 27.21
8. 210 6.8 29.69
9. 245 7.4 32.69
10. 281 7.8 36.59
11. 304 8.6 40.07
12. 328 9.0 44.35
13. 348 9.8 47.70
14. 378 10.7 51.30
15 398 11.6 54.43
16. 435 12.3 58.23
17. 487 13.3 61.81
18. 532 14.1 64.69
19. 563 15.0 67.89
20. 617 16.0 71.44
21. 663 16.5 74.12
22. 699 17.8 76.70
23. 731 18.8 79.13
24. 781 19.6 81.88
25. 832 20.2 83.63
26. 872 20.9 88.26
27. 909 21.6 101.64
28. 937 22.2 106.39
29. 981 23.0 109.69
30. 1033 23.7 112.52
31. 1093 24.7 114.20
32. 1157 24.4 116.83

IV. DISCUSSION
4.1 Effect of gully growth
Gully growth is the cumulative dislodgement and transportation of soil particles from a location to a
deposition at a distance. It is also erosive water effect which erosive water may not be constant in magnitude
and force but vary in time and place. As such the infinitesimal or discrete change in morphometric dimension by
successive current of erosive water (and or erosive rainfall) and abrasive tractive truck wheels (which grind the
soil) enlarge or widen the gully geometry. By the cessation of the rains (i.e. erosive water current productive
season), the resultant gully dimensional morphology is a cumulative geometric addition of the infinitesimal time
dimensional increments.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Table 3. High amplitude regime
High runoff High traffic Soil loss Gully growth
discharge count CUM SL Volume
(Cum RO) (CUM TR) (CU GV)
40.7 1839 143.37 1,295,123
41.8 1867 148.14 1,375,917
42.5 1900 150.59 1,430,777
43.8 1944 158.59 1,584,954
48.3 2128 171.67 1,921,439
48.7 2154 175.95 2,031,056
47.5 2173 179.3 2,121,979
48.4 2201 182.9 2,259,261
49.4 2233 186.03 2,316,669
53.4 2432 203.04 3,003,833
56.1 2567 211.7 3,236,993
55.3 2529 209.3 3,130,949
54.3 2475 206.7 3,003,833
N/B. Cum RO = Cumulative runoff discharge, cum TR – Cumulative vehicular traffic count, cum SL =
Cumulative soil loss, Cum GR = Cumulative gully growth volume (cm 3)

∴ 𝐺𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐿 + 𝑑𝑡 𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤 𝐷 + 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
Where n is number of infinitesimal dimensional changes in the period (𝑡) of the season. Thus, the ultimate gully
geometry 𝐿. 𝑊. 𝐷 .
= cumulative sum of changes in gully dimension in time interval 𝑑𝑡 under cumulative runoff, etc.

Tables 1-3 indicate the cumulative changes (continuous) of the four parameters (RO, TR, SL, GR) occurring
within the rainy season. The values reflect the background of prior sand-mining of the road banks and filling of
road with subsoils from the sand-quarried subcatchment.

The main difference in the groups is combining soil erosion factors.

4.1.1 Regression Relationship (soil loss).

1. High traffic count is a scene occurring under dry earth routes. Runoff is a scene under the threshold
period of rainfall and dry season.
The effect of both Cum, RO and Cum.TR on soil loss was tested with a regression relationship, which gave:
𝐶𝑢𝑚 𝑆𝐿 = 1.328 − 0.059𝑐𝑢𝑚 𝑅𝑂 + 4.606𝑐𝑢𝑚 𝑇𝑅 + 3.537 @ 𝑅2 = 99.0%, 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑅 2 = 98.9%.
Where estimated standard error of estimate is the constant 3.5375. (1)

The ANOVA indicated significant change at 𝑃 < 0.01. The 𝑅 2 showed significant association of predictors to
dependent variable (cum SL) @ 𝑃 < 0.01. The coefficient of TR was also significant in predicting at 𝑃 < 0.01
using t-statistics. The coefficient of the constant and RO were not significant, hence the error in estimation.

2.Case of high runoff and low traffic count (Table 2). This scene is usually observed under high rainfall amount
in the months of July to October, which condition also reduces the traffic flow of haulage truck, even as
constructive and building activities tend to subside.

The regression function relating their regime effect and gully soil loss was obtained as:

Cum SL = 2.479 cumRO – 0.060cumTR – 94.096 + 4.030 (2)

@ R2 = 88.8%, adj R2 = 85.6%.

Regression coefficient showed significant association @ 𝑃 < 0.01 and significant difference of variance
(𝑃 < 0.01) also.

ANOVA showed that the null hypothesis of variance homogeneity (of cum RO and cum TR) can be rejected at
P<0.01 [5].
The coefficients for cumRO and cumTR showed significance at P<0.01

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
3. Case of high runoff discharge and high traffic count. This scene is usually in the post August break
period with high intensity rainfall lasting for long hours (2 ½ -6 hours, [6]). The cumulative variable in
regression relationship gave a predictive function as:

Cum SL = 2.348cum RO +0.143cum TR – 89.422 + 2.581. (3)

@ R2 = 98.8%, adjusted R2 = 97.3%, which were significant at P<0.01. ANOVA showed insignificance at
P<0.01 indicating no homogeneity of variance; hence the variable variance were significantly different at
P<0.01.
The accuracy of the relationship was significantly high @ P<0.01.

In general, using the cumulative criterion, the accuracy of the predictive association between the predictors
(cumRO and cumTR) and the criterion (dependent) variable (cumSL) was very high and significant at P< 0.01.

4.1.2 Regression Relationship (Gully volume growth)

The gully volume growth (cum GR) is another criterion variable that depends on the predictor variables (cum
RO, cum TR). Specific regimes were observed.

1. Case of high traffic count and low runoff.

The effect of cumulative high traffic count (cum TR) and cumulative low runoff (cum RO) was established
as:
cum GR = 2140cumTR – 44940.50cumRO – 397276.450 – 3.2097E5 (4)
@ R2 = 89.9%, adj R2 = 89.5% at P<0.01. ANOVA shows criterion variable and predictors have accurate
association significant at P<0.01. The coefficient of the constant and cum TR were significant at P<0.01
and 0.1 respectively.
2. Case of high runoff and high traffic counts.
The predictive association was obtained as:
cumGR = 2636997.624cumRO – 56477.606cumTR – 450688.340 + 2.10891E6 (5)
@ R2 = 92.2%
The dependence of criteria variable (GR) on the predictors were 92.2% accurate. Only 7.8% of estimate could
be said to depend on any other factor. There was a significant difference in the variable variances. The
coefficients of the constant and predictors were, however, not significant at P<0.05.
The coefficients of the constant and predictors were, however, not significant at P<0.05.
3. The case of high runoff discharged and low traffic count.
The predictive association was obtained as:
cumGR = 4432.175cumTR – 79546.954cumRO – 3629338.062 + 61695.863 (6)
@ R2 = 99.0%; Adj R2 = 98.7%
ANOVA: The F-ratio shows that we can reject the null hypothesis of the homogeneity of variances of cumRO
and cumTR at P<0.01.

Also, the contribution of the constant, and the coefficients of cumRO and cumTR were significant at P<0.01, P
= 0.05 and P<0.01 respectively.

V. CONCLUSION
Sand mining land use caused the onsite removal of soil vegetative cover and topsoil to the sublayer
depths at a peri-urban sub catchment in Uyo for construction and building projects in adjoining areas. The
unplanned and unregulated activity exposed the area and the unpaved haulage road to water and truck traffic
erosion.
The gully erosion on unpaved roadside was accelerated by the agency of runoff in splash wash from the road,
and high axle sand haulage trucks traffic.
The effect of the Runoff discharge and traffic count, as independent variables and in cumulative
quantities, on the cumulative soil loss from jagged side slope gullies, and the gully volume growth were very
significant at P<0.01 generally. Predicative coefficient of determination significant at P<0.01, were very perfect
at R2 = 88.8 to 98.9%. Different regimes of association were obtained such as: high runoff and high traffic
count; high flow rate and low traffic count, and low runoff and high traffic count for effect and on gully loss and
gully volume growth, and they gave accurate and significant relationship.
The case of using mixed magnitudes and point values of variables however, did not show accuracy and
significance at R2 = 12.4%. The growth of gully and its soil loss is really a cumulative addition of geometric
changes over time in a given rainy season.

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Regulation of sand-mining over a catchment is recommended as it has otherwise destroyed landform and
initiated unrestrained gullying.

