Kalman filter

For statistics and control theory,

Kalman filtering, also known as
linear quadratic estimation (LQE), is
an algorithm that uses a series of
measurements observed over time,
including statistical noise and other
inaccuracies, and produces estimates of
unknown variables that tend to be
more accurate than those based on a
single measurement alone, by
estimating a joint probability
distribution over the variables for each The Kalman filter (https://journal.ump.edu.my/mekatronika/article/vi
timeframe. The filter is named after ew/4990) keeps track of the estimated state of the system and the
Rudolf E. Kálmán, who was one of the variance or uncertainty of the estimate. The estimate is updated
primary developers of its theory. using a state transition model and measurements. denotes
the estimate of the system's state at time step k before the k-th
This digital filter is sometimes termed measurement yk has been taken into account; is the
the Stratonovich–Kalman–Bucy filter corresponding uncertainty.
because it is a special case of a more
general, nonlinear filter developed
somewhat earlier by the Soviet mathematician Ruslan Stratonovich.[1][2][3][4] In fact, some of the special
case linear filter's equations appeared in papers by Stratonovich that were published before summer 1961,
when Kalman met with Stratonovich during a conference in Moscow.[5]

Kalman filtering[6] has numerous technological applications. A common application is for guidance,
navigation, and control of vehicles, particularly aircraft, spacecraft and ships positioned dynamically.[7]
Furthermore, Kalman filtering is a concept much applied in time series analysis used for topics such as
signal processing and econometrics. Kalman filtering is also one of the main topics of robotic motion
planning and control[8][9] and can be used for trajectory optimization.[10] Kalman filtering also works for
modeling the central nervous system's control of movement. Due to the time delay between issuing motor
commands and receiving sensory feedback, the use of Kalman filters[11] provides a realistic model for
making estimates of the current state of a motor system and issuing updated commands.[12]

The algorithm works by a two-phase process. For the prediction phase, the Kalman filter produces
estimates of the current state variables, along with their uncertainties. Once the outcome of the next
measurement (necessarily corrupted with some error, including random noise) is observed, these estimates
are updated using a weighted average, with more weight being given to estimates with greater certainty.
The algorithm is recursive. It can operate in real time, using only the present input measurements and the
state calculated previously and its uncertainty matrix; no additional past information is required.

Optimality of Kalman filtering assumes that errors have a normal (Gaussian) distribution. In the words of
Rudolf E. Kálmán: "In summary, the following assumptions are made about random processes: Physical
random phenomena may be thought of as due to primary random sources exciting dynamic systems. The
primary sources are assumed to be independent gaussian random processes with zero mean; the dynamic
systems will be linear." [13] Though regardless of Gaussianity, if the process and measurement covariances
are known, the Kalman filter is the best possible linear estimator in the minimum mean-square-error sense.
[14] It is a common misconception (perpetuated in the literature) that the Kalman filter cannot be rigorously

applied unless all noise processes are assumed to be Gaussian.[15]

Extensions and generalizations of the method have also been developed, such as the extended Kalman filter
and the unscented Kalman filter which work on nonlinear systems. The basis is a hidden Markov model
such that the state space of the latent variables is continuous and all latent and observed variables have
Gaussian distributions. Kalman filtering has been used successfully in multi-sensor fusion,[16] and
distributed sensor networks to develop distributed or consensus Kalman filtering.[17]

History
The filtering method is named for Hungarian émigré Rudolf E. Kálmán, although Thorvald Nicolai
Thiele[18][19] and Peter Swerling developed a similar algorithm earlier. Richard S. Bucy of the Johns
Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory contributed to the theory, causing it to be known sometimes as
Kalman–Bucy filtering. Stanley F. Schmidt is generally credited with developing the first implementation of
a Kalman filter. He realized that the filter could be divided into two distinct parts, with one part for time
periods between sensor outputs and another part for incorporating measurements.[20] It was during a visit
by Kálmán to the NASA Ames Research Center that Schmidt saw the applicability of Kálmán's ideas to the
nonlinear problem of trajectory estimation for the Apollo program resulting in its incorporation in the
Apollo navigation computer.[21]: 1 6 

This Kalman filtering was first described and developed partially in technical papers by Swerling (1958),
Kalman (1960) and Kalman and Bucy (1961).

The Apollo computer used 2k of magnetic core RAM and 36k wire rope [...]. The CPU was
built from ICs [...]. Clock speed was under 100 kHz [...]. The fact that the MIT engineers were
able to pack such good software (one of the very first applications of the Kalman filter) into
such a tiny computer is truly remarkable.

— Interview with Jack Crenshaw, by Matthew Reed, TRS-80.org (2009) [1] (http://www.t
rs-80.org/interview-jack-crenshaw/)

Kalman filters have been vital in the implementation of the navigation systems of U.S. Navy nuclear
ballistic missile submarines, and in the guidance and navigation systems of cruise missiles such as the U.S.
Navy's Tomahawk missile and the U.S. Air Force's Air Launched Cruise Missile. They are also used in the
guidance and navigation systems of reusable launch vehicles and the attitude control and navigation
systems of spacecraft which dock at the International Space Station.[22]

Overview of the calculation

Kalman filtering uses a system's dynamic model (e.g., physical laws of motion), known control inputs to
that system, and multiple sequential measurements (such as from sensors) to form an estimate of the
system's varying quantities (its state) that is better than the estimate obtained by using only one
measurement alone. As such, it is a common sensor fusion and data fusion algorithm.

Noisy sensor data, approximations in the equations that describe the system evolution, and external factors
that are not accounted for, all limit how well it is possible to determine the system's state. The Kalman filter
deals effectively with the uncertainty due to noisy sensor data and, to some extent, with random external
factors. The Kalman filter produces an estimate of the state of the system as an average of the system's
predicted state and of the new measurement using a weighted average. The purpose of the weights is that
values with better (i.e., smaller) estimated uncertainty are "trusted" more. The weights are calculated from
the covariance, a measure of the estimated uncertainty of the prediction of the system's state. The result of
the weighted average is a new state estimate that lies between the predicted and measured state, and has a
better estimated uncertainty than either alone. This process is repeated at every time step, with the new
estimate and its covariance informing the prediction used in the following iteration. This means that Kalman
filter works recursively and requires only the last "best guess", rather than the entire history, of a system's
state to calculate a new state.

The measurements' certainty-grading and current-state estimate are important considerations. It is common
to discuss the filter's response in terms of the Kalman filter's gain. The Kalman-gain is the weight given to
the measurements and current-state estimate, and can be "tuned" to achieve a particular performance. With
a high gain, the filter places more weight on the most recent measurements, and thus conforms to them
more responsively. With a low gain, the filter conforms to the model predictions more closely. At the
extremes, a high gain close to one will result in a more jumpy estimated trajectory, while a low gain close to
zero will smooth out noise but decrease the responsiveness.

When performing the actual calculations for the filter (as discussed below), the state estimate and
covariances are coded into matrices because of the multiple dimensions involved in a single set of
calculations. This allows for a representation of linear relationships between different state variables (such
as position, velocity, and acceleration) in any of the transition models or covariances.

Example application
As an example application, consider the problem of determining the precise location of a truck. The truck
can be equipped with a GPS unit that provides an estimate of the position within a few meters. The GPS
estimate is likely to be noisy; readings 'jump around' rapidly, though remaining within a few meters of the
real position. In addition, since the truck is expected to follow the laws of physics, its position can also be
estimated by integrating its velocity over time, determined by keeping track of wheel revolutions and the
angle of the steering wheel. This is a technique known as dead reckoning. Typically, the dead reckoning
will provide a very smooth estimate of the truck's position, but it will drift over time as small errors
accumulate.

For this example, the Kalman filter can be thought of as operating in two distinct phases: predict and
update. In the prediction phase, the truck's old position will be modified according to the physical laws of
motion (the dynamic or "state transition" model). Not only will a new position estimate be calculated, but
also a new covariance will be calculated as well. Perhaps the covariance is proportional to the speed of the
truck because we are more uncertain about the accuracy of the dead reckoning position estimate at high
speeds but very certain about the position estimate at low speeds. Next, in the update phase, a measurement
of the truck's position is taken from the GPS unit. Along with this measurement comes some amount of
uncertainty, and its covariance relative to that of the prediction from the previous phase determines how
much the new measurement will affect the updated prediction. Ideally, as the dead reckoning estimates tend
to drift away from the real position, the GPS measurement should pull the position estimate back toward the
real position but not disturb it to the point of becoming noisy and rapidly jumping.

Technical description and context

The Kalman filter is an efficient recursive filter estimating the internal state of a linear dynamic system from
a series of noisy measurements. It is used in a wide range of engineering and econometric applications from
radar and computer vision to estimation of structural macroeconomic models,[23][24] and is an important
topic in control theory and control systems engineering. Together with the linear-quadratic regulator (LQR),
the Kalman filter solves the linear–quadratic–Gaussian control problem (LQG). The Kalman filter, the
linear-quadratic regulator, and the linear–quadratic–Gaussian controller are solutions to what arguably are
the most fundamental problems of control theory.

In most applications, the internal state is much larger (has more degrees of freedom) than the few
"observable" parameters which are measured. However, by combining a series of measurements, the
Kalman filter can estimate the entire internal state.

