Past questions on GCE 406

Definition of Developmental Psychology

This is the scientific study of human life span from conception to death

How do you think the knowledge of developmental psychology is essential to the

practice of your profession either as Teachers or Counsellors?

Developmental milestones are often used to inform curriculum design, instructional

strategies and assessments. For example, educators may use knowledge o f a child's
developmental milestones to create lesson plans that are appropriate for their age and
skill level. They may also use assessments to track a child's progress towards meeting
these
milestones and identify areas where they may need additional support.

2 .Understanding developmental milestones can help educators-identify children who

may need additional support or interventions. For
example,if a child is not meeting expected milestones for their age, educators may
work with parents and other professionals to identify the cause of the delay and
develop plan to address it.
3. Understanding developmental milestones is an important part of providing
effective education to children. By using this knowledge to
guide instruction and support,educators can help children reach-their full potential and
achieve success in school and in life.

4. Developmental psychology is also used in the classroom. Development

psychology looks at the psychological, emotional and intellectual characteristics of
individuals according to their age and stage of life. 
5. The principles of educational psychology help teachers understand their students’
motivations, social and environmental contexts, their learning history, as well as their
strengths and weaknesses. 
6. As teachers we have to consider the student age range before setting a curriculum
7. As teachers we have to consider their learning capacity and the teaching method
appropriate for their age.
8. We have to consider their cognitive abilities in the drafting of questions to every
individual
9. We have to consider their abnormalities because they did not live in another
world

There are current issues that have emerged as forms of disagreements on the
nature of human life span development. Critically analyzed these disagreements.
Mention 5 diseases/ illnesses that could affect prenatal development. Give one
example of the consequence of such diseases /illnesses.
1. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): Consuming alcohol during pregnancy can result
in FAS, which is characterized by a range of physical, behavioral, and cognitive
impairments in the baby. These may include growth deficiencies, facial abnormalities,
intellectual disabilities, learning difficulties, and behavioral problems.

2. Rubella (German measles): Rubella infection during pregnancy can cause

congenital rubella syndrome, leading to severe birth defects such as heart defects,
hearing impairments, cataracts, and intellectual disabilities in the baby.

3. Zika virus infection: Zika virus can cross the placenta and affect fetal brain
development, leading to a condition called congenital Zika syndrome. This can result
in microcephaly (abnormally small head size), brain damage, vision and hearing
problems, and other developmental issues.

4. Herpes simplex virus infection: Neonatal herpes can lead to neurological

complications, including brain damage and developmental delays.

5. Syphilis: Congenital syphilis can result in stillbirth, premature birth, low birth
weight, and developmental delays.

6. Toxoplasmosis: Infection with Toxoplasma Gondii can result in vision problems,

intellectual disabilities, and seizures in the baby.

7. Smoking/tobacco use: Maternal smoking increases the risk of preterm birth, low
birth weight, and developmental issues.

Highlight and explain any five (5) biological risk factors that could affect pre-
natal stage of human development

1. Maternal Age: Advanced maternal age (typically defined as 35 years or older) is

associated with an increased risk of certain complications during pregnancy, such as
gestational diabetes, high blood pressure, and chromosomal abnormalities like Down
syndrome.

2. Maternal Health Conditions: Existing maternal health conditions like diabetes,

hypertension, obesity, and infections can pose risks to prenatal development. These
conditions may affect the delivery of essential nutrients and oxygen to the developing
fetus, leading to potential developmental abnormalities.

3. Genetic Factors: Genetic disorders and inherited conditions can impact prenatal
development. Certain genetic abnormalities, such as chromosomal disorders like
trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) or genetic mutations, can cause physical and cognitive
disabilities in the developing fetus.

4. Substance Abuse: Substance abuse by the mother during pregnancy, including

alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs, can have severe detrimental effects on fetal
development. These substances can cross the placenta and directly affect the
developing organs and systems, leading to birth defects, growth problems, and
developmental delays.