REFERENCES
[1]. Michael, M. A. and Ojha, T. P. (2006). Principles of Agricultural Engineering, Volume II. Jain Brothers,
New Delhi 110005, 603-613.
[2]. Xu, X. L., Lin, W., Kong, V. P, Zhang, K. L, Yin, Bu and Chen, J. D. (2009). Runoff and water erosion
on road sides: Effect of rainfall characteristics and slope length. Transportation Research Part D:
Transportation and Environment, 14(7), 497 – 501.
[3]. Essien O. E., Okon, E. G. (2011). Rainfall characteristics, runoff rate and traffic flow on gully
morphometric parameter growth and soil loss in sand-ruined peri-urban, Uyo, Nigeria. Journal of
Geology and Mining Research, 3(7), 180 - 187.
[4]. Suresh, R. (2006). Soil and water conservation Engineering. Standard Publishers Distributors. Delhi 110
006. pp 404 – 522.
[5]. Ofo, J. E. (2001). Research methods and statistics, JOJA Educational Research and Publishers Ltd, Ikeja,
Lagos, ISBN 978-2477-58-6, 311.
[6]. AKADEP (1995). Northern Akwa Ibom Swamps Development Study, Akwa Ibom Agricultural
Development Project, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Uyo, Nigeria

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN: 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-369-377
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Estimating Time Loss Effects On Municipal Solid Waste

Collection Using Haul Container System In Uyo Nigeria
Obot E. Essien1, and J. C. Udo2
1
Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering, University of Uyo, Uyo, P.O. Box 1014, Uyo, Nigeria.
Postal Code 52001.
2
GIS Section, Department of Geography and Regional Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria.

Abstract: - Time loss in time and motion study of the collection of municipal solid waste in Uyo metropolis
was observed to affect the round-trip time, the solid waste generation rate and the collection efficiency of the
haul container system of solid waste management, and hence needed information to drive control or reduction in
the service. The result showed that its effects depended on the truck, route zone and operators skill in
maneuvering the routes to reduce the dead ends and waste hours. Seven components of time losses with values
ranging from 7 to 40 minutes per trip were measured, giving valuable total times loss per service truck per day
as 2.0 hr for zones 2, 3 and 6, and 1.95hr for zone 4. The time loss for collection efficiency showed significant
difference (P = 0.05) between zones and trucks, and varied as 19%, 20%, 7% and 30% for trucks 046, 053, 060
and 072 used in zones 03, 02, 04 and 06 respectively. Trucks for zones 05 and 01 were invalid. The available
time was thus reduced. With average cycle time of 17.30 min to 24.21 min per trip, such loss time, in turn,
reduced collection efficiency by 20 to 25% per truck thereby reducing the total trips and daily turnover.
Recommendations include micro-routing principles, operators’ motivation with team spirit and avoidance of
observed start-up delays. Also route re-design of more dense zones and sparsely populated zones are
recommended in order to bring trip time to near equality.

Key words: - Time allowance, time loss, solid waste collection, municipal solid waste, collection efficiency,
round trip time, route zones.

I. INTRODUCTION
Efficiency of municipal solid waste collection is a time function of cycle time and loss time in an
operation day. In solid waste collection operation of conventional haul-container system, one loop round trips or
cycle time comprises the time spent on/or appropriated for lifting of one container load of generated solid wastes
at a container station to the disposal site and return with an empty or used container to the waste generation site
(i.e. pick-up station), then moving to the next station to repeat the same time-based set of motion and spot
actions (activities) [1, 2].
Therefore in a nominal working day of fixed work period, the number of travel loops or cycle times
completed within the work period is predicated on the deficiency factor or time allowance that quantitatively
reduces the proportion of a working day available for the maximum travel cycles attainable. Thus a certain
number of cycles of solid wastes collection, transportation and disposal is only optimum when the deficiency
factor tends to zero. When repetitive work cycles or sequence of repeated work phases of short to long duration
are involved, useless time consumption are studied and eliminated [3, 4]. The optimization of productive
collection hour by deficiency factor tending to zero is what the evaluation and standardization of repetitive job
standard cycle time evaluated aims at [4]; and this is applicable to collection operation of Haul Container
System (HCS) since the method is not changing but repeated.
The time available for optimal cycles when deficiency factor tends to zero is a full working day. But as
the deficiency factor (or loss time) is not zero where work is executed, then the maximum total cycles of waste
collection to disposal per working day is diminished by total time allowance, or is subject to the total available
cycle time which is the work period less the total time allowance [5], i.e.

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Hence, efficiency of solid waste collection service, which is the total available cycle time per work period, and,
as such, is a productivity coefficient, is factored by the time allowance (time loss) in a daily solid waste
collection, transport and disposal activities cycles.
Hence, from Equation 1, time-based solid waste collection efficiency is

= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

(2) (2)
Optimal Efficiency 1−
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Time allowance comprises different deficiency occurrences involving machine worthiness,

environmental factors causing travel interruptions and delays, and human operators’ factors (skill, integrity,
diligence, fitness). These are not fixed values, hence their combination imposes unpredictable effect on the
availability of time for actual solid waste collection service, which affects adversely collection efficiency under
conventional haul-container system (HCS) of solid waste management, or any travel management system for
that matter.
Efficiency means getting more for less: picking more solid wastes or recyclables using fewer trucks,
fewer people or less time [6]. The implication of loss time is that it would need extension of time (working day)
to collect the nominal quantity of waste or attain the nominal cycles of waste collection than could be achieved
without occurrence of loss time or when loss time is negligible. Such extension of working day in the
circumstance of waste collection would be counter-purpose to implied collection efficiency and haul container
system management, and should not be contemplated upon. Since the primary aim of HCS is ensuring efficient
collection by removal of generated garbage and other solid wastes from the community or locality to ensure
elimination of environmental contamination and protect environmental aesthetics and public health in a less-
costly operation, the uncertainty of time loss might make the realization of their aim and efficiency elusive.
Hence, the rising need to investigate and quantify these impacts of loss time in the present system of haul
container solid waste management in the metropolis since no standard data is available for any such service
evaluation and improvement in order to benefit the environmental sanitation and public health, and work
standardization [4].
Therefore, the time study objectives were to:
1. Measure the time loss in solid waste collection of HCS in the urban collection metropolis and
2. Evaluate the time loss impact on collection service capacity and efficiency, and
3. Ascertain prospects of improvement.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Work measurement techniques was used. It consists of careful time measurement of the task with a
time measurement instrument for a comprehensive time loss study. The time study, according to good practice
guidelines for productive studies comprised, in addition to good setting, experimental design, time data
collection, data analysis and discussion [7, 8].

1.1 Experimental Design: Time Study area.

The study was done in Uyo metropolis, the urban area of Akwa Ibom State capital territory, Nigeria.
The expanding urban-rural fringe are not comprehensively addressed presently. Four (4) route zones out of the
six (6) presently operating were plied. The other two route zones had certain un-cleared handicaps. One truck
was assigned to each route zone per day. The process was to take a truck on a route zone to a municipal waste
generating station, load off the solid waste into a container and haul it to a dumpsite; empty and hitch back an
empty container to the generator location before moving to the next station to repeat the same set of component
activities in the collection process. Thus, the task involves a repetitive set of activities of short or long duration
with time losses in between them. These are to be measured and effects evaluated. For commonness purpose,
timings for the first five trips were measured and used for time loss analysis. From here, projection for the
number of trips per day was made and used for efficiency analysis. The initial five trips timing was replicated
for 5 days to minimize or eliminate human error of visual observation of instrument dial.

1.2 Time data collection

Time and motion data were captured with an electronic stop-watch using the continuous stop-watch
reading method [5, 8]. In the continuous method, the stop watch was allowed to tick continuously and at the end
of each element of operation (motion or activity) reading of the stop watch was made and recorded in a time
study register. The time required for each particular element of the operation, the previous reading (i.e. before

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stepping into that activity) was subtracted from the next reading (i.e. reading at point of stepping out of that
activity).

Set out rates

The set out capacity for each truck was the haul container heaped up or closed – cover volume, which was made
up as follows;
Volume = length x width x height + ridged cover = 4.063m3

2.3 Evaluation of conventional HCS systems [8].

The round trip or cycle time for HCS collection of solid waste to disposal comprises the following in
chronological order:
tpc = time to pick up loaded or community bin of solid waste at first container Station
th1 = time to haul loaded container from container station to disposal site
tss = time spent at disposal site (unloading waste container and re-attaching empty
container)
th2 = time spent returning empty container from disposal site back to
some container station.
tuc = time to un-mount empty container back at same container station
tdbl = time to drive between container locations.

Therefore cycle or round trip time is

Tcycle = tpc + thi + tss + th2 + tuc + tdbl (3)

III. EVALUATION OF TIME ALLOWANCE

The possible time losses encountered in a cycle of solid waste collection are as follows (IIE ANSI, 1982).
Dt = dispatch delay caused by sudden truck break down (maintenance factor time). This is
incorporated in dispatch time, ti
Db = extended break time by drivers to recover from fatigue (human factor time)
Du = hold up along major (transit) roads (interruption time)
Dd = unnecessary delays (e.g. time for source sorting or scooping
spilt waste at community bin station into the container haulage to disposal site. (This was very common).
Dv = delay in load evacuation, caused by insufficient trucks required to replace loaded
container at disposal site
Dq = delay (or queuing time) enroute the narrow lane to dumpsite.
Unit of time was minutes. Then the loss times was

Time Allowance = Db + Dd + Dl + Dq + Du + Dv (4)

2.4 Evaluation of efficiency

Collection efficiency (Ec) or service productivity (Cp) was computed as

Service productivity or productive hour Cp [5] is

Cp = Total available cycle time, min/day

Number of hours (or work period), hours (5)
Total available time or round trip time was obtained from measurement and using equation (3)

Collection efficiency (Ec) is given as in equation (1) in terms of time allowance factor,

Ec = 1 – Total time allowance

Total work period (1)

Total work period was 8 hours and total time allowance was obtained from measurement and using equation (4)

2.5 Evaluation of generation rate

Generation rate K = Collection load
Total Available Time (6)
Or in terms of loss time , (Tl),

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K = Daily waste collection load per truck (7)
Total work period – Time loss (Tl)

When K >1, more trucks are needed.