For the Dempster–Shafer theory, each state equation or observation is considered a special case of a linear
belief function and the Kalman filtering is a special case of combining linear belief functions on a join-tree
or Markov tree. Additional methods include belief filtering which use Bayes or evidential updates to the
state equations.

A wide variety of Kalman filters exists by now, from Kalman's original formulation - now termed the
"simple" Kalman filter, the Kalman–Bucy filter, Schmidt's "extended" filter, the information filter, and a
variety of "square-root" filters that were developed by Bierman, Thornton, and many others. Perhaps the
most commonly used type of very simple Kalman filter is the phase-locked loop, which is now ubiquitous
in radios, especially frequency modulation (FM) radios, television sets, satellite communications receivers,
outer space communications systems, and nearly any other electronic communications equipment.

Underlying dynamic system model

Kalman filtering is based on linear dynamic systems discretized in the time domain. They are modeled on a
Markov chain built on linear operators perturbed by errors that may include Gaussian noise. The state of the
target system refers to the ground truth (yet hidden) system configuration of interest, which is represented as
a vector of real numbers. At each discrete time increment, a linear operator is applied to the state to generate
the new state, with some noise mixed in, and optionally some information from the controls on the system if
they are known. Then, another linear operator mixed with more noise generates the measurable outputs
(i.e., observation) from the true ("hidden") state. The Kalman filter may be regarded as analogous to the
hidden Markov model, with the difference that the hidden state variables have values in a continuous space
as opposed to a discrete state space as for the hidden Markov model. There is a strong analogy between the
equations of a Kalman Filter and those of the hidden Markov model. A review of this and other models is
given in Roweis and Ghahramani (1999)[25] and Hamilton (1994), Chapter 13.[26]

In order to use the Kalman filter to estimate the internal state of a process given only a sequence of noisy
observations, one must model the process in accordance with the following framework. This means
specifying the matrices, for each time-step k, following:

Fk , the state-transition model;

Hk , the observation model;
Qk , the covariance of the process noise;
Rk , the covariance of the observation noise;
and sometimes Bk , the control-input model as described below; if Bk is included, then there
is also
uk , the control vector, representing the controlling input into control-input model.

The Kalman filter model assumes the true state at time k is evolved from the state at (k − 1) according to

where
 Model underlying the Kalman filter. Squares represent matrices. Ellipses represent multivariate normal
distributions (with the mean and covariance matrix enclosed). Unenclosed values are vectors. For the
simple case, the various matrices are constant with time, and thus the subscripts are not used, but Kalman
filtering allows any of them to change each time step.

Fk is the state transition model which is applied to the previous state xk−1;
Bk is the control-input model which is applied to the control vector uk ;
wk is the process noise, which is assumed to be drawn from a zero mean multivariate
normal distribution, , with covariance, Qk : .

At time k an observation (or measurement) zk of the true state xk is made according to

where

Hk is the observation model, which maps the true state space into the observed space and
vk is the observation noise, which is assumed to be zero mean Gaussian white noise with
covariance Rk : .

The initial state, and the noise vectors at each step {x0 , w1 , ..., wk, v1 , ... ,vk} are all assumed to be
mutually independent.

Many real-time dynamic systems do not exactly conform to this model. In fact, unmodeled dynamics can
seriously degrade the filter performance, even when it was supposed to work with unknown stochastic
signals as inputs. The reason for this is that the effect of unmodeled dynamics depends on the input, and,
therefore, can bring the estimation algorithm to instability (it diverges). On the other hand, independent
white noise signals will not make the algorithm diverge. The problem of distinguishing between
measurement noise and unmodeled dynamics is a difficult one and is treated as a problem of control theory
using robust control.[27][28]

Details
The Kalman filter is a recursive estimator. This means that only the estimated state from the previous time
step and the current measurement are needed to compute the estimate for the current state. In contrast to
batch estimation techniques, no history of observations and/or estimates is required. In what follows, the
notation represents the estimate of at time n given observations up to and including at time m ≤ n.

The state of the filter is represented by two variables:

 , the a posteriori state estimate mean at time k given observations up to and including at
time k;
, the a posteriori estimate covariance matrix (a measure of the estimated accuracy of the
state estimate).

The algorithm structure of the Kalman filter resembles that of Alpha beta filter. The Kalman filter can be
written as a single equation; however, it is most often conceptualized as two distinct phases: "Predict" and
"Update". The predict phase uses the state estimate from the previous timestep to produce an estimate of the
state at the current timestep. This predicted state estimate is also known as the a priori state estimate
because, although it is an estimate of the state at the current timestep, it does not include observation
information from the current timestep. In the update phase, the innovation (the pre-fit residual), i.e. the
difference between the current a priori prediction and the current observation information, is multiplied by
the optimal Kalman gain and combined with the previous state estimate to refine the state estimate. This
improved estimate based on the current observation is termed the a posteriori state estimate.

Typically, the two phases alternate, with the prediction advancing the state until the next scheduled
observation, and the update incorporating the observation. However, this is not necessary; if an observation
is unavailable for some reason, the update may be skipped and multiple prediction procedures performed.
Likewise, if multiple independent observations are available at the same time, multiple update procedures
may be performed (typically with different observation matrices Hk).[29][30]

Predict
Predicted (a priori) state estimate
Predicted (a priori) estimate
covariance

Update
Innovation or measurement pre-fit
residual
Innovation (or pre-fit residual)
covariance
Optimal Kalman gain
Updated (a posteriori) state
estimate
Updated (a posteriori) estimate
covariance
Measurement post-fit residual

The formula for the updated (a posteriori) estimate covariance above is valid for the optimal Kk gain that
minimizes the residual error, in which form it is most widely used in applications. Proof of the formulae is
found in the derivations section, where the formula valid for any Kk is also shown.

A more intuitive way to express the updated state estimate ( ) is:

This expression reminds us of a linear interpolation, for between [0,1]. In our
case:

is the Kalman gain ( ), a matrix that takes values from (high error in the sensor) to
(low error).
is the value estimated from the model.
is the value from the measurement.

This expression also resembles the alpha beta filter update step.

Invariants

If the model is accurate, and the values for and accurately reflect the distribution of the initial
state values, then the following invariants are preserved:

where is the expected value of . That is, all estimates have a mean error of zero.

Also:

so covariance matrices accurately reflect the covariance of estimates.

Estimation of the noise covariances Qk and Rk

Practical implementation of a Kalman Filter is often difficult due to the difficulty of getting a good estimate
of the noise covariance matrices Qk and Rk. Extensive research has been done to estimate these covariances
from data. One practical method of doing this is the autocovariance least-squares (ALS) technique that uses
the time-lagged autocovariances of routine operating data to estimate the covariances.[31][32] The GNU
Octave and Matlab code used to calculate the noise covariance matrices using the ALS technique is
available online using the GNU General Public License.[33] Field Kalman Filter (FKF), a Bayesian
algorithm, which allows simultaneous estimation of the state, parameters and noise covariance has been
proposed.[34] The FKF algorithm has a recursive formulation, good observed convergence, and relatively
low complexity, thus suggesting that the FKF algorithm may possibly be a worthwhile alternative to the
Autocovariance Least-Squares methods.

Optimality and performance

It follows from theory that the Kalman filter provides an optimal state estimation in cases where a) the
model matches the real system perfectly, b) the entering noise is "white" (uncorrelated) and c) the
covariances of the noise are known exactly. Correlated noise can also be treated using Kalman filters.[35]
Several methods for the noise covariance estimation have been proposed during past decades, including
ALS, mentioned in the section above. After the covariances are estimated, it is useful to evaluate the
performance of the filter; i.e., whether it is possible to improve the state estimation quality. If the Kalman
filter works optimally, the innovation sequence (the output prediction error) is a white noise, therefore the
whiteness property of the innovations measures filter performance. Several different methods can be used
for this purpose.[36] If the noise terms are distributed in a non-Gaussian manner, methods for assessing
performance of the filter estimate, which use probability inequalities or large-sample theory, are known in
the literature.[37][38]

Example application, technical

Consider a truck on frictionless, straight rails. Initially, the truck is
stationary at position 0, but it is buffeted this way and that by
random uncontrolled forces. We measure the position of the truck
every Δt seconds, but these measurements are imprecise; we want
to maintain a model of the truck's position and velocity. We show
here how we derive the model from which we create our Kalman
filter.    Truth;    filtered process;  
 observations.
Since are constant, their time indices are dropped.

The position and velocity of the truck are described by the linear state space

where is the velocity, that is, the derivative of position with respect to time.

We assume that between the (k − 1) and k timestep, uncontrolled forces cause a constant acceleration of ak
that is normally distributed with mean 0 and standard deviation σa . From Newton's laws of motion we
conclude that

(there is no term since there are no known control inputs. Instead, ak is the effect of an unknown input
and applies that effect to the state vector) where

so that

where
The matrix is not full rank (it is of rank one if ). Hence, the distribution is not
absolutely continuous and has no probability density function. Another way to express this, avoiding
explicit degenerate distributions is given by

At each time phase, a noisy measurement of the true position of the truck is made. Let us suppose the
measurement noise vk is also distributed normally, with mean 0 and standard deviation σz.

where

and

We know the initial starting state of the truck with perfect precision, so we initialize

and to tell the filter that we know the exact position and velocity, we give it a zero covariance matrix:

If the initial position and velocity are not known perfectly, the covariance matrix should be initialized with
suitable variances on its diagonal:

The filter will then prefer the information from the first measurements over the information already in the
model.

