Topic 7

Curriculum
Implementation

By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following:

1. Explain what curriculum implementation is.
2. Describe Lewin's change model.
3. Differentiate between the types of curriculum change.
4. Explain why people resist change.
5. Suggest ways of overcoming resistance to change.
6. List the roles and responsibilities of individuals involved
in implementing curriculum.

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In Topic 5, we discussed what was involved in curriculum planning. In Topic 6,

we looked at different curriculum design techniques, focusing on some
curriculum design models. According to Tyler, Taba, and Saylor, Alexander,
and Lewis, the next stage in the curriculum development process is implementing
the curriculum plan. Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial but
sometimes the most difficult phase of the curriculum development process.
The final destination of any curriculum (whether a school, college, university
or training organisation) is the classroom involving students, teachers,
administrators and the community. Those responsible for implementing a
curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as:

• Teachers are already overloaded with work – how will they implement
new ideas?

• Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in
examinations – how are schools to incorporate these suggested changes?

These concerns are made worse when people implementing the curriculum are
unclear about what is expected of them. How often have people heard the saying,
„the plan was good, but the implementation was poor?‰ On the other hand,
if a curriculum plan is not implemented and remains on the shelf, all planning
efforts will be a waste. A curriculum must be delivered, which means it must be
implemented in the classroom to impact student learning. Good plans for reaching
the classroom are not properly implemented because of a lack of planning and
preparation. In some curriculum development projects, implementation has not
been given due consideration, not realising that innovations need careful planning
and monitoring. We hear of teachers not being properly trained but were required
to implement classroom changes quickly.

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ACTIVITY 7.1

Read the newspaper report and answer the following questions.

ÂHomework Must Be More Fun and MeaningfulÊ

The Education Ministry is to Homework that is interesting to

regulate homework assignment of pupils would not only make their
school pupils to make it more learning more meaningful and
interesting. Homework is clearly productive, but also facilitate
one key area in which things can teaching. When school children are
and should improve in the interest better motivated in their studies,
of all concerned. Homework teachers also find their task easier.
should have more quality than Students learn better and faster
quantity. It needs a finer focus when their innate inquisitiveness
with less bulk, and in the process is fired with more participatory
become more interesting to give observation and enquiry of the
students an added incentive to world about them. Good teachers
studying harder. Young people can make this vital difference.
have energy, imagination and a
natural curiosity that can help Pupils must constantly be
them to learn if properly encouraged to do more than
chanelled. Otherwise homework answer set questions, as it is
can become a hindrance to the essential to think their way to
learning process. unrehearsed answers. True
learning is more than Âspotting
Teachers should be guided to exam questionsÊ. It is more
learning rather than be fountains important for pupils to experience
of infinite knowledge. They a sense of achievement in all
should present material in aspects of study, which would give
intellectually stimulating ways, them a feel of their own
without spoon-feeding. Pupils development and growth. A more
need to know that learning is part enlightened approach to learning
of their own life experience, not such as this may also apply to
something separate and removed regular class work besides
from it. Teachers should therefore homework.
avoid dishing out homework
mechanically as routine chores,
which would make studies
boring and brain-deadening.

Source: Adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005

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(a) What are some proposed suggestions for making homework

fun and meaningful?

(b) Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not
„spoon-feed‰ but rather guide students to learning? Why?

(c) Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful and

fun.

Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
7.1

WHAT IS CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION?

Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the programme

and those who are in charge to deliver it. According to Ornstein and Hunkins
(1998) implementation:

• Requires educators to shift from the current programme they are familiar
with to the new or modified programme.

• Involves changes in the knowledge, actions, and attitudes of people.

• Can be seen as a professional development and growth process involving

ongoing interactions, feedback, and assistance.

• Is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come to

understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviours, often
involving using new resources.

• Involves change that requires effort and produces a certain amount of

anxiety. Organising implementation into manageable events and setting
achievable goals to minimise these are useful.

• Requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open

communication between administrators, teachers educators and where
risk-taking is encouraged.

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Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum,
several of these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason
for the failure is the lack of understanding of the schoolÊs cultural experts
outside the school system and educators in the system. Successful curriculum
implementation requires understanding the power relationships, traditions, roles
and responsibilities of individuals in the school system. Implementors (teachers,
principals, and district education officers) should be well-versed in the contents
of the curriculum. They must be clear about the innovationÊs purpose, nature,
and the real and potential benefits of the innovation.