Rate of solid waste collection and disposal (Qe).

Rate of municipal solid waste evacuation or collection and disposal by a collection truck per day was computed
as

Qe = Average weight of solid waste x Number of trips

Average Cycle Time (tnet) (8)

IV. RESULTS
The measured and computed values of cycle time and loss time were as tabulated below.

3.1 Travel (Cycle) Time

The component time-based activities were measured and their time values are as given in Table 1.

Table 1: Summary of cycle time per trip for HCS collection trucks
Truck Day/Trip 1 2 3 4 5 Avg/Trip Sd
46 Mon 24.6 21.2 24.6 18.8 24.3 22.7- 2.61
53 24.3 23.4 23.4 23.6 20.6 23.06 1.42
60 24.8 29.4 23 25.4 24.4 25.40 2.40
72 18 14.8 17.6 14.3 15.3 16.00 1.69
Ag/Trip/Truck 22.93 22.20 22.15 20.53 21.15 21.7 -
Sd 3.29 6.03 3.11 5.00 4.28 - -
t
46 Tue 29.4 24.3 29.4 13.1 21.2 23.48 6.78
53 29.4 24.3 29.4 13.1 21.2 23.48 6.78
60 29.4 23.4 23.3 27.1 17.5 24.14 4.52
72 19.3 16.3 17.2 16.4 15.4 16.92 1.48
Ag/Trip/Truck 26.88 22.08 24.83 17.43 18.83 22.01 -
Sd 5.05 3.87 5.84 6.63 2.87 - -
t
46 Wed 29.9 21.4 26.9 13.2 21.4 22.56 6.38
53 26.3 36.5 26.5 22.1 24.5 27.18 5.50
60 25.64 24.5 25 23.1 23.5 24.35 1.05
72 16.5 17.1 16.4 18.6 16.3 16.98 0.96
Ag/Trip/Truck 24.59 24.88 23.70 19.25 21.43 22.7 -
Sd 5.71 8.32 4.93 4.47 3.65 - -
t
46 Thur. 27.4 22.3 27.4 17.6 22.7 23.48 4.10
53 - - - - - - -
60 20.4 24.3 25.1 25.1 24.3 23.84 1.96
72 23.1 17.3 16.3 16 16.2 17.78 3.02
Ag/Trip/Truck 23.63 21.30 22.93 19.57 21.07 21.7 -
Sd 3.53 3.61 5.86 4.86 4.29 - -
t
46 Fri. 25.4 29.6 25.4 22.3 24.1 25.36 2.69
53 - - - - - - -
60 18.2 24.4 23.2 21.4 20.2 21.48 2.44
72 19.4 16 19.1 19.5 20.2 18.84 1.64
21.00 23.33 22.57 21.07 21.50 21.9 -
3.86 6.86 3.20 1.43 2.25 - -
Ag/Trip/Truck 23.96 22.80 23.28 19.48 20.73 - -
Sd 4.39 5.48 4.27 4.52 3.30 - -
t
Note: sd = standard deviation, t = t-statistics. Ag/Trip/Truck = average cycle time per trip per truck.

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3.2 Time losses
The following time losses (Time allowance) per day were recorded for Truck 060 in zone 4 and other trucks in
solid waste collection using symbols in equation 4, they are:

Table 2: Time losses during HCS Municipal Solid Waste Collection to Disposal at Uyo Metropolis

3.3 The loss effect on collection efficiency.

The efficiency is affected by the total time loss given as

Tloss = TL + Tt (9)

Where TL is in equation 4 (time loss in operation), and Tt is dispatch time considered time loss because it also
reduces day’s operation or start up time outside collection to disposal activities [1].

Time loss varied significantly (P = 0.05) between the zones and truck operations, being 19% for truck 046, 20%
for 053, 7% for 060 and 30% for truck 072. The lowest time loss for truck 072 is in line with the truck being the
fastest evacuator of solid waste with mean cycle time of 17.75min.

V. DISCUSSION

4.1 Analysis of tnet data shows the following

For the cycle time (or tnet), the tnet values between daily trips time for trips 1 to 5 showed no significant
difference (@ P < 0.05) between the trips (trips 1 to 5) on each day for each truck. That means that the tnet for
each trips was specific to the truck, hence no significant variability per truck travel time. This suggests that the
operators are conversant with their zonal routes layout, to reduce unchecked time at obstructions in the usual
routes they plied in individual zones, and can create confidence in selecting zonal routes mean t net as standard
cycle times for the zonal routes.

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Thus, the standard cycle times for zonal routes were as shown in Table 1.
The variability of the cycle times between trucks within each day was also checked. The sum of
squares of tnet between 4 trucks and within each day, as given by ANOVA, was grossly less than the sum of
squares within the tnet of each day; hence no significant difference in tnet (at P = 0.05) except on Tuesday that the
difference was significant at P = 0.1. The 4th trip on Tuesday was the smallest tnet compared to other days, and
might have contributed to the significant variance within days.
However for all groups, i.e. between all trucks and within all days’ t net, the between trucks sum of
squares was one-sixth the sum of squares for within groups or mean square for between trucks was 3.241 times
of mean square for within group, hence making the variance significant at P = 0.05. That means the overall tnet
had significant standard deviations within its values for the number of trips, days and trucks, or the mean tnet
values for each truck for all days were significantly (P = 0.05) different from each other. Thus, in the overall
truck performance, operator’s skill, route size and loss time significantly affected individual truck’s cycle time.

4.2 Cycle Time, Time Loss and Available Time

The cycle times in Table 1 are average sum of the component activity times in the circuitous road
haulage of containerized MSW from generation point (container location) to disposal site and return. The cycle
time for truck 072 was the least (Table 2) although its zonal area was 2.25 km2 and 1.125 times the size of zone
03 for truck 046, and 2.25 times the size of zone 02 for truck 053 and zone 4 for truck 060. It could mean that,
in overall, that truck 072 was very frugal with time or very fast. This may be a coupled effect of the operator’s
skill, machine worthiness, operator’s knowledge and the use of route for easy maneuverability, and perhaps a
strategy of firstly evacuating the many containers at close proximity to the disposal site, freer routes at the start
of collection when operator is fresher and clear-headed, and ending up with few distant containers in the mid-
morning or early afternoon day when service routes are less busy [10, 11]. If that strategy is worthwhile then it
can be so researched and then routes re-design undertaken to equalize zonal cycle times as much as possible.
Cycle time seemed to vary with the collection vehicle trip number and day of operation. The intent satisfies the
rule of micro-routing that collection from heavily travelled streets should not be carried out during rush hours;
also collection should start as close to the garage or motor pool as possible taking into account heavily travelled
and one-way streets where it is best to start near the upstream end of the street working down it through the
looping process [10] 11]. The intent is to minimize driving time on the collection route through minimizing the
dead head distance [10, 11].
However, apart from truck 072, there was no significant difference (P =0.05) between them. The
variation of overall average round trip (cycle time) per day was not significantly different (P = 0.05) from the
average trip cycle per truck for each day (Table 1) but varied as follows:

For Monday: average trip cycle time per day =

Average trip cycle time per truck = (21.75 mins)
For Tuesday = 22.01 mins; (22 mins)
For Wednesday = 22.76mins (23 mins)
For Thursday = 21.70 mins (22 mins)
For Friday = 21.89 mins (22 mins)

Thus, the cycle time for solid waste collection trip varied with the day of operation and the operation truck.

The mean cycle time (tnet) for each was computed as:

Average tnet = (∑ mean daily tnet)/ nd

where nd is number of days.

Using data in Table 1, the mean cycle time (Avg tnet) for the trucks varied as follows:

For 046, Avg tnet = 23.52 mins

For 053, Avg tnet = 24.57 mins
For 060, Avg tnet = 23.84 mins
For 072, Avg tnet = 17.30 mins

Number of cycle trips per day

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The theoretical maximum number of collection trips per day is

Theoretical Nt = working hours/tnet

For an 8-hour working period

Theoretical Nt = 8 hour x 60 mins/tnet. us.

Using the tnet values above (in Table 1), theoretical Nt for the trucks were as in Table 3) as follows:

For 046, it was 20 ~ 20

For 053, it was 19.5 ~ 20
For 060, it was 20 ~ 20
For 072, it was 27.7 ~ 28

3 trucks (046, 060 and 053) had about the same Nt. However, the difference between mean cycle time for 072
and each or all the others was significant. The order of magnitude for overall average cycle time (t net) was
(Table 1): 053 (24.21 mins) > 046 (23.50 mins) > (23.84mins) > 072 (17.30 mins).

Above results show that, when rounded up tnet for 046, 053 and 060 would be the same as 24 min (Table 1), and
tnet for 072 would be 0.75 x tnet of each of the other 3 truck i.e. tnet (072) ~ 75% tnet (046) or (053) or (060).