Asymptotic form
For simplicity, assume that the control input . Then the Kalman filter may be written:

A similar equation holds if we include a non-zero control input. Gain matrices evolve independently of
the measurements . From above, the four equations needed for updating the Kalman gain are as follows:
Since the gain matrices depend only on the model, and not the measurements, they may be computed
offline. Convergence of the gain matrices to an asymptotic matrix applies for conditions
established in Walrand and Dimakis. [39] Simulations establish the number of steps to convergence. For the
moving truck example described above, with . and , simulation shows
convergence in iterations.

Using the asymptotic gain, and assuming and are independent of , the Kalman filter becomes a
linear time-invariant filter:

The asymptotic gain , if it exists, can be computed by first solving the following discrete Riccati
equation for the asymptotic state covariance :[39]

The asymptotic gain is then computed as before.

Additionally, a form of the asymptotic Kalman filter more commonly used in control theory is given by

where

This leads to an estimator of the form

Derivations
The Kalman filter can be derived as a generalized least squares method operating on previous data.[40]

Deriving the posteriori estimate covariance matrix

Starting with our invariant on the error covariance Pk | k as above

substitute in the definition of

and substitute

and

and by collecting the error vectors we get

Since the measurement error vk is uncorrelated with the other terms, this becomes

by the properties of vector covariance this becomes

which, using our invariant on Pk | k−1 and the definition of Rk becomes

This formula (sometimes known as the Joseph form of the covariance update equation) is valid for any
value of Kk. It turns out that if Kk is the optimal Kalman gain, this can be simplified further as shown
below.

Kalman gain derivation

The Kalman filter is a minimum mean-square error estimator. The error in the a posteriori state estimation is

We seek to minimize the expected value of the square of the magnitude of this vector, .
This is equivalent to minimizing the trace of the a posteriori estimate covariance matrix . By
expanding out the terms in the equation above and collecting, we get:

The trace is minimized when its matrix derivative with respect to the gain matrix is zero. Using the gradient
matrix rules and the symmetry of the matrices involved we find that
Solving this for Kk yields the Kalman gain:

This gain, which is known as the optimal Kalman gain, is the one that yields MMSE estimates when used.

Simplification of the posteriori error covariance formula

The formula used to calculate the a posteriori error covariance can be simplified when the Kalman gain
equals the optimal value derived above. Multiplying both sides of our Kalman gain formula on the right by
SkKkT, it follows that

Referring back to our expanded formula for the a posteriori error covariance,

we find the last two terms cancel out, giving

This formula is computationally cheaper and thus nearly always used in practice, but is only correct for the
optimal gain. If arithmetic precision is unusually low causing problems with numerical stability, or if a non-
optimal Kalman gain is deliberately used, this simplification cannot be applied; the a posteriori error
covariance formula as derived above (Joseph form) must be used.

Sensitivity analysis
The Kalman filtering equations provide an estimate of the state and its error covariance
recursively. The estimate and its quality depend on the system parameters and the noise statistics fed as
inputs to the estimator. This section analyzes the effect of uncertainties in the statistical inputs to the
filter.[41] In the absence of reliable statistics or the true values of noise covariance matrices and , the
expression

no longer provides the actual error covariance. In other words, .

In most real-time applications, the covariance matrices that are used in designing the Kalman filter are
different from the actual (true) noise covariances matrices. This sensitivity analysis describes the behavior
of the estimation error covariance when the noise covariances as well as the system matrices and
that are fed as inputs to the filter are incorrect. Thus, the sensitivity analysis describes the robustness (or
sensitivity) of the estimator to misspecified statistical and parametric inputs to the estimator.

This discussion is limited to the error sensitivity analysis for the case of statistical uncertainties. Here the
actual noise covariances are denoted by and respectively, whereas the design values used in the
estimator are and respectively. The actual error covariance is denoted by and as
computed by the Kalman filter is referred to as the Riccati variable. When and , this
means that . While computing the actual error covariance using

, substituting for and using the fact that

and , results in the following recursive equations for  :

and

While computing , by design the filter implicitly assumes that and

. The recursive expressions for and are identical except for the presence of
and in place of the design values and respectively. Researches have been done to analyze
Kalman filter system's robustness.[42]

Square root form

One problem with the Kalman filter is its numerical stability. If the process noise covariance Qk is small,
round-off error often causes a small positive eigenvalue of the state covariance matrix P to be computed as
a negative number. This renders the numerical representation of P indefinite, while its true form is positive-
definite.

Positive definite matrices have the property that they have a triangular matrix square root P = S·ST. This
can be computed efficiently using the Cholesky factorization algorithm, but more importantly, if the
covariance is kept in this form, it can never have a negative diagonal or become asymmetric. An equivalent
form, which avoids many of the square root operations required by the matrix square root yet preserves the
desirable numerical properties, is the U-D decomposition form, P = U·D·UT, where U is a unit triangular
matrix (with unit diagonal), and D is a diagonal matrix.

Between the two, the U-D factorization uses the same amount of storage, and somewhat less computation,
and is the most commonly used square root form. (Early literature on the relative efficiency is somewhat
misleading, as it assumed that square roots were much more time-consuming than divisions,[43]: 6 9  while on
21st-century computers they are only slightly more expensive.)

Efficient algorithms for the Kalman prediction and update steps in the square root form were developed by
G. J. Bierman and C. L. Thornton.[43][44]

The L·D·LT decomposition of the innovation covariance matrix Sk is the basis for another type of
numerically efficient and robust square root filter.[45] The algorithm starts with the LU decomposition as
implemented in the Linear Algebra PACKage (LAPACK). These results are further factored into the
L·D·LT structure with methods given by Golub and Van Loan (algorithm 4.1.2) for a symmetric
nonsingular matrix.[46] Any singular covariance matrix is pivoted so that the first diagonal partition is
nonsingular and well-conditioned. The pivoting algorithm must retain any portion of the innovation
covariance matrix directly corresponding to observed state-variables Hk ·xk|k-1 that are associated with
auxiliary observations in yk . The l·d·lt square-root filter requires orthogonalization of the observation
vector.[44][45] This may be done with the inverse square-root of the covariance matrix for the auxiliary
variables using Method 2 in Higham (2002, p. 263).[47]

Parallel form
The Kalman filter is efficient for sequential data processing on central processing units (CPUs), but in its
original form it is inefficient on parallel architectures such as graphics processing units (GPUs). It is
however possible to express the filter-update routine in terms of an associative operator using the
formulation in Särkkä (2021).[48] The filter solution can then be retrieved by the use of a prefix sum
algorithm which can be efficiently implemented on GPU.[49] This reduces the computational complexity
from in the number of time steps to .

Relationship to recursive Bayesian estimation

The Kalman filter can be presented as one of the simplest dynamic Bayesian networks. The Kalman filter
calculates estimates of the true values of states recursively over time using incoming measurements and a
mathematical process model. Similarly, recursive Bayesian estimation calculates estimates of an unknown
probability density function (PDF) recursively over time using incoming measurements and a mathematical
process model.[50]

In recursive Bayesian estimation, the true state is assumed to be an unobserved Markov process, and the
measurements are the observed states of a hidden Markov model (HMM).

Because of the Markov assumption, the true state is conditionally independent of all earlier states given the
immediately previous state.

Similarly, the measurement at the k-th timestep is dependent only upon the current state and is conditionally
independent of all other states given the current state.

Using these assumptions the probability distribution over all states of the hidden Markov model can be
written simply as:
However, when a Kalman filter is used to estimate the state x, the probability distribution of interest is that
associated with the current states conditioned on the measurements up to the current timestep. This is
achieved by marginalizing out the previous states and dividing by the probability of the measurement set.

This results in the predict and update phases of the Kalman filter written probabilistically. The probability
distribution associated with the predicted state is the sum (integral) of the products of the probability
distribution associated with the transition from the (k  −  1)-th timestep to the k-th and the probability
distribution associated with the previous state, over all possible .

The measurement set up to time t is

The probability distribution of the update is proportional to the product of the measurement likelihood and
the predicted state.

The denominator

is a normalization term.

The remaining probability density functions are

The PDF at the previous timestep is assumed inductively to be the estimated state and covariance. This is
justified because, as an optimal estimator, the Kalman filter makes best use of the measurements, therefore
the PDF for given the measurements is the Kalman filter estimate.

Marginal likelihood
Related to the recursive Bayesian interpretation described above, the Kalman filter can be viewed as a
generative model, i.e., a process for generating a stream of random observations z = (z0 , z1 , z2 , ...).
Specifically, the process is

1. Sample a hidden state from the Gaussian prior distribution .

2. Sample an observation from the observation model .
3. For , do
1. Sample the next hidden state from the transition model
 2. Sample an observation from the observation model

This process has identical structure to the hidden Markov model, except that the discrete state and
observations are replaced with continuous variables sampled from Gaussian distributions.