5. Infections: Maternal infections during pregnancy can pose significant risks to the
developing fetus. Infections such as rubella (German measles), cytomegalovirus
(CMV), toxoplasmosis, and certain sexually transmitted infections can lead to
congenital abnormalities, including hearing loss, intellectual disabilities, and organ
damage.

Basically, there are several factors that could affect the development of a child at
the Pre-natal stage of life. Highlight and discuss five (5) of these factors with give
2 examples of consequences of factor mentioned.

Biological risks
Illness
Terotogens
Diet and Nutrition
Stress
Environment hazards

Biological risks
defined are organic substances that present a threat to the health of pre-natal and
other living organisms and they may have harmful effects for humans or the
environment.
example of biological risk
I. Heredity:- is the biological process of transmission of physical characteristics
from parents to children through genes.It strongly influences many aspects of the
physical appearances and development of pre-natal children such as their height,
weight, body structure,the color of the eye, the texture of the hair, and even the
intelligence and aptitude skills.Many diseases like heart problems, diabetes, obesity,
blood pressure can also transmit through genes, thereby affecting the growth pattern
of children adversely.
II. Age of mother: older women sometimes increases the biological risk associated
with child bearing cause they are likely to face more illness, the tender to deliver
infant who are small, premature and still born and their children are prone to
congenital defects e.g Down syndrome
III. Below age mothers:- because the have not completed their growth and their body
have not meet the required nutritional demand of pregnancy they tender to have
spontaneous abortion, have over weight or underweight babies, babies small in
stature.
IV. Hormones : 
Hormones belong to the endocrine system and influence the various functions of our
bodies.Hormones secreted from different glands that are situated in specific parts of
our body and control many of our body functions.The proper functioning of these
hormones plays a major role in the normal physical growth and development of the
children. If these hormone-secreting glandscannot function properly, children may
suffer from growth defects, obesity, behavioral problems, and some other diseases. 

Illness
During pregnancy, a woman may be exposed to various infectious diseases, some of
which have the ability to infect the placenta and seriously harm a fetus resulting in
deafness, vision loss, neurological and behavioral disorders, or other birth defects.
illness such as Rubella that affect the embryos
by passing through the placenta into the blood stream and can cause blindness,
deafness,damage of the central nervous system e.tc
Genital Herpes transferred to the child by the mother through the genitalia of the
mother at birth
Teratogens:-

A teratogen is an agent that can cause birth defects or abnormalities in a developing

embryo or fetus upon exposure. Teratogens include some medications, recreational
drugs, tobacco products, chemicals, alcohol, certain infections, and in some cases,
health problems such as uncontrolled diabetes in pregnant people. Exposure to
a teratogen can occur through ingestion or environmental exposure during pregnancy. 

Stress

Stress is a common feeling during pregnancy. Physical discomforts and other

changes in your daily life can cause stress during pregnancy.

Some types of stress may cause serious health problems, like high blood
pressure, and lead to problems like preterm birth.

High levels of stress that continue for a long time may cause health problems,
like high blood pressure and heart disease. During pregnancy, stress can increase the
chances of having a baby who is preterm (born before 37 weeks of pregnancy) or
a low-birthweight baby (weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces).

 Dealing with the discomforts of pregnancy, like morning sickness,

constipation, being tired or having a backache.
 Changes in your hormones, which can cause your mood to change. Mood
swings can make it harder to handle stress.
 Feeling worried about what to expect during labor and birth or how to take
care of your baby. If you work, you may have to manage job tasks and prepare your
team for when you take maternity leave.
 Problems with your partner or your family, or feeling as if you do not having
enough support

Diet and Nutrition

During pregnancy, poor diets lacking in key nutrients – like iodine, iron, folate,
calcium and zinc – can cause anaemia, pre-eclampsia, haemorrhage and death in
mothers. They can also lead to stillbirth, low birthweight, wasting and developmental
delays for children.
Improving women’s diets, access to nutrition services, and nutrition and care practices
– before and during pregnancy and while breastfeeding – is critical to preventing
malnutrition in all its forms.