Time loss, TL cut across all route zones and trucks’ operation time. On the average T L was of the order of
magnitude as in Table 2, which was T L (053) = TL (046) = TL (072) = 2.0 hr > TL (060) = 1.95 TL. Using TL
(060) for example, Dl(extended lunch break for operator adjustment to fatigue was the highest time loss of 0.667
hrs. The order of component losses (w) were: Dl > Hu > Bt = De > Ud > Dt > Dq. This suggests more special
package of incentive and counseling of the operator, who was the main causal agent for De time loss [6].

The ratio of total TL to total cycle times T for each service truck in a day was:

T – T Ratio = (Time loss/cycle daily time) = Total time loss, TL

Number of trips x tnet

This shows that there is inherent time loss of time allowance in all cycle times for MSW collection to disposal
either operator mental and physical fitness or machine worthiness of and environment both of them [5].

For truck 046, T – T ratio was 10%

For truck 053, T – T ratio was 10%
For truck 060, T – T ratio was 9.85%
For truck 072, T – T ratio was 7%

4.3 Time loss and total available time actual cycle time per truck and actual no. of trips per day
Time allowance + normal time = standard time [). Therefore time allowance or time loss affect the available
time.
Thus, available time = standard time –time allowance
For truck 046 total available time is 8.0 – 2.0 = 6.0 hr, giving total number of trips per day as:
For truck 046 Nt is 15
For truck 053 Nt is 16.118 is 16
For truck 060 Nt is 15.233 is 15
For truck 0.72 Nt is 20.81 or 21

4.4 Collection Efficiency

Efficiency was considered in two aspects both resulting from effect of time.
As productive hour (Banga et al 2004), efficiency, by definition, is
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑡
𝐸𝑓 =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑡
Using the theoretical and actual Nt (Table 3), Efficiency was computed as follows: for 046, Ef = 15/20 or 75%;
for 060, 072, Ef = 75%; while for 052, Ef = 80%. By order of magnitude, efficiency for truck 052 (80%) > 046 =
060 = 072.

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Thus, the efficiency reduction by the effect of loss time varied between 20 and 25% per truck.

4.5 Daily Generation (Collection)

The total weight of collected load was the sum of the weight of load for each trip for each truck for the
whole day. The daily generation rate was estimated as the total collected waste at the generation stations in the
zone. The results are as recorded in Table 4.

Table 4. Rate of daily collection (or generated) solid waste load in Uyo metropolis
Trip Haulage truck
046 053 060 072
1 400.00 400.0 400.0 400.0
2 450.0 450.0 450.0 450.0
3 200.0 200.0 300.0 200.0
4 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0
5 150.0 200.0 200.0 150.0
Total, kg/day 1400.0 1450.0 1600.0 1400.0
Area, km2 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.3
Waste Collection or generation rate 175.00 181.3 200.0 175.0
kg/hr
Collection or generation density 700.00 1450.0 1600.0 622.1
kg/km2/day
Avg. collection per trip, kg/trip 280 290 320 280

* 1 day was 8 nominal operation hours.

The rate of generated solid waste was obtained as the rate of solid waste collection per day where nominal day
was 8 nominal operation hours.
From the Table (Table 4), the highest solid waste collection rate, hence the highest solid waste
generation with a collection area of only 1.0 km2, resulted also in the solid waste highest generation density of
1600.00kg/km2.
The least rate was 175 kg/day by truck 072 from the widest collection area (2.23km 2) in zone 6. This
gave the least density of 622.1 kg/km2. Actually, 046 also had the least generation rate 175 kg/day from the next
larger area (2.0 km2), giving the next lower collection or generation density of 700kg/km2.
The set out rate or waste load per trip varied between 280 and 320 kg/trip, coming from truck 060 in one of the
smallest area. This is so because the trucks were the same, the container capacity was the same, and the number
of trip was the same.
Table 5. Effect of time loss on daily collection rate
Truck Zone Nominal Loss time Unexpected Percentage
collection w, hr. collection rate difference (%)
rate, kg/day kg/day
046 2 175.0 2.0 233.3 33.3
053 3 181.3 2.0 242.0 33.5
060 4 200.0 1.5 213.3 7.0
072 6 175.0 2.0 233.3 33.3
Av. Per 182.8 230.5 26.2
truck/day

Therefore, the difference was likely attributable to the packing and how full the containers were, and
the level of decomposition of the bottom content. If the waste at the bottom has started decomposing in the
waiting days before collection day, then it will lose moisture and so lose weight.
Also, it could be seen in the table (Table 5) that collection rate for 060 truck was the highest (200
kg/day) amongst the trucks set-out loads except 053 which was similar and as such had the next high collection
rate (185 kg/day). For the smallest collection area to produce the highest collection rate and load/trip, it means
the area (Zone 4) is a high solid waste generation zone in the metropolis; followed by zone 3 with truck 053.
The larger areas 2.0 and 2.25 kg/m2 produced lower generation rate of solid waste with the same lowest
collection rate (175 kg/day) and load/trip (280kg/trip).

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Effect of time loss on solid waste collection rate
The generation or collection rate was affected by loss time. Table 5 shows generation rate by between
7.0% and 33.5% of the nominal collection rate. The difference was significant at P = .05. The impact was
greatest at 33.5% on truck 053 in zone 3 with area of 1.0 km 2, and the percentage difference was least (7.0%) for
truck 060 in Zone 4. The loss time seemed to have extended the period for extra wastes to be thrown into the
container thereby increasing the set out rate. Also the loss time reduced effective operation hours, thereby
minimizing the daily operation hours.

VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Time losses components were identified and measured using continuous and snapback electronic
stopwatches in the solid waste collection cycle in Uyo metropolis. Time loss affected the short duration round
trip time. Four route zones at one haulage truck per zone were used in time and motion study of municipal solid
waste collection with haul container system, and the data were statistically analyzed using SPSS version 17.
Time loss effect was observed on the short cycle time, time allowance, daily generation rate and daily truck
collection efficiency; it depended on truck or operator’s skill, route zonal area and density of community bins as
well as on the collection week day – as affected by both load generation, and traffic density on collection routes.
The seven (7) components of time losses, including delays and extra time on lunch break and recuperation from
fatigue constituted variable total loss on collection trip, reducing time allowance, efficiency which significantly
varied with truck zone and day of operation and daily generation load.
Recommendations include measurement of cycle time for future new collection systems, reduction of startup
loss of time by adequate garage preparation; route zone re-design for round-trip equality, and training of
operators on skills of route management.

REFERENCES
[1]. Sincero A. P. and Sincero G. A. (2006), “Environmental engineering, a design approach”, Prentice Hall
of India, 517 – 581.
[2] McCreanor Dr (2008), “Solid Waste Collection”, 27 – 42. Available @ http://.Faculty.mercer.edu
pt/evc420/les.
[3]. ILO (1982), “Technical papers 8 and 9”, ILO International Labour Organization.
[4]. Salvendry G. (Ed.) (2001), Handbook of Industrial Engineering Technology and operation management”,
2nd Ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons, Chap. 54, 1410 – 1457.
[5]. Sharma S. C; Banga T. R. and Agarwal N. K. (2004), “Industrial engineering and management science”,
Delhi – 110006: Khanna Publishers, 49 – 89.
[6]. US EPA (1999), “Getting more for less: Improving collection efficiency”, US EPA, EPA 530 – R- 199 –
038.
[7]. Maganotti N. and Spinelli R. (2012), Good Practice guidelines for biomass production studies”. COST
Action FP-0902, WG 2 Operations, Research and Measurement Methodologies, 1-44.
[8]. Wikipedia (2012), “Time and Motion Study”, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
[9]. IIE ANS (1982), “Industrial Engineering Terminology: ANSI Z940 – 1982”, an American National
Standard, Institute of Industrial Engineers, 1 – 10.
[10]. EPA (1974), “Heuristic routing for solid waste collection vehicles”, US Environmental Protection
Agency, Publication No. SW – 113.
[11]. Robert Bob (2011), “Solid Waste Routing Improving Efficiency in Solid Waste Collection Part 3”.
Available at http://wp.mc/p11k50.

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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-378-384
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Modified Multilevel Inverter Topology for Grid Connected Pv

Systems
Dhivya Balakrishnan, Dhamodharan Shanmugam, K.Indiradevi
1
M.E-PED, Department OF EEE, Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu. INDIA.
2
M.E-PED, Department OF EEE, Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu. INDIA.
3
Asst.Prof (S)/Department OF EEE, Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu. INDIA.

Abstract: - Multilevel converters offer high power capability, associated with lower output harmonics and
lower commutation losses. Their main disadvantage is their complexity, requiring a great number of power
devices and passive components, and a rather complex control circuitry. This paper proposes a single-phase
seven- level inverter for grid connected PV systems, with a novel pulse width-modulated (PWM) control
scheme. Three reference signals that are identical to each other with an offset that is equivalent to the amplitude
of the triangular carrier signal were used to generate the PWM signals. The inverter is capable of producing
seven levels of output-voltage levels from the dc supply voltage. This paper proposes a new multilevel inverter
topology using an H-bridge output stage with two bidirectional auxiliary switches. The new topology produces a
significant reduction in the number of power devices and capacitors required to implement a multilevel output
using the Asymmetric Cascade configuration.