In some applications, it is useful to compute the probability that a Kalman filter with a given set of
parameters (prior distribution, transition and observation models, and control inputs) would generate a
particular observed signal. This probability is known as the marginal likelihood because it integrates over
("marginalizes out") the values of the hidden state variables, so it can be computed using only the observed
signal. The marginal likelihood can be useful to evaluate different parameter choices, or to compare the
Kalman filter against other models using Bayesian model comparison.

It is straightforward to compute the marginal likelihood as a side effect of the recursive filtering
computation. By the chain rule, the likelihood can be factored as the product of the probability of each
observation given previous observations,

and because the Kalman filter describes a Markov process, all relevant information from previous
observations is contained in the current state estimate Thus the marginal likelihood is given
by

i.e., a product of Gaussian densities, each corresponding to the density of one observation zk under the
current filtering distribution . This can easily be computed as a simple recursive update;
however, to avoid numeric underflow, in a practical implementation it is usually desirable to compute the
log marginal likelihood instead. Adopting the convention , this can be done via the
recursive update rule

where is the dimension of the measurement vector.[51]

An important application where such a (log) likelihood of the observations (given the filter parameters) is
used is multi-target tracking. For example, consider an object tracking scenario where a stream of
observations is the input, however, it is unknown how many objects are in the scene (or, the number of
objects is known but is greater than one). For such a scenario, it can be unknown apriori which
observations/measurements were generated by which object. A multiple hypothesis tracker (MHT) typically
will form different track association hypotheses, where each hypothesis can be considered as a Kalman
filter (for the linear Gaussian case) with a specific set of parameters associated with the hypothesized object.
Thus, it is important to compute the likelihood of the observations for the different hypotheses under
consideration, such that the most-likely one can be found.

Information filter
In cases where the dimension of the observation vector y is bigger than the dimension of the state space
vector x, the information filter can avoid the inversion of a bigger matrix in the Kalman gain calculation at
the price of inverting a smaller matrix in the prediction step, thus saving computing time. In the information
filter, or inverse covariance filter, the estimated covariance and estimated state are replaced by the
information matrix and information vector respectively. These are defined as:

Similarly the predicted covariance and state have equivalent information forms, defined as:

as have the measurement covariance and measurement vector, which are defined as:

The information update now becomes a trivial sum.[52]

The main advantage of the information filter is that N measurements can be filtered at each time step simply
by summing their information matrices and vectors.

To predict the information filter the information matrix and vector can be converted back to their state space
equivalents, or alternatively the information space prediction can be used.[52]
Fixed-lag smoother
The optimal fixed-lag smoother provides the optimal estimate of for a given fixed-lag using the
measurements from to .[53] It can be derived using the previous theory via an augmented state, and
the main equation of the filter is the following:

where:

is estimated via a standard Kalman filter;

is the innovation produced considering the estimate of the standard
Kalman filter;
the various with are new variables; i.e., they do not appear in the
standard Kalman filter;
the gains are computed via the following scheme:

and

where and are the prediction error covariance and the gains of the standard Kalman
filter (i.e., ).

If the estimation error covariance is defined so that

then we have that the improvement on the estimation of is given by:

Fixed-interval smoothers
The optimal fixed-interval smoother provides the optimal estimate of ( ) using the measurements
from a fixed interval to . This is also called "Kalman Smoothing". There are several smoothing
algorithms in common use.

Rauch–Tung–Striebel

The Rauch–Tung–Striebel (RTS) smoother is an efficient two-pass algorithm for fixed interval
smoothing.[54]

The forward pass is the same as the regular Kalman filter algorithm. These filtered a-priori and a-posteriori
state estimates , and covariances , are saved for use in the backward pass (for
retrodiction).

In the backward pass, we compute the smoothed state estimates and covariances . We start at the
last time step and proceed backward in time using the following recursive equations:

where

is the a-posteriori state estimate of timestep and is the a-priori state estimate of timestep
. The same notation applies to the covariance.

Modified Bryson–Frazier smoother

An alternative to the RTS algorithm is the modified Bryson–Frazier (MBF) fixed interval smoother
developed by Bierman.[44] This also uses a backward pass that processes data saved from the Kalman filter
forward pass. The equations for the backward pass involve the recursive computation of data which are
used at each observation time to compute the smoothed state and covariance.

The recursive equations are

where is the residual covariance and . The smoothed state and covariance can then
be found by substitution in the equations

or

An important advantage of the MBF is that it does not require finding the inverse of the covariance matrix.

Minimum-variance smoother

The minimum-variance smoother can attain the best-possible error performance, provided that the models
are linear, their parameters and the noise statistics are known precisely.[55] This smoother is a time-varying
state-space generalization of the optimal non-causal Wiener filter.

The smoother calculations are done in two passes. The forward calculations involve a one-step-ahead
predictor and are given by

The above system is known as the inverse Wiener-Hopf factor. The backward recursion is the adjoint of the
above forward system. The result of the backward pass may be calculated by operating the forward
equations on the time-reversed and time reversing the result. In the case of output estimation, the
smoothed estimate is given by

Taking the causal part of this minimum-variance smoother yields

which is identical to the minimum-variance Kalman filter. The above solutions minimize the variance of the
output estimation error. Note that the Rauch–Tung–Striebel smoother derivation assumes that the
underlying distributions are Gaussian, whereas the minimum-variance solutions do not. Optimal smoothers
for state estimation and input estimation can be constructed similarly.

A continuous-time version of the above smoother is described in.[56][57]

Expectation–maximization algorithms may be employed to calculate approximate maximum likelihood

estimates of unknown state-space parameters within minimum-variance filters and smoothers. Often
uncertainties remain within problem assumptions. A smoother that accommodates uncertainties can be
designed by adding a positive definite term to the Riccati equation.[58]

In cases where the models are nonlinear, step-wise linearizations may be within the minimum-variance filter
and smoother recursions (extended Kalman filtering).

Frequency-weighted Kalman filters

Pioneering research on the perception of sounds at different frequencies was conducted by Fletcher and
Munson in the 1930s. Their work led to a standard way of weighting measured sound levels within
investigations of industrial noise and hearing loss. Frequency weightings have since been used within filter
and controller designs to manage performance within bands of interest.

Typically, a frequency shaping function is used to weight the average power of the error spectral density in
a specified frequency band. Let denote the output estimation error exhibited by a conventional
Kalman filter. Also, let denote a causal frequency weighting transfer function. The optimum solution
which minimizes the variance of arises by simply constructing .

The design of remains an open question. One way of proceeding is to identify a system which
generates the estimation error and setting equal to the inverse of that system.[59] This procedure may be
iterated to obtain mean-square error improvement at the cost of increased filter order. The same technique
can be applied to smoothers.

Nonlinear filters
The basic Kalman filter is limited to a linear assumption. More complex systems, however, can be
nonlinear. The nonlinearity can be associated either with the process model or with the observation model
or with both.

The most common variants of Kalman filters for non-linear systems are the Extended Kalman Filter and
Unscented Kalman filter. The suitability of which filter to use depends on the non-linearity indices of the
process and observation model.[60]

Extended Kalman filter

In the extended Kalman filter (EKF), the state transition and observation models need not be linear
functions of the state but may instead be nonlinear functions. These functions are of differentiable type.

The function f can be used to compute the predicted state from the previous estimate and similarly the
function h can be used to compute the predicted measurement from the predicted state. However, f and h
cannot be applied to the covariance directly. Instead a matrix of partial derivatives (the Jacobian) is
computed.

At each timestep the Jacobian is evaluated with current predicted states. These matrices can be used in the
Kalman filter equations. This process essentially linearizes the nonlinear function around the current
estimate.

Unscented Kalman filter

When the state transition and observation models—that is, the predict and update functions and —are
highly nonlinear, the extended Kalman filter can give particularly poor performance.[61] [62] This is because
the covariance is propagated through linearization of the underlying nonlinear model. The unscented
Kalman filter (UKF)  [61] uses a deterministic sampling technique known as the unscented transformation
(UT) to pick a minimal set of sample points (called sigma points) around the mean. The sigma points are
then propagated through the nonlinear functions, from which a new mean and covariance estimate are then
formed. The resulting filter depends on how the transformed statistics of the UT are calculated and which
set of sigma points are used. It should be remarked that it is always possible to construct new UKFs in a
consistent way.[63] For certain systems, the resulting UKF more accurately estimates the true mean and
covariance.[64] This can be verified with Monte Carlo sampling or Taylor series expansion of the posterior
statistics. In addition, this technique removes the requirement to explicitly calculate Jacobians, which for
complex functions can be a difficult task in itself (i.e., requiring complicated derivatives if done analytically
or being computationally costly if done numerically), if not impossible (if those functions are not
differentiable).

Sigma points

For a random vector , sigma points are any set of vectors

attributed with

first-order weights that fulfill

1.

2. for all :

second-order weights that fulfill

1.

2. for all pairs .

