SOME BASICS OF PHILOSOPHY AND

THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

(ONTOLOGY)
Jens Allwood
Department of Lingusitics
Kollegium SSKKII
(Cognitive Science)

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Ontology (Metaphysics)
(Eschatology)
What does it mean to exist?
- occur in the world
- occur in space-time
- occur in someone’s thinking

Ontology classically:
- tells us what the fundamental categories of
reality are
- tells us about basic conceptual dimensions in
reality

Now - concept sometimes diluted

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OBJEK ILMU

 OBJEK MATERIAL
 OBJEK FORMAL
OBJEK MATERIAL

 sesuatu hal yang dijadikan sasaran

pemikiran
(http://edukasi.kompasiana.com/2011/04/22/ontologi/)
 fenomena di dunia ini yang ditelaah
ilmu. (Makalah filsafat ilmu oleh Drs. Kunjojo M.Pd. 2009)
The Liang Gie (1991 : 141) telah
mengidentifikasi 6 macam fenomena yang
menjadi objek material ilmu, yaitu:
1) ide abstrak
2) benda fisik
3) jasad hidup
4) gejala rohani
5) peristiwa sosial
6) proses tanda

Makalah filsafat ilmu oleh Drs. Kunjojo M.Pd. 2009

OBJEK FORMAL

 Cara memandang, cara meninjau yang

dilakukan oleh peneliti terhadap objek
materialnya serta prinsip-prinsip yang
digunakannya.

http://edukasi.kompasiana.com/2011/04/22/ontologi/
Objek formal adalah pusat pusat
perhatian ilmuwan dalam
penelaahan objek material.

Makalah filsafat ilmu oleh Drs. Kunjojo M.Pd. 2009

A traditional starting
point

Question 1:
.Does anything exist independently of
my (our) experience of the world?

1. Yes - Realism
2. No - Idealism
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 A. Realism (types)

1. Naive Realism
G. E. Moore
“Here is a hand”
Samuel Johnson
“kick a stone”

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 A. Realism (types)

2. Sophisticated Realism
Locke, Descartes
(i) primary qualities:
time, space, form, mass, energy, extension,
movement, rest
(ii) secondary qualities:
colors, experienced sounds, smells, taste,
heat, cold
(iii) tertiary qualities:
values; good, bad, beautiful, ugly
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 A. Realism (types)
3. Critical realism - Kant
All qualities (including the primary ones)
come to us through our experience
(thoughts). Nothing we know about the
world is independent of us.
We only know something about the
”phenomena in the world” but nothing about
”the-things-in themselves”.

The only thing we can syn about ”the-things-in-

themselves” is that they exist.

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 A. Realism (types)

4. Conceptual realism - Plato

Concepts (ideas) have a ”real existence”
independently of us.

- They are the only things that are really

real (outside of time and space).

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 B. Idealism
1. Phenomenalism
Berkeley, Hume
Berkeley: ”things become larger as you get
close to them”

- The only things that exist are phenomena

(Kant - ”the-thing-in itself”)

- The epistemic basis of everything is

Impressions (Hume) or Sense data (Russell,
Carnap)

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 B. Idealism

2. Idealism
Fichte, Schelling, Hegel – German
romanticism

Not only sense data exist, but also our

interpretations of them.

Emotions, attitudes etc. are also real.

Schopenhauer - “Die Welt als Wille und
Vorstellung”

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 B. Idealism

3. Solipsism
The only things that exist are my experiences

Max Stirner - “Der Einzige und sein

Eigentum”

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Question 2

What is the Nature of the basic

categories of reality?

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1. Physical, material (Democritos, Marx)
2. Spiritual, mental (Hegel, Berkeley)
3. Abstract (Plato, Popper)
4. Divine (Spinoza, Hegel)
5. Try to avoid position
Try to put the external world in brackets -
only analyze what we experience.
- Husserl phenomenology
- Russel Neutral monism

Categories 1 and 2 the most common.

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Question 3
What kind of principles govern the
world (connect phenomena with
each other)?

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A. Indeterminism
(i) Chaos,
(ii) Statistical correlations

B. Determinism
Aristotles’ four causes:
• Causal (efficient); (most of science)
• Teleological (final; goal, purpose)
Aristotle, Hegel
• Material
• Formal (Sheldrake)

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 Aristotle’s Four Causes
 Material Cause: substance which undergoes a
process
 Formal Cause: general conditions required for, and
pattern or form of, process
 Efficient Cause: immediate conditions which
precipitate the process or bring the object into
being
 Final Cause: the purpose or end for which the
process occurs—x occurs in order that… this sort of
explanation is called teleological
 To fully explain a phenomena, each of its four
causes must be explained
Question 4
Are there basic ontological
categories independently of the
question of what constitutes their
nature?

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Basic ontological categories

1. Entities (concrete things, abstract

entities)
2. Properties (primary, secondary, tertiary
3. Relations (No. of arguments)
4. Processes
5. States (simple, complex)
6. Events (simple, complex)
7. Courses of events
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Basic ontological categories

Examples:
 Entity: Bill, Betty
 State: Bill is strong
 Property: Strong
 Event: Betty jumped
 Relation: Kinder than
 Process: runs
 Course of events: Betty went to town
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LANJUT KE EPISTEMOLOGI

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