Keywords: - Asymmetric cascade configuration, H-Bridge, multilevel inverter, pulse width Modulation.

I. INTRODUCTION
The ever-increasing energy consumption, fossil fuels’ soaring costs and exhaustible nature, and
worsening global environment have created a booming interest in renewable energy generation systems, one of
which is photovoltaic. Such a system generates electricity by converting the Sun’s energy directly into
electricity. Photovoltaic-generated energy can be delivered to power system networks through grid-connected
inverters. A single-phase grid-connected inverter is usually used for residential or low-power applications of
power ranges that are less than 10 kW [1]. Types of single-phase grid-connected inverters have been
investigated [2]. A common topology of this inverter is full-bridge three-level. The three-level inverter can
satisfy specifications through its very high switching, but it could also unfortunately increase switching losses,
acoustic noise, and level of interference to other equipment. Improving its output waveform reduces its
harmonic content and, hence, also the size of the filter used and the level of electromagnetic interference (EMI)
generated by the inverter’s switching operation [3].
Multilevel inverters are promising; they have nearly sinusoidal output-voltage waveforms, output
current with better harmonic profile, less stressing of electronic components owing to decreased voltages,
switching losses that are lower than those of conventional two-level inverters, a smaller filter size, and lower
EMI, all of which make them cheaper, lighter, and more compact [3], [4]. Various topologies for multilevel
inverters have been proposed over the years. Common ones are diode-clamped [5]–[10], flying capacitor or
multicell [11]– [17], cascaded H-bridge [18]–[24], and modified H-bridge multilevel [25]–[29].
This paper recounts the development of a novel modified H-bridge single-phase multilevel inverter that
has two diode embedded bidirectional switches and a novel pulse width modulated (PWM) technique. The
topology was applied to a grid-connected photovoltaic system with considerations for a maximum-power-point
tracker (MPPT) and a current-control algorithm.

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Fig. 1. Proposed single-phase seven-level grid-connected inverter for photovoltaic systems

II. PROPOSED SYSTEM

The proposed single-phase seven-level inverter was developed from the five-level inverter in [25]–[29].
It comprises a single-phase conventional H-bridge inverter, two bidirectional switches, and a capacitor voltage
divider formed by C1, C2, and C3, as shown in Fig. 1. The modified H-bridge topology is significantly
advantageous over other topologies, i.e., less power switch, power diodes, and less capacitor for inverters of the
same number of levels. Photovoltaic (PV) arrays were connected to the inverter via a dc–dc boost converter. The
power generated by the inverter is to be delivered to the power network, so the utility grid, rather than a load,
was used. The dc–dc boost converter was required because the PV arrays had a voltage that was lower than the
grid voltage. High dc bus voltages are necessary to ensure that power flows from the PV arrays to the grid. A
filtering inductance Lf was used to filter the current injected into the grid. Proper switching of the inverter can
produce seven output-voltage levels (Vdc, 2Vdc/3, Vdc/3, 0,−Vdc,−2Vdc/3,−Vdc/3) from the dc supply voltage.
The proposed inverter’s operation can be divided into seven switching states, as shown in Fig. 2(a)–(g). Fig.
2(a), (d), and (g) shows a conventional inverter’s operational states in sequence, while Fig. 2(b), (c), (e), and (f)
shows additional states in the proposed inverter synthesizing one- and two-third levels of the dc-bus voltage.
The required seven levels of output voltage were generated as follows.
1) Maximum positive output (Vdc): S1 is ON, connecting the load positive terminal to Vdc, and S4 is ON,
connecting the load negative terminal to ground. All other controlled switches are OFF; the voltage applied
to the load terminals is Vdc. Fig. 2(a) shows the current paths that are active at this stage.
2) 2) Two-third positive output (2Vdc/3): The bidirectional switch S5 is ON, connecting the load positive
terminal, and S4 is ON, connecting the load negative terminal to ground. All other controlled switches are
OFF; the voltage applied to the load terminals is 2Vdc/3. Fig. 2(b) shows the current paths that are active at
this stage.
3) One-third positive output (Vdc/3): The bidirectional switch S6 is ON, connecting the load positive terminal,
and S4 is ON, connecting the load negative terminal to ground. All other controlled switches are OFF; the
voltage applied to the load terminals is Vdc/3. Fig. 2(c) shows the current paths that are active at this stage.
4) Zero output: This level can be produced by two switching combinations; switches S3 and S4 are ON, or S1
and S2 are ON, and all other controlled switches are OFF; terminal ab is a short circuit, and the voltage
applied to the load terminals is zero. Fig. 2(d) shows the current paths that are active at this stage.
5) One-third negative output (−Vdc/3): The bidirectional switch S5 is ON, connecting the load positive
terminal, and S2 is ON, connecting the load negative terminal to Vdc. All other controlled switches are
OFF; the voltage applied to the load terminals is −Vdc/3. Fig. 2(e) shows the current paths that are active at
this stage.
6) Two-third negative output (−2Vdc/3): The bidirectional switch S6 is ON, connecting the load positive
terminal, and S2 is ON, connecting the load negative terminal to ground. All other controlled switches are
OFF; the voltage applied to the load terminals is −2Vdc/3. Fig. 2(f) shows the current paths that are active
at this stage.
7) Maximum negative output (−Vdc): S2 is ON, connecting the load negative terminal to Vdc, and S3 is ON,
connecting the load positive terminal to ground. All other controlled switches are OFF; the voltage applied
to the load terminals is −Vdc. Fig. 2(g) shows the current paths that are active at this stage.

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Fig. 2. Switching combination required to generate the output voltage (Vab). (a) Vab = Vdc. (b) Vab = 2Vdc/3.
(c) Vab = Vdc/3. (d) Vab = 0.

Fig. 2. (Continued.) Switching combination required to generate the output voltage (Vab). (e) Vab = −Vdc/3. (f)
Vab = −2Vdc/3. (g) Vab = −Vdc.

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TABLE I: SWITCHING CONDITION

III. PWM MODULATION

A novel PWM modulation technique was introduced to generate the PWM switching signals. Three
reference signals (Vref1, Vref2, and Vref3) were compared with a carrier signal (Vcarrier). The reference signals
had the same frequency and amplitude and were in phase with an offset value that was equivalent to the
amplitude of the carrier signal. The reference signals were each compared with the carrier signal. If Vref1 had
exceeded the peak amplitude of Vcarrier, Vref2 was compared with Vcarrier until it had exceeded the peak
amplitude of Vcarrier. Then, onward, Vref3 would take charge and would be compared with Vcarrier until it
reached zero. Once Vref3 had reached zero, Vref2 would be compared until it reached zero. Then, onward, Vref1
would be compared with Vcarrier. Fig. 3 shows the resulting switching pattern. Switches S1, S3, S5, and S6
would be switching at the rate of the carrier signal frequency, whereas S2 and S4 would operate at a frequency
that was equivalent to the fundamental frequency.

IV. CONTROL SYSTEM

The control system comprises a MPPT algorithm, a dc-bus voltage controller, reference-current
generation, and a current controller. The two main tasks of the control system are maximization of the energy
transferred from the PV arrays to the grid, and generation of a sinusoidal current with minimum harmonic
distortion, also under the presence of grid voltage harmonics.
The proposed inverter utilizes the perturb-and-observe (P&O) algorithm for its wide usage in MPPT
owing to its simple structure and requirement of only a few measured parameters. It periodically perturbs (i.e.,
increment or decrement) the array terminal voltage and compares the PV output power with that of the previous
perturbation cycle. If the power was increasing, the perturbation would continue in the same direction in the
next cycle; otherwise, the direction would be reversed. This means that the array terminal voltage is perturbed
every MPPT cycle; therefore, when the MPP is reached, the P&O algorithm will oscillate around it.

Fig. 3. Switching pattern for the single-phase seven-level inverter.

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Fig. 4. Seven-level output voltage (Vab) and switching angles.

The P&O algorithm was implemented in the dc–dc boost converter. The output of the MPPT is the
duty-cycle function. As the dc-link voltage Vdc was controlled in the dc–ac seven level PWM inverter, the
change of the duty cycle changes the voltage at the output of the PV panels. A PID controller was implemented
to keep the output voltage of the dc–dc boost converter (Vdc) constant by comparing Vdc and Vdc ref and
feeding the error into the PID controller, which subsequently tries to reduce the error. In this way, the Vdc can
be maintained at a constant value and at more than √2 of Vgrid to inject power into the grid.
A PI algorithm was used as the feedback current controller for the application. The current injected into
the grid, also known as grid current Igrid, was sensed and fed back to a comparator that compared it with the
reference current Igridref . Igridref is the result of the MPPT algorithm. The error from the comparison process
of Igrid and Igridref was fed into the PI controller. The output of the PI controller, also known as Vref , goes
through an antiwindup process before being compared with the triangular wave to produce the switching signals
for S1–S6. Eventually, Vref becomes Vref1; Vref2 and Vref3 can be derived from Vref1 by shifting the offset
value, which was equivalent to the amplitude of the triangular wave. The mathematical formulation of the PI
algorithm and its implementation in the DSP are discussed in detail in [28].

