A BRIEF
HISTORY OF
INDIAN LITERATURE
UGC-NET
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Early In uences (19th Century)
Key Features
Historical and Travel Accounts: Many early works in Indian English literature
were historical or travel accounts written by British o cials, administrators, and
scholars. These writings provided insights into the diverse cultures, languages,
religions, and landscapes of India.
Orientalist Discourse: Early Indian English literature often re ected the
Orientalist discourse prevalent during the colonial period. It portrayed India and
its people through a lens shaped by Western stereotypes, exoticism, and
romanticised notions of the "mystical East."
Christian Missionary Literature: Christian missionaries played a signi cant role
in the development of Indian English literature during this period. They
produced religious texts, translations of the Bible, and works aimed at
promoting Christianity and spreading education.
Language Experimentation: Indian writers in English during the early period
were still grappling with the language and its nuances. They experimented with
various forms, styles, and linguistic elements, adapting English to Indian
contexts and incorporating local idioms and expressions.
Cultural Encounters and Clash: Early Indian English literature often portrayed
the encounters and clashes between Indian and British cultures. It explored the
complexities of cultural exchange, miscommunication, and the challenges
faced by individuals caught between two di erent worlds.
Socio-Political Critique: Some early Indian English writers used their works to
critique the social and political conditions of colonial India. They highlighted the
exploitation, injustices, and oppressive systems prevalent under British rule.
Nationalist Awakening: The early seeds of Indian nationalism began to emerge
during this period. Though not as pronounced as in later years, some works
expressed a nascent sense of Indian identity, emphasizing the need for self-
governance and national pride.
Translation and Adaptation: Indian English literature of this period involved a
signi cant amount of translation and adaptation of Indian literary works into
English. Translators sought to make Indian literature accessible to a wider
audience and bridge the gap between Indian and Western literary traditions.
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Prominent writers
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-1831): Derozio, a poet and teacher, is
considered one of the pioneers of Indian English literature. He inspired a group
of young intellectuals known as the "Young Bengal" movement and wrote
poems that expressed nationalist sentiments and advocated for social reform.
Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833): While not primarily an English writer, Ram
Mohan Roy played a crucial role in the intellectual and social landscape of early
Indian English literature. He wrote in Bengali and Persian but was also
pro cient in English. Roy was a social reformer, philosopher, and religious
thinker who advocated for education, women's rights, and the abolition of
practices like sati.
Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1824-1873): Although known primarily for his
Bengali works, Dutt also made contributions to Indian English literature. He
was a poet and playwright who experimented with di erent literary forms and
styles. His play "The Captive Ladie" (1849) is considered one of the earliest
Indian English plays.
Dina Nath Vidyarthi (1802-1857): Vidyarthi, a Bengali writer, made notable
contributions to early Indian English literature. He wrote works in English that
re ected the in uence of Romanticism and explored themes of love, nature,
and spirituality.
Fanny Parkes (1794-1875): Parkes was an Englishwoman who lived in India for
several years and wrote extensively about her experiences. Her travelogues
and memoirs, such as "Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the
Picturesque" (1850), provide valuable insights into colonial India.
Bishop Reginald Heber (1783-1826): Although Heber was not Indian, his travel
accounts and poems captured the essence of India during his visit as the
Bishop of Calcutta. His works, including "Narrative of a Journey through the
Upper Provinces of India" (1828), contributed to the understanding of Indian
culture and society.
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The Bengal Renaissance (Late 19th to Early
20th Century)
Features
the Bengal Renaissance had a profound in uence on the literary output of the
time. English language and literature were embraced and utilized by Bengali
intellectuals as a means to express their ideas and engage with a wider
audience, both within India and beyond.
Prominent gures of the Bengal Renaissance in Indian English literature include
Rabindranath Tagore, who is often regarded as the central gure of this period.