As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977), „effective implementation of innovations

requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and other
forms of people-based support‰ (p. 391). Curriculum implementation requires
winning people over, and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and
their efforts recognised. Some may argue that they should even be given financial
rewards. Still, there is evidence to suggest that external motivation contributes
minimally to the venture. Individuals contribute their best talents when they are
internally motivated and derive a good feeling from being involved.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A
7.2

CHANGE PROCESS
Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of
a method, procedure or desired purpose. Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define
curriculum implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it
looks like when used in a school system. For example, a curriculum plan for
enhancing technology integration across the curriculum is introduced. You
probably would want to know whether what was intended in the plan is being
done in the classroom. Your aim for developing a curriculum is to make a
difference to learners. Curriculum implementation is bringing about change
and, hopefully, improvement.

How do you bring about change? In other words, how do you ensure that
the curriculum brings about the desired changes? Before you can bring about
change, you need to know what change is. You may ask what is the big deal
because we all know what change is! You know how your job has changed.
You know how government policy changes. But what is a change to the
curriculum?

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Change is doing something differently. Change results from new knowledge.

However, the presence of new knowledge is not enough for change to happen.
People generally are reluctant to change because they are comfortable with
what they are currently doing. So, to change, they must recognise the need for
change. People are more likely to recognise the need for change if they understand
change and how it works. DonÊt you agree?

Kurt Lewin (1951), considered the father of social psychology, suggested a

model explaining change (refer to Figure 7.1).

Figure 7.1: Force Field Model

Source: Lewin (1951)

According to Lewin, all people are faced with two competing forces (refer to
Table 7.1):

Table 7.1: Types of Forces

Driving Forces Restraining Forces

These forces drive or push you to do These are forces restraining or preventing
something and change in a particular you from doing something and changing.
direction. They tend to initiate a change In the workplace, apathy, hostility, and
and keep it going. In the workplace, obsolete equipment may be examples
pressure from your boss, financial of restraining forces.
incentives and competition for promotion
may be examples of driving forces.

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Equilibrium
The status quo is maintained when these two forces (driving and restraining)
are equal. In other words, there is no effort towards change, so will you do the
same things you did before.

For example: In the school setting, the principal is autocratic and constantly
pressures the staff, which may bring about change in the short run. The methods
used by the principal may lead to increased hostility and antagonism and
manifest themselves in teachers refusing to cooperate and being reluctant
to do more than is required. In other words, the driving forces have
overpowered the restraining forces, and change is initiated when this
happens. The change will continue as long as the driving forces are more
powerful than the restraining forces. In other words, the restraining forces
have increased, and change has slowed down.

Lewin emphasised that it is better to reduce the power of the restraining

forces to introduce change rather than increase the driving forces. This force has
been termed unfreezing, whereby the powers of the restraining forces are
decreased to stimulate the driving forces. For example, the principal could
instead encourage more discussion and group problem-solving to eliminate
hostility and apathy. If teachers fear they will not have the know-how
to implement change, they should be trained before implementing the new
ideas.

SELF-CHECK 7.1

1. What does curriculum implementation involve?

2. How does Kurt LewinÊs model explain curriculum change?

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7.3 TYPES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE

Curriculum change is a complex and difficult process. It requires careful planning,

adequate time, funding, support and opportunities for teacher involvement.
If you are responsible for implementing a curriculum, you must understand the
nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a challenging and
exciting process. Suppose you do not comprehend the complexities of the
change, yet you proceed to implement it. In that case, you are likely to introduce
ideas and actions that may result in confusion and tension within the school
or district. McNeil (2014) categorised curriculum change as follows (refer to
Table 7.2):

Table 7.2: Aspects in Curriculum Changes

Aspect Description

Substitution One element may be substituted for another already present – for
example, the substituting of a new textbook for an old one.

Alteration This change occurs when it is introduced into existing material,

hoping that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted.
For example, introducing new content such as road safety in the
primary school curriculum; or the use new materials such as the
graphing calculator in the teaching of mathematics.