V. SIMULATION RESULTS
MATLAB SIMULINK simulated the proposed configuration before it was physically implemented in a
prototype. The PWM switching patterns were generated by comparing three reference signals (Vref1, Vref2, and
Vref3) against a triangular carrier signal. Subsequently, the comparing process produced PWM switching signals
for switches S1– S6.

Fig. 5. Inverter output voltage (Vinv).

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Fig. 6. Grid voltage (Vgrid) and grid current (Igrid).

One leg of the inverter operated at a high switching rate that was equivalent to the frequency of the
carrier signal, while the other leg operated at the rate of the fundamental frequency (i.e., 50 Hz). Switches S5
and S6 also operated at the rate of the carrier signal. Fig. 5 shows the simulation result of inverter output voltage
Vinv. The dc-bus voltage was set at 300 V (> √ 2Vgrid; in this case, Vgrid was 120 V). The dc-bus voltage must
always be higher than √ 2 of Vgrid to inject current into the grid, or current will be injected from the grid into
the inverter. Therefore, operation is recommended to be between Ma = 0.66 andMa = 1.0. Vinv comprises seven
voltage levels, namely, Vdc, 2Vdc/3, Vdc/3, 0, −Vdc, −2Vdc/3, and −Vdc/3. The current flowing into the grid
was filtered to resemble a pure sinewave in phase with the grid voltage (see Fig. 6). As Igrid is almost a pure
sinewave at unity power factor, the total harmonic distortion (THD) can be reduced compared with the THD in
[28].

VI. CONCLUSION
Multilevel inverters offer improved output waveforms and lower THD. This paper has presented a
novel PWM switching scheme for the proposed multilevel inverter. It utilizes three reference signals and a
triangular carrier signal to generate PWM switching signals. The behavior of the proposed multilevel inverter
was analyzed in detail. By controlling the modulation index, the desired number of levels of the inverter’s
output voltage can be achieved. The less THD in the seven-level inverter compared with that in the five- and
three-level inverters is an attractive solution for grid-connected PV inverters.

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[9] M. M. Renge and H. M. Suryawanshi, ―Five-level diode clamped inverter to eliminate common mode
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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-385-392
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Exergy Analysis of Boiler In cogeneration Thermal Power Plant

Sarang j gulhane, Prof.Amit kumar thakur
*(scholar of mechanical department sagar institute of science and technology Bhopal.)
* (Associate professor mechanical Engg sagar institute of science and technology Bhopal)

Abstract: – Effective energy utilization and its management for minimizing irreversibility has made human to
look for efficient energy consumption & conversion. Based on several research activity and local power plant
experience some key observation has made and is presented in this paper The aim of this paper is to be find out
amount and source of irreversibilities gererated in boiler of 35 TPH boiler in 6 MW captive power plant so that
any process in the system that having largest energy destruction can be identified that help designer to re design
the system components.

Key Words: – Thermal Power Plant, energy utilization, Irreversibility.

I. INTRODUCTION
Energy consumption is the most important problem in the today’s era. In the present scenario per capita
energy consumption determines the level of development of the nation. With the increased awareness that the
world’s energy resources are limited has caused many countries to reassess their energy policies and take
measures for eliminating the waste. It has also ignited the interest in the scientists and researchers to take a close
look at the energy conversion devices and to develop new techniques for better utilization of the available
resources.
The First Law deals with the amounts of energy of various forms transferred between the system and
its surroundings and with the changes in the energy stored in the system. It treats work and heat interactions as
equivalent forms of energy in transit and offers no indication about the possibility of a spontaneous process
proceeding in a certain direction. The first law places no restriction on the direction of a process, but satisfying
the first law does not ensure that the process can actually occur. This inadequacy of the first law to identify
whether a process can take place is remedied by introducing another general principle, the second law of
thermodynamics
The exergy method of analysis is based on the Second law of thermodynamics and the concept of
irreversible production of entropy. The fundamentals of the exergy method were laid down by Carnot in 1824
and Clausius in 1865. The energy-related engineering systems are designed and their performance is evaluated
primarily by using the energy balance deduced from the First law of thermodynamics. Engineers and scientists
have been traditionally applying the First law of thermodynamics to calculate the enthalpy balances for more
than a century to quantify the loss of efficiency in a process due to the loss of energy. The exergy concept has
gained considerable interest in the thermodynamic analysis of thermal processes and plant systems since it has
been seen that the First law analysis has been insufficient from an energy performance stand point.
Keeping in view the facts stated above, it can be expected that performing an analysis based on the
same definition of performance criteria will be meaningful for performance comparisons, assessments and
improvement for thermal power plants. Additionally, considering both the energetic and exergetic performance
criteria together can guide the ways of efficient and effective usage of fuel resources by taking into account the
quality and quantity of the energy used in the generation of electric power in thermal power plants. The purpose
of this study presented here is to carry out energetic and exergetic performance analyses, at the design
conditions, for the existing coal and gas-fired thermal power plants in order to identify the needed improvement.
For performing this aim, we summarized thermodynamic models for the considered power plants on the basis of
mass, energy and exergy balance equations. The thermodynamic model simulation results are compared. In the
direction of the comprehensive analysis results, the requirements for performance improvement are evaluated.

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Energy And exergy analysis of caol fired cogeneration power plant with condensate extraction turbine
(A) Energy analysis of coal fired Cogeneration power plant with condensate extraction turbine.
In general coal based thermal plant works on Rankin cycle. Several advancement has made in recent
thermal power plant to increase the energy output per unite mass of fuel burnt like reheating, regeneration etc.
The design of any power plant is based on location, avaibility of fuel and it effectiveness. Since thermal power
plant works on fossile fuel, it has made great interest to research to look for more efficient utilization of this fuel
due to it’s stock limitation under earth. Which results into no. of analysis based on energy losses and
irreversibility, various attempts where made to over come this loss as and hence reheat cycle, regenerative cycle
are the some fruitful outcome that came out for improvement.

II. DESCRIPTION OF COAL FIRED POWER PLANT

Several observed processes are considered for the analysis of a cumulative coal fixed thermal like
lowering condenser pressure, superheating the to high temperatures, increasing the boiler pressure, reheat
regenerative rankine cycle is used

Fig.1 describs the detail part of cogeneration coal based with condensate extraction turbine consists of Boiler
(B), Condensate extraction turbine with there stages (T) Pump (P), Decretory (D), a generator (S) , condense
(c) high pressure feed water heater (HPH). The thermodynamic model of power plant are based on fundamental
mass and energy balances. Using the energy and mass balance equation for each component in the power plant
model, it is possible to compute energy and energy contents in terms of turbine power outputs, pump power
consumptions boiler flow. for minimized the loss of dry flue gas.

Exergy analysis :-
useful work potential of a system is the amount of energy we extract as useful work. The useful work
potential of a system at the specified state is called exergy. Exergy is a property and is associated with the state
of the system and the environment. A system that is in equilibrium with its surroundings has zero exergy and is
said to be at the dead state

It means available energy at a specified condition

Exergy analysis of boiler can be calculated by following formula which can be taken from research paper.
(1)Exergy analysis of fuel
(2)Exergy analysis of water
(3) Exergy analysis of Air
(4)Exergy analysis of flue gas
(5)Exergy analysis of economizer
(6)Exergy analysis of steam drum
(7)exrgy analysis of super heater
(1) Exergy analysis of fuel:-

Ultimate analysis of coal

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COAL CONSITUTENT UNIT COAL SAMPLE

C % 45
H % 13
N % 1.69
O % 4.5
S % 0.5
ASH % 29.31
MOISTURE % 9.82
VOLATILE MATTER % 20.16
FIXED CARBON % 34.71
CALORIFIC VALUE KCAL/KG 4187

Exergy of fuel can be calculated by the equation proposes by shieh And fan for calculating the exergy of fuel
Exergy of fuel can be calculated by using a shieh and fan formula
Єf=34183016(C)+21.95(N)+11659.9(H)+18242.90(S)+13265.90(O)------------------------------(1)
Accourding to the T.J kotas say that the ratio of exergy of fuel to caloric value of the fuel lies betn the 1.15 to
1.30 Accourding to the our ultimate analysis we get exergy of the fuel is =17683.84 kj/kg and calorific value is
17585.4 kj/kg thus ratio we get is 1.01 that is nearer to T.J kotas ratio.