A simple choice of sigma points and weights for in the UKF algorithm is
where is the mean estimate of . The vector is the jth column of where
. Typically, is obtained via Cholesky decomposition of . With some care
the filter equations can be expressed in such a way that is evaluated directly without intermediate
calculations of . This is referred to as the square-root unscented Kalman filter.[65]

The weight of the mean value, , can be chosen arbitrarily.

Another popular parameterization (which generalizes the above) is

and control the spread of the sigma points. is related to the distribution of .

Appropriate values depend on the problem at hand, but a typical recommendation is , ,

and . However, a larger value of (e.g., ) may be beneficial in order to better capture the
spread of the distribution and possible nonlinearities. [66] If the true distribution of is Gaussian, is
optimal. [67]

Predict

As with the EKF, the UKF prediction can be used independently from the UKF update, in combination
with a linear (or indeed EKF) update, or vice versa.

Given estimates of the mean and covariance, and , one obtains sigma
points as described in the section above. The sigma points are propagated through the transition function f.

The propagated sigma points are weighed to produce the predicted mean and covariance.
where are the first-order weights of the original sigma points, and are the second-order weights.
The matrix is the covariance of the transition noise, .

Update

Given prediction estimates and , a new set of sigma points with

corresponding first-order weights and second-order weights is calculated.[68]
These sigma points are transformed through the measurement function .

Then the empirical mean and covariance of the transformed points are calculated.

where is the covariance matrix of the observation noise, . Additionally, the cross covariance matrix
is also needed

The Kalman gain is

The updated mean and covariance estimates are

Discriminative Kalman filter

When the observation model is highly non-linear and/or non-Gaussian, it may prove
advantageous to apply Bayes' rule and estimate
where for nonlinear functions . This replaces the generative
specification of the standard Kalman filter with a discriminative model for the latent states given
observations.

Under a stationary state model

where , if

then given a new observation , it follows that[69]

where

Note that this approximation requires to be positive-definite; in the case that it is not,

is used instead. Such an approach proves particularly useful when the dimensionality of the observations is
much greater than that of the latent states[70] and can be used build filters that are particularly robust to
nonstationarities in the observation model.[71]

Adaptive Kalman filter

Adaptive Kalman filters allow to adapt for process dynamics which are not modeled in the process model
, which happens for example in the context of a maneuvering target when a constant velocity (reduced
order) Kalman filter is employed for tracking.[72]

Kalman–Bucy filter
Kalman–Bucy filtering (named for Richard Snowden Bucy) is a continuous time version of Kalman
filtering.[73][74]

It is based on the state space model

where and represent the intensities (or, more accurately: the Power Spectral Density - PSD -
matrices) of the two white noise terms and , respectively.

The filter consists of two differential equations, one for the state estimate and one for the covariance:

where the Kalman gain is given by

Note that in this expression for the covariance of the observation noise represents at the same
time the covariance of the prediction error (or innovation) ; these covariances are
equal only in the case of continuous time.[75]

The distinction between the prediction and update steps of discrete-time Kalman filtering does not exist in
continuous time.

The second differential equation, for the covariance, is an example of a Riccati equation. Nonlinear
generalizations to Kalman–Bucy filters include continuous time extended Kalman filter.

Hybrid Kalman filter

Most physical systems are represented as continuous-time models while discrete-time measurements are
made frequently for state estimation via a digital processor. Therefore, the system model and measurement
model are given by

where
 .

Initialize

Predict

The prediction equations are derived from those of continuous-time Kalman filter without update from
measurements, i.e., . The predicted state and covariance are calculated respectively by solving a
set of differential equations with the initial value equal to the estimate at the previous step.

For the case of linear time invariant systems, the continuous time dynamics can be exactly discretized into a
discrete time system using matrix exponentials.

Update

The update equations are identical to those of the discrete-time Kalman filter.

Variants for the recovery of sparse signals

The traditional Kalman filter has also been employed for the recovery of sparse, possibly dynamic, signals
from noisy observations. Recent works[76][77][78] utilize notions from the theory of compressed
sensing/sampling, such as the restricted isometry property and related probabilistic recovery arguments, for
sequentially estimating the sparse state in intrinsically low-dimensional systems.

Relation to Gaussian processes

Since linear Gaussian state-space models lead to Gaussian processes, Kalman filters can be viewed as
sequential solvers for Gaussian process regression.[79]

Applications
Attitude and heading reference systems Electric battery state of charge (SoC)
Autopilot estimation[80][81]
Brain–computer interfaces[69][71][70]
 Chaotic signals Radar tracker
Tracking and vertex fitting of charged Satellite navigation systems
particles in particle detectors[82] Seismology[85]
Tracking of objects in computer vision Sensorless control of AC motor variable-
Dynamic positioning in shipping frequency drives
Economics, in particular macroeconomics, Simultaneous localization and mapping
time series analysis, and econometrics[83] Speech enhancement
Inertial guidance system Visual odometry
Nuclear medicine – single photon Weather forecasting
emission computed tomography image Navigation system
restoration[84] 3D modeling
Orbit determination Structural health monitoring
Power system state estimation
Human sensorimotor processing[86]

See also
Alpha beta filter
Inverse-variance weighting
Covariance intersection
Data assimilation
Ensemble Kalman filter
Extended Kalman filter
Fast Kalman filter
Filtering problem (stochastic processes)
Generalized filtering
Invariant extended Kalman filter
Kernel adaptive filter
Masreliez's theorem
Moving horizon estimation
Particle filter estimator
PID controller
Predictor–corrector method
Recursive least squares filter
Schmidt–Kalman filter
Separation principle
Sliding mode control
State-transition matrix
Stochastic differential equations
Switching Kalman filter