Perturbations These are disruptive changes, but teachers adjust to them fairly
quickly. For example, the assistant principal changes the timetable
or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.

Restructuring These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school
system. For example, introducing an integrated curriculum requires
team teaching or involving the local community in deciding what
to teach.

Value These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school

orientation personnel. Suppose the new teachers who join the school emphasise
studentsÊ personal growth. Then the academic performance,
schoolÊs value orientations or fundamental philosophies will
change.

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It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not fit according
to the five categories. But, the categories are general enough to help you plan
to change and arrange the resources to bring about the change. However,
you should know that change is not synonymous with improvement, and you
might decide that the change should not be undertaken.

ACTIVITY 7.2

1. What are the five types of curriculum change listed by McNeil

(2014)? Give examples of each category other than those given
in the text.

2. Identify other types of curriculum change which you have

come across but do not fit into those given.

Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
7.4

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are
many barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. Suppose you
are given the job of implementing a curriculum. In that case, you will encounter
people resisting change in the school system, college, university or training
centre. Many people think that it is easier to keep things as they are. People
often say, „If it is not broken, why fix it?‰. People are happy with the current
situation in their institution and feel that the change suggested will not meet
the objectives of the school, college or training centre. The status quo tends to be
maintained when the people introducing change are themselves unclear about
the new programmeÊs intent and what is required. In addition, the implementation
of the programme may be poorly planned.

Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as

meaning more work. In addition to their already overloaded schedule, there is
no extra financial reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they
view new curriculum programmes will require them to learn new teaching
skills and competencies, which will mean attending courses and seminars.

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It has also been found that teachers or practitioners tend to reject pedagogical
strategies or teaching methods that are different from what they are currently
using. They are reluctant to change or modify their current instructional
strategies and understandings of classroom practice.

LetÊs examine in more detail why people resist change. People charged with
curriculum implementation must understand how people react to change and
how to encourage them to be receptive to change. By knowing why people resist
change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome resistance
and improve receptivity to change. Table 7.3 explains the main reasons people
resist change (Harvey, 2010; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966).

Table 7.3: Main Reasons People Resist Change

Reason Explanation Outcome

People do not They do not follow what is The key is „communication‰.

understand being introduced. They do You have to explain „Why.‰
not understand where they You have to answer the
are going. They are not clear questions of the Why,
as to what is required of What, When, How, and
them. Where. Remember, the
effectiveness of
communication is not the
„message sent‰ but the
„message received.‰

Lack of ownership Individuals will not accept Involve teachers in exploring

change if they consider it is the relevance of the new
coming from the outside or curriculum and give them
imposed on them. the freedom to explore the
Unfortunately, most new skills needed for
curriculum reform efforts utilising or implementing
are initiated from the the curriculum. You have to
outside, whether at the convince teachers that even
national, state or district though it comes from the
level. outside, their views and
opinions have been
considered regardless of
curriculum developmentÊs
planning and design stages.
This stage will make them
feel important to the
curriculum implementation
process.

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People do not have People naturally resist if Adequate time and resources
the competencies to they do not have the must be set aside to train
cope with the knowledge and skills to teachers in implementing
changes cope with the changes. the new curriculum.
Nobody wants to be told
that they are incompetent.
There is the likelihood that
the implementation of the
new curriculum has been
rushed or it had been done
due to budgetary constraints.
The training period has been
greatly reduced, and teachers
are not adequately equipped
to implement the new
curriculum.

Lack of incentives Suppose teachers are Make sure that teachers

or benefits unconvinced that the new who are actively involved
programme will improve in curriculum change are
things for students (in terms rewarded. The reward need
of learning) or themselves not necessarily be financial,
(such as gaining greater but their efforts must be
recognition, respect or recognised.
reward). In that case, they
are likely to resist the
suggested change.

People do not have Teachers find it difficult to Lighten their workload so

the time to engage juggle between bringing they can participate in the
with the change about change and handling change. Re-prioritise their
their current responsibilities. work. Do not expect people
Focusing their energy on to have the energy to change
change activities may run the when this means failing on
risk of neglecting their the tasks for which they are
current responsibilities. held responsible.

Adapted from: Harvey (2010), Woldring (1999) and Lippitt (1966)

SELF-CHECK 7.2

Why do people resist change?