Load in MW Exergy of fuel in KW

5.6 32596.79
5.4 31480.92
4.9 30598.77
3.7 27927.78
1.1 13303.81

Exergy of fuel
40000
Exergy of fuel

30000
20000
10000 Exergy of
0 fuel
0 2 4 6
load

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the above graph it shows as load increases the exergy of fuel is also increases So always run the plant in
pick load
(2)The exergy of feed water
Before entering the water into the economizer ,the water is allowed to get heated in the deratator thus the temp
of feed water is increased to higher temp
The temp water at economizer i/L from above table
Exergy of feed water can be calculated by
𝑇
€ŵ=(𝑐𝑝𝑤 ) (𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑎 )- 𝑇𝑎 Ln ( 𝑇4 )
𝑎

Where
(Cp)w=specific heat of water =4.187 kj/kg
T4= temp of feed water

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Ta= temp of ambient temp
While putting the above value , get following result

Load in MW Exergy of water in KW

5.6 738.78
5.4 749.3812
4.9 656.7425
3.7 565.1152
1.1 74.30

exergy of water
800
exergy of water

600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6
load

From the above graph it shows as load increases the exergy of water is also increases So always run the plant in
pick load

(3)The exergy of Air

The exergy of air can be calculated by following

𝑇
€a=(𝑐𝑝𝑎 ) (𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑎 )- 𝑇𝑎 Ln ( 𝑇2 )
𝑎
Where,
T2= temp of air after air pre heater
Ta= temp of ambient temp.

Load in MW Exergy of Air in KW

5.6 115.075
5.4 127.077
4.9 139.212
3.7 159.925
1.1 32.77

The exergy of air is depend upon the combustion air temp as well as flue gas temp Due to that it is fund that
exergy at full load i.e 5.6 MW is less as compared to the 3.7 MW s proper maintain the combustion air temp as
well as flue gas temp

(4)The exergy of economizer :-

The water entering the economizer from deratator is already at higher temp is then heated almost saturated temp
at that pressure but leaving the economizer remain in liquid without change in phase
𝑇
€a=(𝑐𝑝𝑤 ) (𝑇5 − 𝑇4 )- 𝑇4 Ln ( 𝑇5 )
4

T5 & T4 are the temp of the ecomonizer inlet and outlet.

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
Load in MW Exergy of Air in KW
5.6 927.45
5.4 940.758
4.9 893.339
3.7 725.191
1.1 211.862
It is also shows load increase exergy also increase

(5)The exergy of drum can be calculated

€𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚 = (ℎ6 − ℎ5 )- 𝑇6 (𝑠6−𝑠5 )

T6 = temp of drum

Load in MW Exergy of drum

5.6 5123.369
5.4 5196.87
4.9 4741.2
3.7 3989.80
1.1 1408.98

As it also shows that load increase exergy of drum is also increase but in some case exergy is reduced due to
steam flow is reduced as it depends upon the extraction steam or process steam

(7) The exergy of super heater

Super heater is place at end of boiler mounting and water ckt after super heater
Super heated steam is produced .the super heater for a given boiler is made up of three different
component of super heater ,primary super heater is rise the temp by extracting the heat from flue gas is called as
convective super heater, and second dary super heater is exposed to the flame to which heat is done by radiation
thus caused radiating super heater ,temp rang for the turbine inlet is fix if the steam temp is rises above the rang
it is found that attemptator or spary control valve is open ,after that steam goes to the bed super heater
Exergy rise in the drum=(ℎ8 − ℎ6 )-𝑇8 (𝑆8 − 𝑆6 )

As per the above diagram and reading table is found that

Load in MW Exergy of super heater
5.6 2399.177
5.4 2103.43
4.9 2224.76
3.7 1456.16
1.1 669.21

It is also shows that load increase exergy rise of super heater also increase ,it is depend upon the temp of drum
as well as temp of super heater temp.

(7)The exergy of flue gas

𝑇𝑔
€a=(𝑐𝑝𝑔 ) (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑎 )- 𝑇𝑎 Ln ( )
𝑇𝑎

Load in MW Exergy of flue gas

5.6 194.14
5.4 200.228
4.9 263.251
3.7 220.324
1.1 163.797

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
AS load increase exergy of flue gas increase ,but it is again depend upon the temp of flue gas and boiler
load if at particular load temp is less and boiler load is less then also exergy of flue gas is less.
Total exergy gain by the steam;
AS load increase exergy of flue gas increase ,but it is again depend upon the temp of flue gas and boiler
load if at particular load temp is less and boiler load is less then also exergy of flue gas is less.
Total exergy gain by the steam;

Load in MW Total exergy gain by steam

5.6 7711.21
5.4 7491.68
4.9 7203.08
3.7 5606.04
1.1 2215.74

Total Exergy gained by

steam
10000
Exergy gained by steam

5000
Total Exergy
0 gained by
steam
0 5 10
load

AS load increase total exergy of drum gain by the steam increase ,it is sum of exergy rise in ecomonizer and
super heater
Efficiency of boiler = Total energy leaving the boiler to total energy entering the boiler
Load in MW Efficiency of boiler as per 2 law
5.6 23.67
5.4 23.79
4.9 23.54
3.7 20.07
1.1 16.65

0.3 Efficiency of boiler%

0.2
Efficiency %

0.1

0 Efficienc…
0 1 2 3 Load 4 5 6

Result and discussion:-

Lot of precaution already taken for reducing the heat loss like insulation of boiler ,but still form
observation boiler seem most exergy destruction part to which need to improve for 6 mw power plant analysis
of exergy indicate that the boiler has exergy destruction at home load 1.1 mw is around 83.35% and as load

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 American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 2013
increases for highest load 5.6 mw the exergy destruction found to be 76.33%thus efficiency of 1 st law and 2
law increases with load ,we have to work on the peak load for reduce the irreversibility
The material capability study and exergy study on various component of boiler can b e the scop of the study,
with the passage of time the technology getting matured and new material wi th higher capacity heat transfer
rate like heat pipe and thermo sypon is used ,the data designer of the boiler can redesign the boiler with efficient
auxiliary devices

IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wish to thank Raymond India Limited, Yavatmal, for granting the permission to carry out work and
their kind support during work.

REFERENCES
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Fired Thermal Power Plant," Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review, Vol. 2, No. 1,
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[6] Seluk Atas “comparative energetic and exergetic performance analysis for coal fired thermal power plant
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[7] S. C. Kamate and P. B. Gangavati, "Exergy Analysis of Cogeneration Power Plants in Sugar Industries,"
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[8] Arif hepbasil “Thermodynamic analysis of a building using exergy analysis method”
[9] A. Datta, S. Sengupta and S. Duttagupta, "Exergy Analysis of a Coal-Based 210 mw Thermal Power
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[10] M.K Gupta “exergy analysis and investigation for various feed water heater of direct steam generation
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[11] I. H. Aljundi, "Energy and Exergy Analysis of a Steam Power Plant in Jordan," Applied Thrmal
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[12] Ankit patel “energy and exergy analysis of boiler with different fuels like Indian coal ,imported coal and
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[13] R saidur “energy and exergy economic analysis of industrial boiler” Vol 38(2010)2188-2197
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American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER)

e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936
Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-393-400
www.ajer.org
Research Paper Open Access

Modified Multiport Dc-Dc Converter Topology For Smart Grid

Dhamodharan Shanmugam, Dhivya Balakrishan, K.Indiradevi
1
M.E-PED, Department OF EEE, Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu. INDIA.
2
M.E-PED, Department OF EEE, Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu. INDIA.
3
Asst.Prof (S)/Department OF EEE, Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu. INDIA.

Abstract: - The development of a Solid State Transformer (SST) that incorporates a DC-DC multiport
converter to integrate both photovoltaic (PV) power generation and battery energy storage is presented in this
dissertation. The DC-DC stage is based on a quad active-bridge (QAB) converter which not only provides
isolation for the load, but also for the PV and storage. The AC-DC stage is implemented with a pulse-width-
modulated (PWM) single phase rectifier. A unified gyrator-based average model is developed for a general
multi-active-bridge (MAB) converter controlled through phase-shift modulation (PSM). Expressions to
determine the power rating of the MAB ports are also derived. The developed gyrator-based average model is
applied to the QAB converter for faster simulations of the proposed SST during the control design process as
well for deriving the state-space representation of the plant. Both linear quadratic regulator (LQR) and single-
input-single-output (SISO) types of controllers are designed for the DC-DC stage. A novel technique that
complements the SISO controller by taking into account the cross coupling characteristics of the QAB converter
is also presented herein. Cascaded SISO controllers are designed for the AC-DC stage. The QAB demanded
power is calculated at the QAB controls and then fed into the rectifier controls in order to minimize the effect of
the interaction between the two SST stages. The dynamic performance of the designed control loops based on
the proposed control strategies are verified through extensive simulation of the SST average and switching
models.

Keywords:- DC–DC converter, distributed generation, multiport converter, smart grid, solid-state transformer.

I. INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, the Smart Grid concept has drawn the attention of researchers and industry as a
feasible solution to the challenges that the entire electrical system is facing due to the growth in load, the
increasing penetration of renewables and the deployment of the distributed generation at the consumer end [1].
Currently, the Future Renewable Electric Energy Delivery and Management (FREEDM) Systems Center is
working in several areas in its efforts to contribute with the modernization of the power distribution system and
help develop the standards for the implementation and optimal operation of this portion of the future Smart Grid
[2]. The power-electronics-based transformer, or so-called SST, is one of the key components of the FREEDM
distribution system. In addition to serving as a regular distribution transformer, the SST provides ports for the
proper integration of distributed energy resources (DER) and distributed energy storage (DES), thus enhancing
the reliability of the distribution system [3]. Additionally, the SST enables the implementation of distributed
intelligence through a secure communication network (COMM) to ensure stability and optimal operation of the
distribution system. Another important component of the FREEDM distribution system is the Fault
Identification Device (FID), which is a fast protection device deployed to enable Intelligent Fault Management
(IFM) [4].
Besides the advantage of its reduced size and weight due to its high frequency (HF) transformer [5], the
SST makes use of state-of-the-art Power Electronics devices that allows it to provide additional functionalities
such as on-demand reactive power support to grid, power quality, current limiting, storage management and a
DC bus for end use. Poor load power factor and harmonics are isolated from the distribution system, thus
improving the overall system efficiency. Additionally, the selection of new generation materials for
semiconductors and magnetics may help improve its efficiency when compared to a regular transformer of the

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same ratings. Fig. 1 shows the SST interfacing photovoltaic (PV) generation, storage, electric loads as well as
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).

Figure. 1. Integration of DES, DER and intelligent loads through the SST.

The interest in renewable sources of energy has increase, considerably. They represent a potential
solution to mitigate environmental issues and reduce the dependence on traditional sources of energy for
electrical generation. The need of technology for adapting these non-traditional types of energy into the system
has motivated the development of new generation power electronics converters. The future homes will make use
of power converters to integrate all the available sources of electrical energy, including renewables as wind
turbine (WT) and PV. These power converters have to meet efficiency, flexibility, power density, reliability and
safety requirements.
A generation of power converters that has been proposed by researchers for the integration of
distributed generation (DG) and storage is the family of multi-port DC-DC converters [6]. Their advantage lies
in the integration of several sources with minimum DC-DC conversion stages. The traditional and integrated
configurations introduced in [6] are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, respectively. The latter may require a reduced
the number of components while providing galvanic isolation.

Figure. 2. Conventional power conversion through two-port DC-DC converters.

Since the SST and the multi-port converters are two key areas of research, the work presented herein
has been motivated by the better integration that the SST can achieve with the use of multi-port converters. The
three-stage configuration that has been identified as a potential candidate for the SST implementation relies on a
DC bus for PV and storage integration.

Figure. 3. Integrated power conversion through a multi-port DC-DC converter

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This is achieved through separate DC-DC converters. Without isolation, the voltage ratings of these
devices must be selected mainly based on the DC bus voltage rating. If voltage ratings are not compatible and/or
isolation is required, then additional isolation is needed, thus increasing the size of the system. Furthermore,
separate controllers for each DC-DC converter are to be designed. In this design process, the stability of the
interconnected DC-DC converters must be ensured. The need of technology for integrating DG and storage into
the distribution system has motivated the development of a new generation of power converters. A family of
multiport dc–dc converters, which includes the multiactive-bridge (MAB) converters, has been proposed by
researchers [6]. Their advantage lies in the integration of several sources with minimum dc–dc conversion
stages, which yields a higher power density. Since the SST considered herein includes the grid, the load, the PV
system, and the storage, a four-port dc–dc converter as the quad-active-bridge (QAB) converter is required.

II. PROPOSED SYSTEM

This paper proposes the development of a SST based on a QAB converter, to integrate DG and storage.
The QAB converter, used in the implementation of the SST dc–dc stage, provides isolation for DG and storage
through a single four-winding HF transformer as seen in Fig. 4 and the control design involves the analysis of
only a single converter. The proposed SST is based on a particular type of multi-port converter, called quad-
active-bridge (QAB) converter, to integrate PV and storage. This SST topology eliminates the need of additional
isolation and only an integrated controller for the DCDC stage may be required.

Figure. 4. QAB-based SST with PV and storage integrated through HF transformer.

The block representation of the proposed SST topology is shown in Fig. 5. Since little information is
available on the literature for the QAB converter, a detailed analysis is required. Furthermore, an average model
for any multi-active-bridge (MAB) converter is developed and expressions to calculate the rated power of any
MAB port are derived. This is the basis for the dynamic analysis and control design of the DC-DC stage of the
proposed SST topology.

Figure 5. QAB-based SST with storage and PV.

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The control design for the SST DC-DC stage is performed using both the conventional single-input-
single-output (SISO) approach and a more modern multiple input- multiple-output (MIMO) approach.
Furthermore, the SISO controller is complemented with a novel technique to deal with the cross-coupled
characteristics of the QAB. Additionally, the control design for the SST AC-DC stage introduces a technique to
deal with the interactions that result when the above two SST stages are interconnected. The performance of the
controls is verified through extensive simulation of both switching and average models of the SST.
Experimental results from the hardware implementation of a prototype SST are presented for validation
purposes. Since no contributions are made on the SST DC-AC stage, it is modeled with a current source during
its analysis and simulation, and implemented with an electronics load when testing the prototype SST.

III. QAB CONVERTER

Since the QAB converter has been selected for the implementation of the SST dc–dc stage, it will be
analyzed herein following the approach developed for the MAB converter in the previous section. In [7], the
authors briefly introduce the QAB converter; however, no experimental results have been provided to date. The
switching model of the QAB converter is shown in Fig. 4 while its “Δ” equivalent ac circuit referred to port 1 is
shown in Fig. 6, where the involved link inductances can be calculated with (1). Based on Fig. 6, the idealized
steady-state QAB waveforms for unity-dc-conversion ratios are illustrated in Fig. 7. The bottom two plots show
the currents ij at the dc side of the QAB ports, along with their corresponding CCA values Ij. The involved
gyration gains can be calculated by using (2). When the max QAB link power has been reached between any
two ports, the direction of the QAB power flow depends on the number of source, forwarding, and load ports [8]
– [15].

Figure 6. QAB “Δ” equivalent ac circuit referred to port 1.

IV. CONTROL SYSTEM

The block diagram in Fig. 8 shows the single-input-single output type of control loop for the PV
voltage implemented herein. The gains associated with the feedback-signal conditioning, as well as the DSP
digital-to-analog conversion and pulse width modulation (PWM) modules have been intentionally omitted for
simplicity.

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Figure 7. Idealized steady-state QAB switching waveforms for unity-dc conversion ratios and equal link
inductances.

The control loops for the LVDC voltage and the battery current share the same structure. In the event
that its saturation limits implemented on the DSP are reached, a controller may try to drive the phase-shift
angles of the slower loops through the entries of the KB matrix. In order to avoid this, it may require forcing KB
to be the identity matrix.

Figure 8. Simplified PV voltage control loop.

The entries of GC have been designed with the k-factor technique [16] with bandwidths of 200, 20, and
2 Hz for Gc3, Gc2, and Gc4, respectively, and phase margin of 60◦ for all of them. Alternatively, a multiple-
input multiple- output type of control loop can be considered in order to incorporate the dc voltages as plant
state variables [17], [18].

V. SIMULATION RESULTS
The selected simulation package is MATLAB/Simulink complemented with PLECS block set. Based
on Fig. 4, the system electrical parameters are listed in Table I. The base inductance, obtained from the
switching frequency, voltage, and current rating, is 76.4 μH. The QAB switching waveforms for φ2 = −38◦, φ3
= −76◦, and φ4 = −38◦ are shown in Fig. 9.

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TABLE I: SYSTEM ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS

Fig. 9. Simulation results: QAB steady-state switching waveforms for φ2 = −38◦, φ3 = −76◦, and φ4 = −38◦.

For the simulation of the close-loop operation, a step load at the LVDC link is applied to the system.
The transient response when KB equals the identity matrix is seen in Fig. 10. It can be observed that, following
the disturbance, the power variation is distributed among the remaining ports. This causes the PV voltage to dip.
In steady state, the power is balanced by the HVDC link. When KB is selected to transfer the power variation
onto the HVDC port, the transient response is seen in Fig. 11. It can be observed that the current from the
HVDC link is forced to increase to meet the current demanded by the load with minimal undershoot on the PV
and battery currents.

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Fig. 10. Simulation results: SST dc–dec stage transient response to a step load when KB equals the identity
matrix.

Fig. 11. Simulation results: SST dc–dc stage transient response to a step load when the power variation is
transferred onto the HVDC link.

As a result, following the disturbance, the battery is forced to supply the current demanded by the load
before slowly returning to its initial steady state. As seen from the simulation results, The QAB dc-side currents
are directly controlled through the phase-shift angles both during transients as well as during steady state, thus
ensuring the transformer amp-turn balancing at the QAB ac side. During transients, the QAB currents are shared
depending on the selection of KB, as seen in Fig. 10 through Fig. 11. During steady state, the QAB currents are
shared depending on the controls set point.

VI. CONCLUSION
A SST topology based on a QAB converter that provides isolation for the load, as well as DG and
storage has been proposed herein. A gyrator-type large-signal average model has been developed for a general
MAB converter and used to speed up the simulation of the dc–dc stage of the QAB-based SST. The expressions
to determine the power rating of an MAB port have been derived and used to determine the power rating of the
QAB ports considering the operating characteristics of the SST application. A control technique that takes into
account the cross-coupling characteristics of the QAB converter has been introduced herein. This technique
allows improving the dynamic performance of the HVDC voltage regulation of the SST. The dynamic
performance of the control strategy has been verified through extensive simulation of both switching and
average models.

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