Tagore's works, such as his collection of poems "Gitanjali," showcased a blend
of Indian spiritual and philosophical ideas with English poetic forms. Tagore's
contributions to Indian English literature not only earned him international
recognition but also inspired generations of writers to follow.
Other notable authors of the Bengal Renaissance in Indian English literature
include Sarojini Naidu, a prominent poet and political activist, and Toru Dutt,
who made signi cant contributions through her poetry and ction
Important writers
Rabindranath Tagore: Tagore was a proli c writer, poet, philosopher, and the
rst non-European Nobel laureate in Literature. His works, including
"Gitanjali" (Song O erings), showcased the essence of Indian spirituality and
poetic sensibilities.
Sarojini Naidu: Naidu was a poet, freedom ghter, and politician. She was
known as the Nightingale of India and her poetry re ected themes of love,
patriotism, and social issues.
Toru Dutt: Dutt was a pioneering Indian English poet and novelist. Her works,
such as "A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields" and "Ancient Ballads and Legends
of Hindustan," blended Indian and Western literary traditions.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay: Chattopadhyay was a Bengali writer and
novelist who wrote in both Bengali and English. His English novel
"Anandamath" depicted themes of patriotism, nationalism, and resistance
against British rule.
Romesh Chunder Dutt: Dutt was an economist, historian, and writer. He wrote
historical and economic works, as well as ction, and his novel "Plays of Hindu
Gods" explored Hindu mythology.
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Important writers
Michael Madhusudan Dutt: Dutt was a poet and playwright who contributed to
both Bengali and English literature. He is known for his epic poem "Meghnad
Badh Kavya" and for introducing sonnets to Bengali literature.
Dwijendralal Ray: Ray was a poet, musician, and playwright. He wrote poems
and songs in both Bengali and English, highlighting themes of nationalism and
social reform.
Rabindranath Tagore (novels)
Nastanirh (The Broken Nest) - 1901
Rajarshi - 1910
Gora - 1909
Ghare-Baire (The Home and the World) - 1916
Chokher Bali (A Grain of Sand) - 1903
Chaturanga (Quartet) - 1916
Malancha (The Garden and the Gardener) - 1902
Shesher Kobita (The Last Poem) - 1928
Noukadubi (The Wreck) - 1906
Jogajog (Relationships) - 1929
Muktadhara (The Waterfall) - 1922
Dui Bon (Two Sisters) - 1933
POEMS
Manasi (The Ideal One) - 1890
Sonar Tari (The Golden Boat) - 1894
Gitanjali (Song O erings) - 1910
Gitimalya (Wreath of Songs) - 1914
Balaka (The Flight of Cranes) - 1916
Purabi (The Eastern Wave) - 1916
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Balaka (The Flight of Cranes) - 1916
Purabi (The Eastern Wave) - 1916
Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949)
Poetry
The Golden Threshold (1905): Her rst collection of poems that showcases her
lyrical and romantic style, addressing themes of love, nature, and patriotism.
The Bird of Time (1912): This collection explores the themes of love, life, and
spirituality, re ecting her evolving poetic voice.
The Broken Wing (1917): Naidu's collection that delves into the complexities of
life, relationships, and the struggle for freedom.
Muhammad Jinnah: An Ambassador of Unity (1916): A poetic tribute to
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, one of the key gures in India's independence
movement.
The Feather of the Dawn (1961): A posthumously published collection of
Naidu's poems, including both early and later works.
Prose & Plays
The Sceptred Flute: Songs of India (1928): A collection of prose poems
celebrating Indian history, culture, and mythology.
The Magic Tree (1936): A play written for children, incorporating elements of
Indian folklore and showcasing Naidu's storytelling abilities.
The Lady of the Lake: A Drama in Five Acts (1933): A historical play based on
the legend of Rani Padmini, the queen of Mewar.
The Pardah Nashin (1907): A play that sheds light on the social customs and
restrictions faced by women in traditional Indian society.