Environment Hazard : 
The environment is a major factor that plays a crucial role in the development of
children and it represents the overall physical and psychological stimulation they
receive.The physical surroundings and the geographical conditions of the place the
child lives in, his social environment and relationships with family and peers come
under the environmental factors that influence early childhood development in a
major way.
Environmental exposure to radiation from x-ray, nuclear explosions and pollution
from industrial chemicals will lead to many deformities and malfunctions in the
development of a child e.g deformed Heart and malformed limbs

A teratogen is something that can cause birth defects or abnormalities in a developing

embryo or fetus upon exposure. Teratogens include some medications, recreational
drugs, tobacco products, chemicals, alcohol, certain infections, and in some cases,
health problems such as uncontrolled diabetes in pregnant people. Exposure to
a teratogen can occur through ingestion or environmental exposure during pregnancy. 

Mention and describe 5 types of defence mechanism as postulated by Sigmud Freud

in Psychoanalytical theory.
Repression

Repression is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep

disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious.

Repression, which Anna Freud also called “motivated forgetting,” is just that: not
being able to recall a threatening situation, person, or event. Thoughts that are often
repressed are those that would result in feelings of guilt from the superego.

In Freud’s theory, the oral stage begins at birth and typically lasts until children are
one year old. The oral stage is characterized by the pleasure center and libido being
centered around the mouth.Since infants’ primary way of interacting with the world is
through their mouth, Freud thought this is where the libido is focused. With the
rooting and sucking reflex, breastfeeding, biting, and tasting different foods, the oral
stage is about satisfying the id’s needs through the mouth.

Freud believed that if a child at this age is not properly weaned (becoming less reliant
on caregivers), then a fixation could occur. Fixation could also occur at this stage if an
infant’s needs for security, largely fulfilled through feeding, were not met. Freud
thought that an oral-stage fixation could show up later as aggression or dependency,
expressing itself through compulsive habits such as smoking, overeating, and
excessive drinking.    

Anal stage

Freud characterized the anal stage as a shift of erogenous zones from the mouth to the
anus and a focus on successful toilet training. 

The anal stage, which Freud believed to take place when children are one to three
years old, shifts the pleasure center from the mouth to the anus, where children find
pleasure in defecating. Freud also believed that this is a period of independence. The
child realizes that they are a person separate from their parents, with a growing list of
individual needs and desires. Freud also thought that the ego, the sense of self in
relation to the external world, develops during this stage.

The overarching struggle in this stage is between the wishful impulses of the id and
the ego. Freud believed that the ego mediates between the primal urges of the id and
the realities of the outside world. The more specific conflict of the anal stage,
however, revolves around toilet training. 

Children need to learn to control their bodily needs, and parents play an important
role during this phase. Toilet training based on a system of reward and praise can lead
to successful navigation and advancement to the next stage. Children feel proud of
their accomplishments and begin to see themselves as competent and capable.
However, Freud thought that parental responses that are either overly lenient or overly
harsh could cause the opposite result. He believed that being too strict, either by being
critical or punishing a child for not meeting toilet-training goals, could cause an anal-
retentive personality. Freud described this personality as overly strict, obsessively
neat, or extremely stingy with money. He thought that children who experience
lenient toilet training could develop the opposite, an anal-expulsive personality. This
manifests as a messy, disorganized, and rebellious adult.   

Phallic stage

The next stage of psychosexual development according to Freud is the phallic stage,
characterized by a change in sexual impulse from the anus to the genitals. Freud
believed the phallic stage begins when children are about three and continues until
they are six. Freud’s theory was that the phallic stage is also when the controversial
Oedipus and Electra complexes develop.

Masturbation and a focus on the genitals are sources of pleasure during the phallic
stage. In addition to the pleasure of masturbation, children may become aware of the
opposite sex for the first time. Freud believed that this awareness of sexual differences
could cause attraction and rivalry as well as jealousy and fear. His theory was that this
can result in the Oedipal complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls. 