References
1. Stratonovich, R. L. (1959). Optimum nonlinear systems which bring about a separation of a
signal with constant parameters from noise. Radiofizika, 2:6, pp. 892–901.
2. Stratonovich, R. L. (1959). On the theory of optimal non-linear filtering of random functions.
Theory of Probability and Its Applications, 4, pp. 223–225.
 3. Stratonovich, R. L. (1960) Application of the Markov processes theory to optimal filtering.
Radio Engineering and Electronic Physics, 5:11, pp. 1–19.
4. Stratonovich, R. L. (1960). Conditional Markov Processes. Theory of Probability and Its
Applications, 5, pp. 156–178.
5. Stepanov, O. A. (15 May 2011). "Kalman filtering: Past and present. An outlook from Russia.
(On the occasion of the 80th birthday of Rudolf Emil Kalman)". Gyroscopy and Navigation. 2
(2): 105. doi:10.1134/S2075108711020076 (https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS207510871102007
6). S2CID 53120402 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53120402).
6. Fauzi, Hilman; Batool, Uzma (15 July 2019). "A Three-bar Truss Design using Single-
solution Simulated Kalman Filter Optimizer" (https://journal.ump.edu.my/mekatronika/article/
view/4991). Mekatronika. 1 (2): 98–102. doi:10.15282/mekatronika.v1i2.4991 (https://doi.org/
10.15282%2Fmekatronika.v1i2.4991). S2CID 222355496 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
orpusID:222355496).
7. Paul Zarchan; Howard Musoff (2000). Fundamentals of Kalman Filtering: A Practical
Approach (https://books.google.com/books?id=AQxRAAAAMAAJ). American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-56347-455-2.
8. Lora-Millan, Julio S.; Hidalgo, Andres F.; Rocon, Eduardo (2021). "An IMUs-Based Extended
Kalman Filter to Estimate Gait Lower Limb Sagittal Kinematics for the Control of Wearable
Robotic Devices" (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9584847). IEEE Access. 9: 144540–
144554. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3122160 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FACCESS.2021.3
122160). ISSN 2169-3536 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2169-3536). S2CID 239938971 (ht
tps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239938971).
9. Kalita, Diana; Lyakhov, Pavel (December 2022). "Moving Object Detection Based on a
Combination of Kalman Filter and Median Filtering" (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fbdcc604014
2). Big Data and Cognitive Computing. 6 (4): 142. doi:10.3390/bdcc6040142 (https://doi.org/
10.3390%2Fbdcc6040142). ISSN 2504-2289 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2504-2289).
10. Ghysels, Eric; Marcellino, Massimiliano (2018). Applied Economic Forecasting using Time
Series Methods. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 419. ISBN 978-0-19-062201-5.
OCLC 1010658777 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1010658777).
11. Azzam, M. Abdullah; Batool, Uzma; Fauzi, Hilman (15 July 2019). "Design of an Helical
Spring using Single-solution Simulated Kalman Filter Optimizer" (https://journal.ump.edu.m
y/mekatronika/article/view/4990). Mekatronika. 1 (2): 93–97.
doi:10.15282/mekatronika.v1i2.4990 (https://doi.org/10.15282%2Fmekatronika.v1i2.4990).
S2CID 221855079 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221855079).
12. Wolpert, Daniel; Ghahramani, Zoubin (2000). "Computational principles of movement
neuroscience". Nature Neuroscience. 3: 1212–7. doi:10.1038/81497 (https://doi.org/10.103
8%2F81497). PMID 11127840 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11127840). S2CID 736756
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:736756).
13. Kalman, R. E. (1960). "A New Approach to Linear Filtering and Prediction Problems" (https://
semanticscholar.org/paper/922b5eaa5ca03b12d9842b7b84e0e420ccd2feee). Journal of
Basic Engineering. 82: 35–45. doi:10.1115/1.3662552 (https://doi.org/10.1115%2F1.366255
2). S2CID 1242324 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1242324).
14. Humpherys, Jeffrey (2012). "A Fresh Look at the Kalman Filter". SIAM Review. 54 (4): 801–
823. doi:10.1137/100799666 (https://doi.org/10.1137%2F100799666).
15. Uhlmann, Jeffrey; Julier, Simon (2022). "Gaussianity and the Kalman Filter: A Simple Yet
Complicated Relationship" (https://jci.uniautonoma.edu.co/2022/2022-1_2.pdf) (PDF).
Journal de Ciencia e Ingeniería. 14 (1): 21–26. doi:10.46571/JCI.2022.1.2 (https://doi.org/10.
46571%2FJCI.2022.1.2). S2CID 251143915 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2511
43915).
16. Li, Wangyan; Wang, Zidong; Wei, Guoliang; Ma, Lifeng; Hu, Jun; Ding, Derui (2015). "A
Survey on Multisensor Fusion and Consensus Filtering for Sensor Networks" (https://doi.org/
10.1155%2F2015%2F683701). Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society. 2015: 1–12.
doi:10.1155/2015/683701 (https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2015%2F683701). ISSN 1026-0226
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1026-0226).
17. Li, Wangyan; Wang, Zidong; Ho, Daniel W. C.; Wei, Guoliang (2019). "On Boundedness of
Error Covariances for Kalman Consensus Filtering Problems". IEEE Transactions on
Automatic Control. 65 (6): 2654–2661. doi:10.1109/TAC.2019.2942826 (https://doi.org/10.11
09%2FTAC.2019.2942826). ISSN 0018-9286 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9286).
S2CID 204196474 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204196474).
18. Lauritzen, S. L. (December 1981). "Time series analysis in 1880. A discussion of
contributions made by T.N. Thiele". International Statistical Review. 49 (3): 319–331.
doi:10.2307/1402616 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1402616). JSTOR 1402616 (https://www.j
stor.org/stable/1402616). "He derives a recursive procedure for estimating the regression
component and predicting the Brownian motion. The procedure is now known as Kalman
filtering."
19. Lauritzen, S. L. (2002). Thiele: Pioneer in Statistics (https://books.google.com/books?id=irug
mNUwuG4C&q=kalman). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-19-850972-
1. "He solves the problem of estimating the regression coefficients and predicting the values
of the Brownian motion by the method of least squares and gives an elegant recursive
procedure for carrying out the calculations. The procedure is nowadays known as Kalman
filtering."
20. "Mohinder S. Grewal and Angus P. Andrews" (https://web.archive.org/web/2016030714274
6/http://ieeecss.org/CSM/library/2010/june10/11-HistoricalPerspectives.pdf) (PDF). Archived
from the original (http://ieeecss.org/CSM/library/2010/june10/11-HistoricalPerspectives.pdf)
(PDF) on 2016-03-07. Retrieved 2015-04-23.
21. Jerrold H. Suddath; Robert H. Kidd; Arnold G. Reinhold (August 1967). A Linearized Error
Analysis Of Onboard Primary Navigation Systems For The Apollo Lunar Module, NASA TN
D-4027 (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19670025568/downloads/19670025568.pdf)
(PDF). NASA Technical Note. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
22. Gaylor, David; Lightsey, E. Glenn (2003). "GPS/INS Kalman Filter Design for Spacecraft
Operating in the Proximity of International Space Station". AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and
Control Conference and Exhibit. doi:10.2514/6.2003-5445 (https://doi.org/10.2514%2F6.200
3-5445). ISBN 978-1-62410-090-1.
23. Ingvar Strid; Karl Walentin (April 2009). "Block Kalman Filtering for Large-Scale DSGE
Models" (http://www.riksbank.se/en/Press-and-published/Published-from-the-Riksbank/Othe
r-reports/Working-Paper-Series/2008/No-224-Block-Kalman-filtering-for-large-scale-DSGE-
models/). Computational Economics. 33 (3): 277–304. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.232.3790 (https://cit
eseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.232.3790). doi:10.1007/s10614-008-9160-
4 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10614-008-9160-4). hdl:10419/81929 (https://hdl.handle.net/1
0419%2F81929). S2CID 3042206 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3042206).
24. Martin Møller Andreasen (2008). "Non-linear DSGE Models, The Central Difference Kalman
Filter, and The Mean Shifted Particle Filter" (ftp://ftp.econ.au.dk/creates/rp/08/rp08_33.pdf)
(PDF).
25. Roweis, S; Ghahramani, Z (1999). "A unifying review of linear gaussian models" (https://auth
ors.library.caltech.edu/13697/1/ROWnc99.pdf) (PDF). Neural Computation. 11 (2): 305–45.
doi:10.1162/089976699300016674 (https://doi.org/10.1162%2F089976699300016674).
PMID 9950734 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9950734). S2CID 2590898 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:2590898).
26. Hamilton, J. (1994), Time Series Analysis, Princeton University Press. Chapter 13, 'The
Kalman Filter'
27. Ishihara, J.Y.; Terra, M.H.; Campos, J.C.T. (2006). "Robust Kalman Filter for Descriptor
Systems". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 51 (8): 1354.
doi:10.1109/TAC.2006.878741 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.2006.878741).
S2CID 12741796 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12741796).
28. Terra, Marco H.; Cerri, Joao P.; Ishihara, Joao Y. (2014). "Optimal Robust Linear Quadratic
Regulator for Systems Subject to Uncertainties". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control.
59 (9): 2586–2591. doi:10.1109/TAC.2014.2309282 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.2014.2
309282). S2CID 8810105 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8810105).
29. Kelly, Alonzo (1994). "A 3D state space formulation of a navigation Kalman filter for
autonomous vehicles" (http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a282853.pdf) (PDF). DTIC
Document: 13. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141230004557/http://www.dtic.mil/dt
ic/tr/fulltext/u2/a282853.pdf) (PDF) from the original on December 30, 2014. 2006 Corrected
Version (http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~alonzo/pubs/reports/kalman_V2.pdf) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20170110204109/http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~alonzo/pubs/reports/kalman_
V2.pdf) 2017-01-10 at the Wayback Machine
30. Reid, Ian; Term, Hilary. "Estimation II" (http://www.robots.ox.ac.uk/~ian/Teaching/Estimation/
LectureNotes2.pdf) (PDF). www.robots.ox.ac.uk. Oxford University. Retrieved 6 August
2014.
31. Rajamani, Murali (October 2007). Data-based Techniques to Improve State Estimation in
Model Predictive Control (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194938/http://jbrwww.che.w
isc.edu/theses/rajamani.pdf) (PDF) (PhD Thesis). University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Archived from the original (http://jbrwww.che.wisc.edu/theses/rajamani.pdf) (PDF) on 2016-
03-04. Retrieved 2011-04-04.
32. Rajamani, Murali R.; Rawlings, James B. (2009). "Estimation of the disturbance structure
from data using semidefinite programming and optimal weighting". Automatica. 45 (1): 142–
148. doi:10.1016/j.automatica.2008.05.032 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.automatica.2008.0
5.032). S2CID 5699674 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5699674).
33. "Autocovariance Least-Squares Toolbox" (https://sites.engineering.ucsb.edu/~jbraw/softwar
e/als/index.html). Jbrwww.che.wisc.edu. Retrieved 2021-08-18.
34. Bania, P.; Baranowski, J. (12 December 2016). Field Kalman Filter and its approximation (htt
ps://www.researchgate.net/publication/312029167). IEEE 55th Conference on Decision and
Control (CDC). Las Vegas, NV, USA: IEEE. pp. 2875–2880.
35. Bar-Shalom, Yaakov; Li, X.-Rong; Kirubarajan, Thiagalingam (2001). Estimation with
Applications to Tracking and Navigation (https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/0471221279). New York,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 319 ff. doi:10.1002/0471221279 (https://doi.org/10.1002%
2F0471221279). ISBN 0-471-41655-X.
36. Three optimality tests with numerical examples are described in Peter, Matisko (2012).
"Optimality Tests and Adaptive Kalman Filter". 16th IFAC Symposium on System
Identification. IFAC Proceedings Volumes. 16th IFAC Symposium on System Identification.
Vol. 45. pp. 1523–1528. doi:10.3182/20120711-3-BE-2027.00011 (https://doi.org/10.3182%
2F20120711-3-BE-2027.00011). ISBN 978-3-902823-06-9.
37. Spall, James C. (1995). "The Kantorovich inequality for error analysis of the Kalman filter
with unknown noise distributions". Automatica. 31 (10): 1513–1517. doi:10.1016/0005-
1098(95)00069-9 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0005-1098%2895%2900069-9).
38. Maryak, J.L.; Spall, J.C.; Heydon, B.D. (2004). "Use of the Kalman Filter for Inference in
State-Space Models with Unknown Noise Distributions". IEEE Transactions on Automatic
Control. 49: 87–90. doi:10.1109/TAC.2003.821415 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.2003.82
1415). S2CID 21143516 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21143516).
39. Walrand, Jean; Dimakis, Antonis (August 2006). Random processes in Systems -- Lecture
Notes (https://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/~wlr/226F06/226a.pdf) (PDF). pp. 69–70.
40. Sant, Donald T. "Generalized least squares applied to time varying parameter models."
Annals of Economic and Social Measurement, Volume 6, number 3. NBER, 1977. 301-314.
Online Pdf (https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c10557/c10557.pdf)
41. Anderson, Brian D. O.; Moore, John B. (1979). Optimal Filtering. New York: Prentice Hall.
pp. 129–133. ISBN 978-0-13-638122-8.
42. Jingyang Lu. "False information injection attack on dynamic state estimation in multi-sensor
systems" (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6916211,), Fusion 2014
43. Thornton, Catherine L. (15 October 1976). Triangular Covariance Factorizations for Kalman
Filtering (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19770005172) (PhD). NASA. NASA Technical
Memorandum 33-798.
44. Bierman, G.J. (1977). "Factorization Methods for Discrete Sequential Estimation".
Factorization Methods for Discrete Sequential Estimation. Bibcode:1977fmds.book.....B (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977fmds.book.....B).
45. Bar-Shalom, Yaakov; Li, X. Rong; Kirubarajan, Thiagalingam (July 2001). Estimation with
Applications to Tracking and Navigation. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 308–317.
ISBN 978-0-471-41655-5.
46. Golub, Gene H.; Van Loan, Charles F. (1996). Matrix Computations. Johns Hopkins Studies
in the Mathematical Sciences (Third ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University.
p. 139. ISBN 978-0-8018-5414-9.
47. Higham, Nicholas J. (2002). Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms (Second ed.).
Philadelphia, PA: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. p. 680. ISBN 978-0-
89871-521-7.
48. Särkkä, S.; Ángel F. García-Fernández (2021). "Temporal Parallelization of Bayesian
Smoothers". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 66 (1): 299–306. arXiv:1905.13002 (ht
tps://arxiv.org/abs/1905.13002). doi:10.1109/TAC.2020.2976316 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2F
TAC.2020.2976316). S2CID 213695560 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2136955
60).
49. "Parallel Prefix Sum (Scan) with CUDA" (https://developer.nvidia.com/gpugems/gpugems3/