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ACTIVITY 7.3

Suggest other reasons why people resist change.

Discuss your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

CASE STUDY: CURRICULUM REFORM AND

7.5

IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA
In 1994, the Indonesian government introduced curriculum reform which
consisted of a national curriculum of 80% and flexibility given to the provinces
in adjusting the curriculum to local needs. The local content curriculum (LCC)
was aimed at the local situation and context. In contrast, the national curriculum
focused on national development. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC)
transferred 20% of its authority to each provincial level. Both the reformed
national curriculum and LCC are shown in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2: Curriculum Reform in Indonesia

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According to LCC policy, schools are supposed to reorganise the curriculum

into a new set of subjects. Teachers, principals, and supervisors were given
autonomy to closely redesign the curriculum to match the studentsÊ needs and
interests. However, in reality, not all teachers took advantage of this opportunity.
Teachers have not responded by modifying the curriculum or experimenting
with new instructional techniques. Moreover, local parents and interest groups
have not been invited to participate in the planning or management of the
LCC programme. In some cases, teachers have made connections between the
subject matter they disseminate to the world outside. Still, the basic curricular
foundations in junior secondary school have remained essentially the same as
the previous curriculum.

According to Yeom et al. (2002), there are some limitations and obstacles found
in the LCC implementation (refer to Table 7.4).

Table 7.4: Limitations and Obstacles in the LCC Implementation

Limitation Explanation

Lack of communication In curriculum decentralisation, some decisions made at

between the provincial the provincial level tend not to meet each districtÊs needs
and local levels and conditions.

Lack of resources/ Teachers taught most local content subjects with no specific
training skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional
cultures and local languages in Jambi, Lampung, Maluku
Island, South Sulawesi and East Java.

TeachersÊ attitudes Teachers did not respond to the innovation because they
towards the LCC did not have enough background knowledge or skills for its
implementation. They did not have the necessary support
from the government and provincial levels to develop their
knowledge and skills.

While it is easy for the government to establish policies,

conditions at the school level are completely different. Most
teachers tended to concentrate on the national curriculum.

Lack of funding There was a lack of funds to develop the LCC, which
allocation required regular meetings at the school or district level for
LCC subject development. This matter caused a lack of
participation in LCC implementation.

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SELF-CHECK 7.3

Refer to the case study in Subtopic 7.5 and answer the following
questions:

(a) What are some reasons for poor implementation of the local
content curriculum (LCC) in Indonesia?

(b) To what extent is such flexibility given to teachers in your

country?

INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM

7.6

IMPLEMENTATION
Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of many different people.
Each is a „key player‰ in the change process. Without the coordinated involvement
of these individuals, implementing the curriculum programme will encounter
many problems. Among the key players identified are: teachers, students,
principals or headteachers, assistant principals, district education officers, state
education officers, curriculum developers, academics, parents, interested political
officials, and lay citizens. In a centralised system, the national curriculum is
developed at the national level. It is then passed on to the individual districts
and schools to be implemented.

7.6.1 Teachers
Without a doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. TeachersÊ knowledge, experience and competencies are
central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which philosophical
belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that teachers influence
studentsÊ learning. Better teachers foster better learning. Teachers are most
knowledgeable about teaching practice and are responsible for introducing the
curriculum in the classroom.

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The key to getting teachers committed to innovation is to enhance their knowledge

of the programme. This commitment means teachers must be trained, and
workshops must be organised for professional development. Unfortunately,
in any curriculum implementation process, not all teachers will benefit from
such exposure. There are just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go
around. The most common approach is to have one-day workshops given
by experts, with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy.
Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum
change are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support.
The intrinsic factors are as follows (refer to Table 7.5):

Table 7.5: Factors Influencing the Implementation of a Curriculum in Schools

Factor Description

Adequacy of Appropriate equipment, facilities, and available resources

resources are required for implementing a new curriculum.

Time Available time for preparing and delivering the requirements

of the new curriculum; e.g. teachers need enough time to
develop their understanding of the subject they are required
to teach.

School ethos Overall, it refers to the school beliefs towards the new
curriculum. Status of the curriculum as viewed by staff,
administrators and community; e.g. school administration
recognises the importance of the subject in the overall
school curriculum.