Considered the most controversial of Freud’s theories, the Oedipal complex describes
when a male child desires their mother. The Electra complex describes female
children who desire their father. Following the myth of Oedipus, in the Oedipal
complex, boys wish to marry their mother but, realizing their father is too strong a
foe, align themselves with him instead. In the Electra complex, Freud thought that
girls, wishing to marry their father, align themselves with their mother as a way of
indirectly possessing their father. Freud also believed that girls develop penis envy
during this stage and, unlike boys, remain at least partially fixed in this stage
throughout their lives.

Freud believed that an unresolved phallic fixation could have a negative outcome later
in life for men and women. Self-centeredness, a low sense of self-worth, and shyness
are some of the traits Freud thought characterize those stuck in the phallic stage. He
believed that it could show itself in women as flirtatious, promiscuous behavior and
relationships with unloving men. 
Latency stage

Freud described the time between when children are six through puberty as the latent
period, when the id is suppressed by the ego. He characterized this stage as the child
relating to the community by adopting values, developing social skills, and forming
relationships with people outside the immediate family. The ego and superego play a
significant role in this phase, directing sexual energy towards different outlets.
Hobbies, school activities, and learning all take center stage. Freud believed that this
is when children develop the strongest relationships with others of the same sex, focus
their energies on these friendships, and acquire new knowledge and experiences.

Like the other stages, Freud believed fixation was possible in this stage, resulting in
immaturity and an inability to develop close interpersonal relationships with others as
an adult. 

Genital stage

In his theory’s fifth and final psychosexual stage, Freud believed the genital stage
starts at the onset of puberty and continues on into adulthood.

Freud believed that with the start of puberty comes a reawakened, active libido and
sexual attraction. Freud theorized that as opposed to the phallic stage, which was
focused on self-pleasure, the pleasure during the genital stage is focused on
heterosexual pleasure. Freud believed that the proper expression of sexual instinct was
through heterosexual relationships and sexual intercourse. By extension, if fixation or
conflict developed during this or an earlier stage, Freud thought perversions might
develop, preventing those sexual relationships. Someone fixated on the oral stage, for
example, would find more pleasure in kissing and oral sex than through intercourse.

This phase differs from the others in that Freud felt the ego and superego to be fully
developed by this point. Unlike when they were younger and controlled mainly by the
id, by puberty, teens are able to check their desires, keeping them within society’s
standards and expectations. 

Erik Erickson's psychosocial theory of human development consists of some

crisis stages. Discuss each of the stages indicating the appropriate age range and
focal activities
in each stage.

The focus of psychosocial theory of Erick Erickson is that human development did
not end at adolescence but continues throughout a person's life time. According to the
theory, there are 8 stages that must be successfully mastered by individual in order to
achieve adulthood. Mention and explain these stages.

Trust vs. Mistrust( infancy 0 - 1year)

During this stage, infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust based on the consistency
and quality of care they receive from their primary caregivers . Infants are dependent
upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s
needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a
safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs
can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as
unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately,
they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world. Focal
activities include forming attachments, developing a sense of security, and learning to
trust other

1.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years): Toddlers begin to
assert their independence and explore their environment. They develop a sense of
autonomy through the ability to make choices and accomplish tasks on their own.
However, excessive criticism or control can lead to feelings of shame and doubt.
Focal activities involve developing self-control, toilet training, and exploring
independence.
2.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt ( Early Childhood 1-3 year)

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world and assert their
independence, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements
of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to
resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence. This is the ―me do it‖ stage. For example, we might observe a
budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and
dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input
in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the
opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which
could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame. Focal activities involve
developing self-control, muscular anal activity, toilet training, and exploring
independence.
1.

Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool Age, 3-6 years): Children start taking initiative in play,
exploration, and decision-making. They develop a sense of purpose and direction, but
may also experience guilt if their initiatives are overly restricted or met with
disapproval. Focal activities include engaging in imaginative play, developing social
skills, and learning to take on responsibilities.