part-vi-gpu-computing/chapter-39-parallel-prefix-sum-scan-cuda). developer.nvidia.com/.
Retrieved 2020-02-21. "The scan operation is a simple and powerful parallel primitive with a
broad range of applications. In this chapter we have explained an efficient implementation of
scan using CUDA, which achieves a significant speedup compared to a sequential
implementation on a fast CPU, and compared to a parallel implementation in OpenGL on the
same GPU. Due to the increasing power of commodity parallel processors such as GPUs,
we expect to see data-parallel algorithms such as scan to increase in importance over the
coming years."
50. Masreliez, C. Johan; Martin, R D (1977). "Robust Bayesian estimation for the linear model
and robustifying the Kalman filter". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 22 (3): 361–
371. doi:10.1109/TAC.1977.1101538 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.1977.1101538).
51. Lütkepohl, Helmut (1991). Introduction to Multiple Time Series Analysis. Heidelberg:
Springer-Verlag Berlin. p. 435.
52. Gabriel T. Terejanu (2012-08-04). "Discrete Kalman Filter Tutorial" (https://cse.sc.edu/~tereja
nu/files/tutorialKF.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2016-04-13.
53. Anderson, Brian D. O.; Moore, John B. (1979). Optimal Filtering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall, Inc. pp. 176–190. ISBN 978-0-13-638122-8.
54. Rauch, H.E.; Tung, F.; Striebel, C. T. (August 1965). "Maximum likelihood estimates of linear
dynamic systems". AIAA Journal. 3 (8): 1445–1450. Bibcode:1965AIAAJ...3.1445. (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965AIAAJ...3.1445.). doi:10.2514/3.3166 (https://doi.org/10.2514%
2F3.3166).
55. Einicke, G.A. (March 2006). "Optimal and Robust Noncausal Filter Formulations". IEEE
Transactions on Signal Processing. 54 (3): 1069–1077. Bibcode:2006ITSP...54.1069E (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ITSP...54.1069E). doi:10.1109/TSP.2005.863042 (https://
doi.org/10.1109%2FTSP.2005.863042). S2CID 15376718 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
orpusID:15376718).
56. Einicke, G.A. (April 2007). "Asymptotic Optimality of the Minimum-Variance Fixed-Interval
Smoother". IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 55 (4): 1543–1547.
Bibcode:2007ITSP...55.1543E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ITSP...55.1543E).
doi:10.1109/TSP.2006.889402 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSP.2006.889402).
S2CID 16218530 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16218530).
57. Einicke, G.A.; Ralston, J.C.; Hargrave, C.O.; Reid, D.C.; Hainsworth, D.W. (December 2008).
"Longwall Mining Automation. An Application of Minimum-Variance Smoothing". IEEE
Control Systems Magazine. 28 (6): 28–37. doi:10.1109/MCS.2008.929281 (https://doi.org/1
0.1109%2FMCS.2008.929281). S2CID 36072082 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:36072082).
58. Einicke, G.A. (December 2009). "Asymptotic Optimality of the Minimum-Variance Fixed-
Interval Smoother". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 54 (12): 2904–2908.
Bibcode:2007ITSP...55.1543E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ITSP...55.1543E).
doi:10.1109/TSP.2006.889402 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSP.2006.889402).
S2CID 16218530 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16218530).
59. Einicke, G.A. (December 2014). "Iterative Frequency-Weighted Filtering and Smoothing
Procedures". IEEE Signal Processing Letters. 21 (12): 1467–1470.
Bibcode:2014ISPL...21.1467E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ISPL...21.1467E).
doi:10.1109/LSP.2014.2341641 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FLSP.2014.2341641).
S2CID 13569109 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13569109).
60. Biswas, Sanat K.; Qiao, Li; Dempster, Andrew G. (2020-12-01). "A quantified approach of
predicting suitability of using the Unscented Kalman Filter in a non-linear application" (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005109820304398). Automatica. 122: 109241.
doi:10.1016/j.automatica.2020.109241 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.automatica.2020.10924
1). ISSN 0005-1098 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0005-1098). S2CID 225028760 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225028760).
61. Julier, Simon J.; Uhlmann, Jeffrey K. (2004). "Unscented filtering and nonlinear estimation"
(https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1271397). Proceedings of the IEEE. 92:3 (3): 401–
422. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2003.823141 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJPROC.2003.823141).
S2CID 9614092 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9614092).
62. Julier, Simon J.; Uhlmann, Jeffrey K. (1997). "New extension of the Kalman filter to nonlinear
systems" (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~welch/kalman/media/pdf/Julier1997_SPIE_KF.pdf) (PDF).
In Kadar, Ivan (ed.). Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, and Target Recognition VI.
Proceedings of SPIE. Vol. 3. pp. 182–193. Bibcode:1997SPIE.3068..182J (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/1997SPIE.3068..182J). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.5.2891 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.e
du/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.5.2891). doi:10.1117/12.280797 (https://doi.org/10.1117%
2F12.280797). S2CID 7937456 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7937456).
Retrieved 2008-05-03.
63. Menegaz, H. M. T.; Ishihara, J. Y.; Borges, G. A.; Vargas, A. N. (October 2015). "A
Systematization of the Unscented Kalman Filter Theory". IEEE Transactions on Automatic
Control. 60 (10): 2583–2598. doi:10.1109/tac.2015.2404511 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ftac.
2015.2404511). hdl:20.500.11824/251 (https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11824%2F251).
ISSN 0018-9286 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9286). S2CID 12606055 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:12606055).
64. Gustafsson, Fredrik; Hendeby, Gustaf (2012). "Some Relations Between Extended and
Unscented Kalman Filters" (http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-75272). IEEE
Transactions on Signal Processing. 60 (2): 545–555. Bibcode:2012ITSP...60..545G (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ITSP...60..545G). doi:10.1109/tsp.2011.2172431 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1109%2Ftsp.2011.2172431). S2CID 17876531 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:17876531).
65. Van der Merwe, R.; Wan, E.A. (2001). "The square-root unscented Kalman filter for state and
parameter-estimation". 2001 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and
Signal Processing. Proceedings (Cat. No.01CH37221). 6: 3461–3464.
doi:10.1109/ICASSP.2001.940586 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICASSP.2001.940586).
ISBN 0-7803-7041-4. S2CID 7290857 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7290857).
66. Bitzer, S. (2016). "The UKF exposed: How it works, when it works and when it's better to
sample" (https://github.com/sbitzer/UKF-exposed). doi:10.5281/zenodo.44386 (https://doi.or
g/10.5281%2Fzenodo.44386).
67. Wan, E.A.; Van Der Merwe, R. (2000). "The unscented Kalman filter for nonlinear estimation"
(http://www.lara.unb.br/~gaborges/disciplinas/efe/papers/wan2000.pdf) (PDF). Proceedings
of the IEEE 2000 Adaptive Systems for Signal Processing, Communications, and Control
Symposium (Cat. No.00EX373). p. 153. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.361.9373 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.
edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.361.9373). doi:10.1109/ASSPCC.2000.882463 (https://d
oi.org/10.1109%2FASSPCC.2000.882463). ISBN 978-0-7803-5800-3. S2CID 13992571 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13992571).
68. Sarkka, Simo (September 2007). "On Unscented Kalman Filtering for State Estimation of
Continuous-Time Nonlinear Systems". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 52 (9):
1631–1641. doi:10.1109/TAC.2007.904453 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.2007.904453).
69. Burkhart, Michael C.; Brandman, David M.; Franco, Brian; Hochberg, Leigh; Harrison,
Matthew T. (2020). "The Discriminative Kalman Filter for Bayesian Filtering with Nonlinear
and Nongaussian Observation Models" (https://direct.mit.edu/neco/article/32/5/969/95592/T
he-Discriminative-Kalman-Filter-for-Bayesian). Neural Computation. 32 (5): 969–1017.
doi:10.1162/neco_a_01275 (https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fneco_a_01275). PMC 8259355 (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8259355). PMID 32187000 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/32187000). S2CID 212748230 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2127
48230). Retrieved 26 March 2021.
70. Burkhart, Michael C. (2019). A Discriminative Approach to Bayesian Filtering with
Applications to Human Neural Decoding (https://doi.org/10.26300/nhfp-xv22) (Thesis).
Providence, RI, USA: Brown University. doi:10.26300/nhfp-xv22 (https://doi.org/10.26300%2
Fnhfp-xv22). Retrieved 26 March 2021.
71. Brandman, David M.; Burkhart, Michael C.; Kelemen, Jessica; Franco, Brian; Harrison,
Matthew T.; Hochberg, Leigh R. (2018). "Robust Closed-Loop Control of a Cursor in a
Person with Tetraplegia using Gaussian Process Regression" (https://direct.mit.edu/neco/arti
cle/30/11/2986/8418/Robust-Closed-Loop-Control-of-a-Cursor-in-a-Person). Neural
Computation. 30 (11): 2986–3008. doi:10.1162/neco_a_01129 (https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fn
eco_a_01129). PMC 6685768 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6685768).
PMID 30216140 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30216140). Retrieved 26 March 2021.
72. Bar-Shalom, Yaakov; Li, X.-Rong; Kirubarajan, Thiagalingam (2001). Estimation with
Applications to Tracking and Navigation (https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/0471221279). New York,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 421 ff. doi:10.1002/0471221279 (https://doi.org/10.1002%
2F0471221279). ISBN 0-471-41655-X.
73. Bucy, R.S. and Joseph, P.D., Filtering for Stochastic Processes with Applications to
Guidance, John Wiley & Sons, 1968; 2nd Edition, AMS Chelsea Publ., 2005. ISBN 0-8218-
3782-6
74. Jazwinski, Andrew H., Stochastic processes and filtering theory, Academic Press, New York,
1970. ISBN 0-12-381550-9
75. Kailath, T. (1968). "An innovations approach to least-squares estimation--Part I: Linear
filtering in additive white noise". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 13 (6): 646–655.
doi:10.1109/TAC.1968.1099025 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.1968.1099025).
76. Vaswani, Namrata (2008). "Kalman filtered Compressed Sensing". 2008 15th IEEE
International Conference on Image Processing. pp. 893–896. arXiv:0804.0819 (https://arxiv.
org/abs/0804.0819). doi:10.1109/ICIP.2008.4711899 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICIP.2008.4
711899). ISBN 978-1-4244-1765-0. S2CID 9282476 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus
ID:9282476).
77. Carmi, Avishy; Gurfil, Pini; Kanevsky, Dimitri (2010). "Methods for sparse signal recovery
using Kalman filtering with embedded pseudo-measurement norms and quasi-norms". IEEE
Transactions on Signal Processing. 58 (4): 2405–2409. Bibcode:2010ITSP...58.2405C (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ITSP...58.2405C). doi:10.1109/TSP.2009.2038959 (http
s://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSP.2009.2038959). S2CID 10569233 (https://api.semanticscholar.o
rg/CorpusID:10569233).
78. Zachariah, Dave; Chatterjee, Saikat; Jansson, Magnus (2012). "Dynamic Iterative Pursuit".
IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 60 (9): 4967–4972. arXiv:1206.2496 (https://arxiv.
org/abs/1206.2496). Bibcode:2012ITSP...60.4967Z (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012I
TSP...60.4967Z). doi:10.1109/TSP.2012.2203813 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSP.2012.220
3813). S2CID 18467024 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18467024).
79. Särkkä, Simo; Hartikainen, Jouni; Svensson, Lennart; Sandblom, Fredrik (2015-04-22). "On
the relation between Gaussian process quadratures and sigma-point methods".
arXiv:1504.05994 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1504.05994) [stat.ME (https://arxiv.org/archive/stat.M
E)].
80. Vasebi, Amir; Partovibakhsh, Maral; Bathaee, S. Mohammad Taghi (2007). "A novel
combined battery model for state-of-charge estimation in lead-acid batteries based on
extended Kalman filter for hybrid electric vehicle applications". Journal of Power Sources.
174 (1): 30–40. Bibcode:2007JPS...174...30V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JPS...
174...30V). doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.04.011 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jpowsour.2007.
04.011).
81. Vasebi, A.; Bathaee, S.M.T.; Partovibakhsh, M. (2008). "Predicting state of charge of lead-
acid batteries for hybrid electric vehicles by extended Kalman filter". Energy Conversion and
Management. 49: 75–82. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2007.05.017 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.
enconman.2007.05.017).
82. Fruhwirth, R. (1987). "Application of Kalman filtering to track and vertex fitting". Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A. 262 (2–3): 444–450.
Bibcode:1987NIMPA.262..444F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987NIMPA.262..444F).
doi:10.1016/0168-9002(87)90887-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0168-9002%2887%299088
7-4).
83. Harvey, Andrew C. (1994). "Applications of the Kalman filter in econometrics" (https://archiv
e.org/details/advancesineconom00iiecon/page/285). In Bewley, Truman (ed.). Advances in
Econometrics. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 285f (https://archive.org/details/a
dvancesineconom00iiecon/page/285). ISBN 978-0-521-46726-1.
84. Boulfelfel, D.; Rangayyan, R.M.; Hahn, L.J.; Kloiber, R.; Kuduvalli, G.R. (1994). "Two-
dimensional restoration of single photon emission computed tomography images using the
Kalman filter". IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging. 13 (1): 102–109.
doi:10.1109/42.276148 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2F42.276148). PMID 18218487 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18218487).
85. Bock, Y.; Crowell, B.; Webb, F.; Kedar, S.; Clayton, R.; Miyahara, B. (2008). "Fusion of High-
Rate GPS and Seismic Data: Applications to Early Warning Systems for Mitigation of
Geological Hazards". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 43: G43B–01.
Bibcode:2008AGUFM.G43B..01B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AGUFM.G43B..01
B).
86. Wolpert, D. M.; Miall, R. C. (1996). "Forward Models for Physiological Motor Control". Neural
Networks. 9 (8): 1265–1279. doi:10.1016/S0893-6080(96)00035-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%
2FS0893-6080%2896%2900035-4). PMID 12662535 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1266
2535).