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Toru Dutt (1856-1877)
Notable Works
A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields (1876): This collection of poetry re ects Toru
Dutt's multilingual upbringing and features a blend of English and French
verses. It showcases her poetic talent and her ability to navigate multiple
cultural in uences.
Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan (1882): Published posthumously,
this collection includes a series of narrative poems inspired by Indian
mythology and folklore. It highlights Dutt's deep connection to her Indian
heritage and her skill in capturing the essence of traditional tales.
Bianca or The Young Spanish Maiden (1878): A dramatic poem in blank verse,
Bianca draws inspiration from Spanish history and literature. It tells the tragic
story of a young maiden caught in a web of love and betrayal.
Our Casuarina Tree (1881): This evocative poem pays homage to a cherished
Casuarina tree from Dutt's childhood home in India. It intertwines personal
memories with broader themes of time, nature, and the cycle of life.
Le Journal de Mademoiselle d'Arvers (1879): Originally written in French, this
ctional diary captures the thoughts and experiences of a young French girl
and showcases Dutt's pro ciency in the French language.
A Vision of India in the 20th Century (1877): In this visionary poem, Dutt
imagines a future India where harmony, progress, and unity prevail. She
expresses her hopes and aspirations for her homeland.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838-1894)
Notable Works
Durgeshnandini (1865): The rst Bengali historical romance novel, set during
the Mughal period, which tells the story of the brave princess Durgeshnandini.
Kapalkundala (1866): A novel centered around the character Kapalkundala, a
beautiful and mysterious woman, exploring themes of love, fate, and
spirituality.
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Mrinalini (1869): A story of love and sacri ce set in rural Bengal, depicting the
struggles faced by the protagonist, Mrinalini, in the patriarchal society.
Rajani (1877): This novel addresses the theme of widow remarriage, portraying
the life of Rajani, a young widow who de es societal norms.
Anandamath (1882): Considered one of Chattopadhyay's most signi cant
works, it depicts the Sannyasi Rebellion against British rule and features the
iconic song "Vande Mataram."
Devi Chaudhurani (1884): The novel revolves around the erce and
independent character, Devi Chaudhurani, who ghts against oppression and
injustice.
Sitaram (1887): A historical novel set during the reign of Aurangzeb, exploring
themes of religious tolerance and communal harmony.
Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1824-1873)
Notable Works
Meghnad Badh Kavya (The Slaying of Meghnad): A heroic epic poem based on
the Ramayana, it focuses on the character of Meghnad (Indrajit), Ravana's son.
This work brought Dutt signi cant acclaim and is considered a landmark in
Bengali literature.
Buro Shaliker Ghare Ro (In the House of an Old Man): A tragic play that depicts
the con icts arising from generational di erences and societal expectations.
Krishna Kumari (Krishna's Wife): A play inspired by the Mahabharata, it
revolves around the life and struggles of Krishna's wife, Satyabhama.
Tilottama Sambhava: A narrative poem based on the mythological story of the
creation of Tilottama, a celestial nymph.
Virangana Kabya (The Ballad of a Heroine): A narrative poem that pays tribute
to Rani Padmavati, a legendary queen known for her valor and sacri ce.
Bardar Sani (Sani of the Bardars): A dramatic play that explores themes of
social inequality and the struggle for justice.
Birangana Kabya (The Ballad of a Heroine)
Titas Ekti Nadir Naam (A River Called Titas)
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The Nationalist Period (1915-1947)
Introduction
Indian English literature during this period re ected the spirit of nationalism,
political consciousness, and the quest for social change. Several prominent
writers emerged during this time, contributing to the development of Indian
English literature as a powerful medium of expressing nationalistic aspirations.