Professional support Support for teachers from both within the school and outside,
e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing curriculum professional
support.

Professional adequacy TeachersÊ ability and competence to teach the curriculum

include confidence in teaching.

Professional Teachers are knowledgeable and understand the new

knowledge curriculum, e.g. different teaching methods to foster student
learning.

Professional attitude TeachersÊ attitudes and interests towards the new curriculum,
and interest e.g. keenness to teach the subject.

Source: Adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ).

Available at http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~lewthwai/introSCIQ.html

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To what extent have teacher education programmes required prospective

teachers to study curriculum development? Some view teachers as technicians
and do not include curriculum development in their teacher education
programmes. However, a good teacher education programme should include
curriculum development (both the theory and the work of curriculum
development) if teaching is a profession and learning is to be improved. Hence,
teachersÊ professional development is an important factor contributing to the
success of curriculum implementation.

The following are some topics to be addressed in designing professional

development opportunities for teachers implementing a new programme (refer to
Table 7.6).

Table 7.6: Topics in Designing Professional Development Opportunities

Topic Description

Programme Both the philosophy behind the programme and how the new
philosophy programme may impact students, parents, administrators, and
other stakeholders.

Content Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which
they are unfamiliar, which they have not taught in a while, or is
familiar but presented in an unfamiliar way. For example, they use
a problem-solving rather than a topical approach.

Pedagogy Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with the new

programmeÊs pedagogical approach. They may need to work on
particular teaching skills emphasised in the new programme, such
as teaching values, or perhaps to become familiar with a tool such
as the Internet.

Components Teachers will need opportunities to learn about the components of

of the the new programme early in the implementation phase. For example,
programme the new programme might place greater emphasis on school-based
assessment. At the same time, teachers are more accustomed to
national or centralised assessment.

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ACTIVITY 7.4

According to Friendenberg (1965), people who go into teaching tend

to be conformist and reluctant to innovate. These people have succeeded
in the school system as it has existed. They have learned to play it
safe and keep a low profile in a bureaucratic system run by
administrators who dislike creating waves. They have found success
and fulfilment as students, and now as teachers in this system, so many
see no reason to change it.

(a) To what extent do you agree with FriedenbergÊs views about

teachers and curriculum change?

(b) Is this the characteristic of other professions?

Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE

online forum.

7.6.2 Students
There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of
students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even
primary school children can contribute to meaningful change. Students must be
willing to participate in the programme. Suppose the students do not see the
relevance of the programme; then, there is the likelihood that they will not be
motivated to participate or learn. However, it is still unclear how students
should be involved in the curriculum implementation phase, even though they
are the main recipients of the programme. Students may be so entrenched in
their thinking and behaviour that changes proposed in the curriculum may not be
enthusiastically received. For example, students may be used to being given
notes by their teachers, and the new programme requires them to make notes.
Some students may not know how to make notes and must be taught how to
do it. Even getting students to participate in discussions may not be well received
if they have been accustomed to being passive recipients of the information.

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7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters

Principals or headteachers are important players in the curriculum
implementation process in a school.

• They should understand the need for change and the steps that must be
taken along the way.

• They should have in-depth knowledge of the planned change and the
implementation process. They should be familiar with the curriculumÊs
goals and components. Moreover, they should see a shift in teachersÊ roles
in the classroom and how teachers interact with students.

• Establishing a two-way information flow will give principals or headteachers

a chance to stay on top of issues that must be addressed. It will also
allow attending to critical problems or concerns before they lead to
frustration or even anger among teachers. They should be accessible and
willing to communicate with others involved in the process. Lines of
communication are best set early to get information to people and provide
a platform to voice their concerns. Information gathered from listening
and talking to people will also help principals or headteachers decide where
to focus and what needs attention.

• For example, they may need to speak to parents and the community about
the new curriculum. They should be able to convince parents of the merits
of the new curriculum and how the new pedagogical strategies can become
more meaningful for their children. They must give the message that
they have thought carefully about the need for change, anticipated the
issues that will arise and have a plan for addressing them.

• They should remember that even the best-laid plans can meet unexpected
challenges. Among these challenges include a drop in the number of
teachers in a particular subject area due to resignation, the unexpected
introduction of programmes by the government, and a sudden change of
government policy. For this reason, a flexible implementation plan may be
necessary, adapted and revisited along the way.