Initiative vs. Guilt ( Preschool Age 3 - 6 years)

Children start taking initiative in play, exploration, and decision-making. They
develop a sense of purpose and direction, but may also experience guilt if their
initiatives are overly restricted or met with disapproval. Focal activities include
locomotor sexual activity, genital as a source of pleasure, independence of movement,
engaging in imaginative play, developing social skills, and learning to take on
responsibilities.
1.

Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-12 years):

Children focus on acquiring new skills and knowledge, primarily through formal
education and social interactions. They develop a sense of competence and
accomplishment but may feel inferior or inadequate if their efforts are consistently
criticized or not recognized. Focal activities involve mastery of competence and
productivity, engaging In schoolwork, sports, hobbies, and building relationships.
2.
1.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years):

According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self.
Adolescence is a crucial stage for forming a coherent sense of self. Individuals
explore various roles and identities, including career choices, values, and beliefs.
They seek to establish a clear and integrated sense of identity, but may experience
confusion and uncertainty. Adolescents struggle with questions such as Who am I?‖
and ―What do I want to do with my life?‖ Along the way, most adolescents try on
many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set
goals, and attempt to discover their ―adult selves. Adolescents who are successful at
this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs
and values in the face

of problems and other people’s perspectives. Focal activities include identity

exploration, self concept, peer relationships, career planning, and self-reflection.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18-40 years):

Young adults strive to form intimate and meaningful relationships, both romantic and
platonic. They seek to develop deep connections with others, but fear of rejection or
commitment can lead to feelings of isolation. Erikson said that we must have a strong
sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Focal activities
involve forming long-term relationships, pursuing career goals, and establishing a
sense of personal and social identity.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years):

Middle-aged adults focus on contributing to society and leaving a lasting impact on

future generations. They may express generativity through parenting, mentoring,
career achievements, or community involvement. Failure to find a sense of purpose
and productivity can result in feelings of stagnation. Focal activities include career
advancement, raising a family, community engagement, and contributing to society.
1.

1.

Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years):

In this final stage, older adults reflect on their lives and evaluate the overall meaning
and satisfaction they have derived. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on
their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. Those who feel a
sense of dignity, sense of integrity experience fulfillment, optimism and wisdom,
while those who experience regret or unfulfilled aspirations may develop feelings of
despair. Focal activities include life review, sharing wisdom, engaging in leisure
activities, and maintaining social connections.
2.

Mention and describe briefly the types of motor skills noticeable in the childhood
stage of development. Explain the relevance of each of these motor skills to
education in childhood. (10mks)

1. Gross motor skills: These are large muscle movements that involve the whole
body, such as crawling,walking,running,jumping,and throwing.
Educators may use gross motor skills milestones to design physical education
activities,such as obstacle courses or games that involve throwing and catching.
2. Fine motor skills: Theses are small muscle movements that involve the hands and
fingers,such as grasping and holding objects,drawing,and writing. Educators can use
this milestones to design activities that promote hand-eye coordination and dexterity
such as cutting with scissors or tracing shapes.
3. Social and Emotional Development:These includes the ability to form
relationships with others, regulate emotions, and understand social cues.
Educators may use social and emotional development milestones to design activities
that promote social skills and emotional intelligence, s u c h a s role-playing, group
discussions, and mindfulness exercises.
4. Language Development: These includes the ability to understand and use
language such as listening,speaking,reading,and writing.
Educators may use language development milestones to design activities that promote
communication and literacy such as reading aloud, having conversations, and writing
stories.
Highlight and discuss five (5) factors influencing the rate of language
development.

1. Environmental Factors: The environment in which a child grows up plays a

significant role in their language development. The amount and quality of language
input they receive from caregivers and the surrounding community greatly influence
their language skills. Children who are exposed to rich and diverse linguistic
interactions, such as conversations, reading, and storytelling, tend to have a faster rate
of language development compared to those with limited exposure.

2. Cognitive Factors: Cognitive abilities, such as attention, memory, and problem-

solving skills, contribute to language development. These factors influence a child's
ability to process and understand linguistic information, which in turn affects their
language acquisition. For instance, children with strong working memory skills may
be able to remember and use new vocabulary more efficiently, leading to faster
language development.