Important Writers
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)
Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949)
Mulk Raj Anand (1905-2004)
Raja Rao (1908-2006)
Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938)
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)
R.K. Narayan (1906-2001)
Ahmed Ali (1910-1994)
Arun Joshi (1939-1993)
R.P. Jhabvala (1927-2013)
Mulk Raj Anand (1905-2004)
Novels
Untouchable (1935): An important work that sheds light on the dehumanizing
e ects of the caste system in India, focusing on a day in the life of Bakha, an
"untouchable" sweeper.
Coolie (1936): This novel follows the journey of a young boy named Munoo
who escapes poverty in a rural village and becomes a migrant worker in the
cities.
The Village (1939)
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The Private Life of an Indian Prince (1953): A novel that examines the life of
Prince Kumar, juxtaposing the opulence of princely states with the stark
realities of poverty and inequality.
Across the Black Waters (1940): This novel tells the story of Lalu, an Indian
soldier serving in the British Army during World War I, and explores themes of
identity, nationalism, and colonialism.
The Sword and the Sickle (1942): Set during the Quit India movement, the
novel portrays the intertwined lives of a peasant and a revolutionary,
highlighting the struggle for independence.
The Big Heart (1945): The novel depicts the life of Ramanand, a young idealistic
teacher, and his interactions with various characters representing di erent
aspects of Indian society.
Short Story Collections:
Seven Summers (1951): A collection of semi-autobiographical stories capturing
the experiences and emotions of the protagonist growing up in rural Punjab.
Lament on the Death of a Master of Arts (1949): These stories focus on the
lives of students, intellectuals, and the struggles they face in a society marked
by inequality.
Raja Rao (1908-2006)
Novels
Kanthapura (1938): Considered Rao's masterpiece, this novel tells the story of
a South Indian village's involvement in the Indian freedom movement. It
explores themes of nonviolence, Gandhian ideals, and the struggle for
independence.
The Serpent and the Rope (1960): This semi-autobiographical novel follows the
life of a young Indian student studying in France and delves into the
complexities of Indian identity, spirituality, and the search for self-realization.
The Cat and Shakespeare (1965): This novel explores the themes of
metaphysics and philosophy through the interactions between the protagonist,
Govindan Nair, and his pet cat.
Comrade Kirillov (1976): Set during the time of the Russian Revolution, the
novel explores the ideologies and con icts of the period through the life of its
protagonist, Kirillov.
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The Chessmaster and His Moves (1988): This novel explores the themes of
love, desire, and spirituality through the story of a chess player named
Narasimha.
Other Works
The Cow of the Barricades and Other Stories (1947): A collection of short
stories that touch upon themes of human relationships, cultural clashes, and
the quest for meaning.
The Policeman and the Rose (1978): A collection of essays that re ect on
various topics, including literature, philosophy, spirituality, and the intersection
of Eastern and Western cultures.
Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938): Although primarily known as a philosopher and
poet, Iqbal's works in English also contributed to the literary landscape during the
Nationalist Period. His writings emphasized the need for self-awakening, unity, and
the preservation of Indian culture.
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964): Nehru, the rst Prime Minister of independent
India, also made notable contributions to Indian English literature. His book "The
Discovery of India" explored the history, culture, and diversity of the Indian
subcontinent.
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Post-Independence Period (1947-present)
Introduction
This period witnessed the emergence of a new generation of Indian writers who
responded to the challenges and opportunities presented by an independent
nation. Indian English literature during this time re ects the complexities of a
rapidly changing society, grappling with issues of identity, social justice,
cultural shifts, and global in uences.
Important writers
R.K. Narayan (1906-2001)
Vikram Seth (b. 1952)
Arundhati Roy (b. 1961)
Salman Rushdie (b. 1947)
Anita Desai (b. 1937)
Arvind Adiga (b. 1974)
Jhumpa Lahiri (b. 1967)
Amitav Ghosh (b. 1956)
Kiran Desai (b. 1971)
Rohinton Mistry (b. 1952)
Shashi Tharoor (b. 1956)
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni (b. 1956)
Kamila Shamsie (b. 1973)
Jeet Thayil (b. 1959)
Manju Kapur (b. 1948)
Meena Kandasamy (b. 1984)
Pankaj Mishra (b. 1969)
Amit Chaudhuri (b. 1962)
Namita Gokhale (b. 1956)
Jerry Pinto (b. 1966)
Kamala Das (1934-2009)
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R.K. Narayan (1906-2001): Narayan is considered one of the pioneers of Indian
English ction. His works, such as "Swami and Friends" and "The Guide,"
captured the essence of Indian middle-class life and introduced Indian culture to a
global audience.