• They must be committed to the change and be able to employ many

leadership strategies to meet the needs of teachers. The change includes
building on the strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks, being
positive about the planned change, and using this optimism to motivate
others.

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7.6.4 Parents
Besides teachers, students, and school administrators, parents play an important
role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a subject
being taught in an unfamiliar way, they naturally have questions about what
is going on. When children bring homework from school that parents feel unable
to help with, they feel confused and lost. In any new programme, parents need
to embrace it as well, so that the implementation becomes a success. One way
to reach out to parents is to organise workshops focusing on the new curriculum.
The workshops should be designed to help parents better understand the
content and philosophy of the new programme. Parents need an opportunity
to share their concerns and voice their support in an open forum. These workshops
should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what is going on in
the classroom.

Another approach to reaching out to parents is to provide information on

curriculum change on the Internet for parents containing information on subjects
offered, programmes and courses available in all schools. Similarly, print-based
newsletters can be made available to parents, informing them of the changes
that are taking place with the introduction of the new curriculum.

SELF-CHECK 7.4

1. What should principals or headteachers do to ensure the

successful implementation of any curriculum?

2. How should parents be involved in the curriculum implementation

process?

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7.7 CASE STUDY: ENGLAND’S NATIONAL

CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
The law requires all schools in England to provide pupils with a balanced
and broad curriculum. The curriculum provides pupils to learn and achieve;
promotes spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development; and
prepares students for adult lifeÊs opportunities, responsibilities and experiences.
The following subjects must be taught:

• English

• Mathematics

• Science

• Design and technology

• Information and communication technology

• History

The core subjects: English, mathematics and science, will be prioritised to ensure
they are secure. Other statutory requirements are religious education, sex and
relationship education, and careers education (from Year 9). Each school can
decide which subject to give more time to and, within a subject, which aspects
or skills to emphasise. The priority or emphasis might apply across subjects,
to particular year groups, to groups of pupils or individuals.

For example:

• A school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments

offers Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly
video conference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain.

• A school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy

across the curriculum. Teachers plan in their schemes of work where and
how they will teach literacy objectives in their subject.

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• The school prioritises mathematics and science to help its students make
the most of local job opportunities in high-technology industries such as
computing and pharmaceuticals. Year 9 students undertake project work
to achieve Creativity in Research, Engineering, Science and Technology
(CREST) awards. Scientists from local companies visit the school as part
of the Science and Engineering Ambassadors scheme.

Source: The National Curriculum. Key Stage 3 and 4.

https://www.gov.uk/national-curriculum/key-stage-3-and-4

ACTIVITY 7.5

1. What flexibility is given to teachers in EnglandÊs secondary

school curriculum?

2. Do you agree with the flexibility given to schools in meeting local

needs? Give reasons.

3. Do you think such flexibility should be given to schools in your

country? Why?

Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

IMPLEMENTING CURRICULUM IN THE

7.8

CLASSROOM
The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter the
classroom, decision-making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up to
this point, curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level,
and decision-making was programmatic (though we briefly discussed the
teacherÊs role). Now classroom teachers will take over and make decisions of
a methodological nature. They will be answering questions like:

• What objectives do I hope to accomplish as a result of instruction?

• What topics or content will I have to cover?

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• What teaching methods or strategies should I use to direct learning and

achieve the objectives?

• How do I evaluate instruction to determine whether I have successfully

achieved the objective?

Where and how does the teacher begin to plan for instruction? In instruction
implementation, the process include formulating learning goals, content, learning
experiences, and assessment (refer to Figure 7.3).

Figure 7.3: Instruction Implementation

LetÊs look at three examples of planning for instruction.

• Teacher X takes the textbook and divides the topics by the number of
weeks in the school year. He or she may prepare some notes for students,
ask some questions during class (which may come from the textbook) and
give group assignments to clarify points in the topic or topics. For example,
one topic may be taught over two or three lessons. The sequence and
subheadings of the respective topic guide the presentation of content.

• A problem-solving approach is adopted where students look through

various sources of information to solve a problem. Teacher Y selects a topic
for study for the week or over several lessons using all kinds of resources
related to the topic. The resources may include textbooks, reference books,
websites, magazines, etc.