3. Socioeconomic Factors: Socioeconomic status (SES) can significantly impact

language development. Children from higher SES backgrounds often have access to
more educational resources, books, and language-rich environments, which can
accelerate their language learning. On the other hand, children from lower SES
backgrounds may face challenges such as limited access to quality education and
fewer language-stimulating experiences, which can slow down their language
development.
4. Linguistic Input: The quality and quantity of linguistic input children receive
from their caregivers and community members play a crucial role in language
development. When children are exposed to rich and varied language input, with
proper grammar, vocabulary, and complex sentence structures, it facilitates their
language acquisition. Conversely, limited or poor-quality linguistic input can hinder
language development.

4. Biological Factors: Biological factors, including genetic predispositions and

neurological development, can influence the rate of language development. Some
children may have a genetic propensity for language learning, which can make them
more adept at acquiring language skills at a faster pace. Additionally, the maturation
of brain areas responsible for language processing, such as the left hemisphere, can
affect language development. Neurological conditions or delays in brain maturation
may lead to slower language development in some children.

5. Cognitive Development: This includes the ability to think,reason, and solve

problems.
Educators may use cognitive development milestones to design activities that
promote critical thinking and problem solving skills,such as puzzles,experiments,and
simulations.
Highlight and discuss five (5) factors influencing the rate Cognitive Development

1. Biological Maturation: Biological factors play a crucial role in cognitive

development. As the brain develops and matures, neural connections are formed and
strengthened, leading to improved cognitive abilities. For example, during early
childhood, the rapid growth of the prefrontal cortex contributes to enhanced attention,
memory, and reasoning skills.

2. Environmental Stimulation: Environmental factors, such as the quality and

quantity of stimulation and experiences, greatly influence cognitive development. A
rich and stimulating environment with opportunities for exploration, interaction, and
learning fosters cognitive growth. For instance, engaging in activities like reading,
problem-solving, and imaginative play can promote language development, problem-
solving abilities, and critical thinking skills.

3. Social Interaction: Social interactions, particularly with caregivers, siblings, and

peers, significantly impact cognitive development. Through social interactions,
children learn to communicate, understand others' perspectives, and develop socio-
cognitive skills. Engaging in conversations, cooperative play, and joint problem-
solving activities helps children develop language, social cognition, and theory of
mind.
4. Cultural Factors: Culture plays a vital role in shaping cognitive development.
Cultural values, beliefs, and practices influence the types of experiences and
knowledge that children are exposed to. For example, cultural variations in
storytelling, mathematical concepts, or problem-solving strategies can impact
cognitive development. Additionally, cultural norms and expectations regarding child-
rearing practices can shape cognitive abilities and learning opportunities.

5. Genetic Factors: Genetic predispositions also contribute to individual differences

in cognitive development. Genetic factors influence the development and organization
of the brain, which can affect cognitive abilities. For instance, genetic variations can
influence memory capacity, language acquisition, or problem-solving skills. However,
it's important to note that genetic factors interact with environmental influences, and
the interplay between genes and the environment is critical in determining cognitive
outcomes.

Define the following terms and explain the relevance of each to the design of
educational curriculum (a)Growth (b) Maturation and (c) Learning

Define Growth, maturation, Learning and Critical period

Growth is 'the progressive developments of a living organisms or part of an organism
from its earliest stage to maturity including the attendant increase in size of the
various part of the body.
Change in size and functional capacity of internal organs of human being
Increase in height and weight
Stabilization of the skeleton and structural and physical changes in the body of
individual from the moment of conception to adult period
Growth refers to the physical and physiological changes that occur in individuals over
time. It involves an increase in size, complexity, and capability.
In the context of educational curriculum design, growth is important because it helps
educators understand the developmental stages and needs of learners. By considering
the growth patterns of students, curriculum designers can tailor instructional
strategies, content, and activities to align with their physical and cognitive abilities.
For example, a curriculum designed for preschoolers will differ significantly from that
designed for high school students due to variations in their growth patterns and
capabilities.