Vikram Seth (b. 1952): Seth is known for his epic novel "A Suitable Boy," which
portrays post-independence India through the lives of its characters. His writing
explores themes of love, family, and societal change.
Arundhati Roy (b. 1961): Roy gained international acclaim with her debut novel
"The God of Small Things," which won the Booker Prize. Her writing delves into
themes of caste, politics, gender, and social justice.
Salman Rushdie (b. 1947): Rushdie's magnum opus, "Midnight's Children,"
captures the spirit of post-independence India through magical realism and
explores themes of identity, history, and nationhood.
Anita Desai (b. 1937): Desai's works, such as "Clear Light of Day" and "The
Village by the Sea," examine the complexities of Indian society and the challenges
faced by individuals navigating cultural changes.
Arvind Adiga (b. 1974): Adiga's novel "The White Tiger," which won the Man
Booker Prize, o ers a darkly satirical portrayal of contemporary India, exploring
themes of class struggle and social inequality.
Jhumpa Lahiri (b. 1967): Lahiri's works, including "Interpreter of Maladies" and
"The Namesake," depict the experiences of Indian immigrants in the United States
and explore themes of cultural displacement, identity, and assimilation.
Amitav Ghosh (b. 1956): Ghosh is known for his historical ction, such as the
"Ibis Trilogy" (comprising "Sea of Poppies," "River of Smoke," and "Flood of Fire"),
which examines India's colonial past and its impact on diverse characters.
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Kamala Das (1934-2009)
Important writers
Summer in Calcutta (1965): Her debut poetry collection, which garnered
attention for its candid and sensual exploration of love, desire, and female
sexuality.
The Descendants (1967): This collection re ects on themes of cultural and
personal identity, exploring the author's experiences as a woman and the
social constraints she faced.
The Old Playhouse and Other Poems (1973): A collection that delves into
themes of love, relationships, and the complexities of human emotions.
The Anamalai Poems (1986): These poems are inspired by her experiences
living in the Anamalai Hills in Tamil Nadu and re ect on nature, love, and
spirituality.
Prose and Autobiography:
My Story (1976): Kamala Das's autobiography that o ers a candid and intimate
account of her life, relationships, and struggles as a woman in a conservative
society.
Alphabet of Lust (1976): A collection of short stories that explores themes of
desire, passion, and the human condition.
Padmavati the Harlot and Other Stories (1992): A collection of short stories that
examines the complexities of human relationships, societal norms, and the
plight of women in a patriarchal society.
A Doll for the Child Prostitute (1977): A play that addresses social issues such
as child prostitution and the exploitation of women.
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Contemporary Period (2000-present)
Important writers
Aravind Adiga
Vikram Seth
Amitav Ghosh
Kiran Desai
Arundhati Roy
Salman Rushdie
Jhumpa Lahiri
Chetan Bhagat
Anita Desai
Kamila Shamsie
Meena Kandasamy
Amish Tripathi
Rana Dasgupta
Jeet Thayil
Karan Mahajan
Siddhartha Deb
Raj Kamal Jha
Neel Mukherjee
Jerry Pinto
Pankaj Mishra
Shashi Deshpande
Anuradha Roy
Tishani Doshi
Anjali Joseph
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Contemporary Period (2000-present)
Important writers
Jeet Thayil
Anosh Irani
Kunal Basu
Manu Joseph
Shashi Tharoor
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