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• Teacher Z comes to class without knowing what they will cover. A theme
or issue is written on the blackboard. Students must contribute their
understanding and interpretation of the theme or issue. While some
may argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind students, might term
it as non-planning.

These three approaches may be extreme, but many teachers fall into one of these
categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow the plan in general
terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional objectives or learning
outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most cases, teachers adopt
an eclectic approach, i.e., combining one or more methods.

Instructional objectives or learning outcomes indicate what you want students

to know, do and value after completing a lesson. Why instructional objectives?
The issue of instructional objectives has been discussed in Topics 1 and 5. There
are several instructional objectives as follows (refer to Figure 7.4):

Figure 7.4: Instructional Objectives

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In planning for instruction, lesson plans are used. A lesson plan is „simply an
outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be
used efficiently‰ (Nodirovna & Temirovna, 2022). Ideally, different lessons
require different lesson plans and different students require different lesson
plans as well. The following is a generic outline for a lesson plan which consists
of (refer to Figure 7.5):

Figure 7.5: Elements in Lesson Plan

The teacher with less experience will include more details in the lesson plan.
However, experienced and inexperienced teachers should prepare complete
lesson plans to communicate their ideas fully. It is common practice for
experienced teachers to simplify or shorten their lesson plans (refer to Figure 7.6).
As teachers gain experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson
plan is complete, the teachers can begin to demonstrate their style and skills
of teaching.

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Figure 7.6: Generic Components of a Lesson Plan

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ACTIVITY 7.6

1. Identify some problems in implementing the Primary School

Integrated Curriculum (KSSR) and the Secondary School
Integrated Curriculum (KSSM).

2. Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English

was implemented in your school.

3. „New curriculum often fail to become established in schools

because the importance and complexity of the implementation
phase are not understood.‰ Do you agree with this statement?

Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

• Curriculum implementation is an interaction between the programme creator

and those who deliver it.

• Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application

of a method, procedure or desired purpose.

• According to Lewin, change is determined both by the driving forces and

restraining forces. In the change process, it is better to reduce the power of
the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces.

• People resist change because they lack understanding, competencies,

ownership, incentives, and time.

• Curriculum change can take the following forms: substitution, alteration,

perturbations, restructuring, and value orientation.

• The factors influencing school curriculum implementation are adequacy of

resources, time, school ethos, professional support, professional knowledge,
professional attitude and interest.

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• An instructional model consists of four components: learning objectives,

content, learning experiences, and assessment tasks.

• Principals and headteachers play an important role in successfully

implementing the curriculum.

Curriculum change Local curriculum

Curriculum implementation National curriculum
Curriculum in the classroom Restraining forces
Driving forces Roles of students
Force field model Roles of teachers
Lesson plan

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Fullan, M., & Pomfret, A. (1977). Research on curriculum and instruction

implementation. Review of Educational Research, 47(2), 335–397.

Harvey, T. R., & Broyles, E. A. (2010). Resistance to change: A guide to harnessing

its positive power. R&L Education.

Lewin, K. (1951). Theory of social science. Harper and Row.

Lippitt, G. L. (1966). Managing change: 6 ways to turn resistance into

acceptance. Supervisory Management, 21–24.

Loucks, S. F., & Lieberman, A. (1983). Curriculum implementation. Fundamental

Curriculum Decisions, 126–141.

McNeil, J. D. (2014). Contemporary curriculum: In thought and action. John Wiley

& Sons.

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Nodirovna, N. N., & Temirovna, P. M. (2022). Principles of designing lesson plans

for teaching ESL or EFL. Eurasian Journal of Learning and Academic
Teaching, 5, 10–12.

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles,

and issues (3rd ed.), 237–240.

Woldring, H. (1999). On the purpose of the state: Continuity and change in

political theories. The Failure of Modernism: The Cartesian Legacy and
Contemporary Pluralism, 155–170.

Yeom, M., Acedo, C., & Utomo, E. (2002). The reform of secondary education
in Indonesia during the 1990s: Basic education expansion and quality
improvement through curriculum decentralisation. Asia Pacific Education
Review, 3(1), 56–68.

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