Maturation:-
This is the progressive changes that take place with time in the behavior of the
organism. This is attained at a particular level of functional ability which is possible
the achievement of certain pattern of behavior

Maturation refers to the natural biological and psychological changes that unfold as
individuals progress through various developmental stages. It encompasses the
unfolding of genetic potential and the development of skills, behaviors, and cognitive
abilities.
In the context of education maturation plays a significant role in curriculum design as
it helps determine the readiness of learners for acquiring certain knowledge and skills.
Understanding the maturation process allows curriculum designers to sequence
learning experiences appropriately, ensuring that students are developmentally
prepared for the content and activities presented. For instance, a curriculum for early
childhood education may focus on building foundational skills such as fine motor
skills and language development, taking into account the typical maturation timeline
for these abilities.
Learning:- This is the relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of
experience, special training, observation and exercise
Learning is the process through which individuals acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes,
or behaviors through study, experience, or teaching. It involves the cognitive,
emotional, and social processes that result in a relatively permanent change in an
individual's understanding or behavior.
Learning is at the core of educational curriculum design, the primary objective is to
facilitate and enhance students' learning experiences.
A well-designed curriculum incorporates effective teaching strategies, instructional
materials, and assessment methods to optimize the learning outcomes for students.
It takes into account the learners' prior knowledge, interests, and individual
differences to create meaningful and engaging learning opportunities that promote
deeper understanding and skill development.
Critical Period:- This is a phase in the lifespan during which an organism has
heightened sensitivity to exogenous stimuli that are compulsory for the development
of a particular skill
Sequentiality of Development: This state that development is continuous and proceed
in an orderly, predictable, sequential pattern that is general to all human beings.

Explain the relevance of the following terms to human development

(a) Growth trend Principles (b) Principle of Individual differences (e)
Asynchronous Growth (15mks)
Growth trend Principle :-
There are two principles of growth trend principle : the cephalocaudal principle, the
proximodistal principle. These predictable patterns of growth and development allow
us to predict how and when most children will develop certain characteristics.

The Cephalocaudal principle is the concept that says that development (i.e. voluntary
movement/motor control) progresses from head to toe, or top-down, as it were.
Motor control within the first 6 months of a child's life develops in the head and the
neck initially, then with hand movements and hand-eye coordination, and so
The Principle of Proximodistal
The Proximodistal principle stipulates that the direction of development in organisms
proceeds from the interior part of the body to the exterior. 'Proximus in Latin means
nearest and 'distantia means remote. or Proximodistal. therefore means that growth in
the organs of individuals during development starts from the central axis of the body
and ends toward the extreme.
Principle of Individual Differences
Right from conception every individual is different from other individuals. He is a
unique being no matter the genetic traits or family resemblance he shares with other
family members, no two individuals are the same. Even identical twins that are off-
shoot of one and the same egg possess their typical characteristics and idiosyncracies
which mark them apart from each other. The variation in biological and environment
influences helps to determine the uniqueness of one person from the other
Types of individual differences
• Physical difference - Difference in acquired
physical characteristics.
• Mental difference - People differ in intellectual
abilities and capacities.
Social and Emotional difference - Individuals also differ in the manner they express
their emotions.
• Differences in psychomotor skills - Individuals are found to differ with regard to
development and acquisition of one or more types of skill
 Sex Difference - we have male and female gender and this is the most obvious
difference
 Cognitive Differences- every individual is unique in all totality and even no tie
child share the same intelligence quotient
The Principle of Asynchronous Growth
During prenatal development, focus shifts from one part of the body to another at
different times. This means that the whole body does not grow at the same time When
one part of the body is growing, other parts remain dominant.
example, at the initial stage of conception, it is the placenta that grows rapidly with
the ovum waiting to later experience its own development then during infancy there is
rapid growth, slower gain in early and middle childhood and rapid growth during
adolescence.
The Differentiation Principle
The principle states that growth proceeds from specific to general; from homogeneous
to heterogeneous; from simple to complex. For illustration conception begins with the
single cell called zygote. It is this cell that breaks down to thousands of other cells
through mitosis to form the different systems in the body of an organism. From here,
it is evident that the zygote, which could be termed a single, specific and simple cell,
grows to develop into the various complex systems that make up the individual
organism
Controversy of human development
Nature and Nurture Controversy

 The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which particular
aspects of behavior are a product of either inherited (i.e., genetic) or acquired (i.e.,
learned) influences.
 Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic
inheritance and other biological factors.
 Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception,
e.g., the product of exposure, life experiences, and learning on an individual.
According to as John Locke, believed in what is known as tabula rasa which suggests
that the mind begins as a blank slate. According to this notion, everything that we are
is determined by our experiences.

Stability vs. Change

Stability implies personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the
lifespan. Stability is the theory that certain personality traits remain stable, regardless
of a person’s development throughout life. 

In contrast, change theorists argue that personalities are modified by interactions with
family, experiences at school, and acculturation.

 Stability theorists may also argue that quieter people are naturally this way
due to genetics, or personality traits developed in infancy. 
 Change theorists also argue that their personality development continued to
shift over time, based on interactions with family, friends, teachers and society at
large.

 Behavioral genetics has enabled psychology to quantify the relative

contribution of nature and nurture concerning specific psychological traits.

Continuity
Development is a continuous process from conception to death. In the early years of
life, development consists of changes that lead the child to maturity not only of body
size and functioning,but also of behaviour. Even after maturity has been attained,
development does not end. Changes continue which lead to the period of life known
as senescence or old age. These changes continue until death ends the life cycle.
Development depends on the growth and maturity of individuals who interact with the
environment. Indeed many studies have shown that development demonstrates some
stage - like properties and some consistency across domains : cognitive, affective and
psycho motor^
1.5.2 Sequentiality
Most psychologists agree h t development is sequential or orderly. Every species,
whether * animal or human, follows a pattern of development peculiar to it. This
pattern in general is the same for all individuals. In prenatal development there is a
genetic sequence, appearing at
fixed intervals with certain characteristics.
Social and behavioural scientists increasingly have come to see development as a
relationship between organism and environment in a transaction or collaboration.
Individuals work with and affect their environment, and in turn the environment
works with and affects them.
The directional sequence of development during both prenatal and postnatal stages
may either be (i) from head to foot, or (ii) from the central axis to the extremities of
the M y .
All children follow a development pattern with one stage leading to the next. Infants
stand before they walk; draw circles before they make squares. Even though
development is continuous, there is evidence that at different ages certain
characteristics stand out more conspicuously than others.
Sincedevelopmentiscontinuous;what happensatonestageinfluencesthefollowingstages.
1.5.3 Generality to Specificity
Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general
activity always precedes specific activity. For example, the foetus moves its whole
body but is incapable of making specific responses. In early postnatal life, infants
wave their arms randomly. They can make such specific responses as reaching out for
an object near them. In language, from genetic sounds emerge words and then specific
sentences with meaning.
With respect to emotional behaviour infants approach strange and unusual objects
with some sort of a general fear response. Later, their fears become more specific and
elicit different kinds of behaviour, such as crying, turning away and hiding or
pretending to be not afraid.
1.5.4 Differentiality
The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and
development. Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body
has its own particular rate of growth. Development does not occur at an even pace.
There are periods of great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of
imbalance. Development achieves a plateau and this may occur at any level or
between levels. Developmental changes do not always go forward in a straight line.
While the development of different physical and mental traits is continuous,it is never
uniform. Since the body has to attain its adult proportions, inequalities in rates occur.
The feet, hands and nose, for example, reach maximum development early in
adolescence, while the lower part of the face and the shoulders develop more slowly.
Mental abilities like verbal, numerical, spatial, etc., develop at different ages. Creative
imagination develops' rapidly in childhood and reaches its peak in early adolescence.
Reasoning develops slowly. Rote memory and memory for concrete objects and facts
develop more quickly than memory for the abstract. The point that you should
remember here is that all these changes in individuals are not uniform. These changes
occur at different rates.