Further reading
Einicke, G.A. (2019). Smoothing, Filtering and Prediction: Estimating the Past, Present and
Future (2nd ed.). Amazon Prime Publishing. ISBN 978-0-6485115-0-2.
Jinya Su; Baibing Li; Wen-Hua Chen (2015). "On existence, optimality and asymptotic
stability of the Kalman filter with partially observed inputs" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.auto
matica.2014.12.044). Automatica. 53: 149–154. doi:10.1016/j.automatica.2014.12.044 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.automatica.2014.12.044).
Gelb, A. (1974). Applied Optimal Estimation. MIT Press.
Kalman, R.E. (1960). "A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20080529105724/http://www.elo.utfsm.cl/~ipd481/Papers%20varios/kalm
an1960.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Basic Engineering. 82 (1): 35–45. doi:10.1115/1.3662552 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1115%2F1.3662552). Archived from the original (http://www.elo.utfsm.cl/~ipd
481/Papers%20varios/kalman1960.pdf) (PDF) on 2008-05-29. Retrieved 2008-05-03.
Kalman, R.E.; Bucy, R.S. (1961). "New Results in Linear Filtering and Prediction Theory".
Journal of Basic Engineering. 83: 95–108. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.361.6851 (https://citeseerx.ist.p
su.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.361.6851). doi:10.1115/1.3658902 (https://doi.org/10.1
115%2F1.3658902). S2CID 8141345 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8141345).
Harvey, A.C. (1990). Forecasting, Structural Time Series Models and the Kalman Filter (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=Kc6tnRHBwLcC). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 9780521405737.
Roweis, S.; Ghahramani, Z. (1999). "A Unifying Review of Linear Gaussian Models" (https://
authors.library.caltech.edu/13697/1/ROWnc99.pdf) (PDF). Neural Computation. 11 (2): 305–
345. doi:10.1162/089976699300016674 (https://doi.org/10.1162%2F08997669930001667
4). PMID 9950734 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9950734). S2CID 2590898 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2590898).
Simon, D. (2006). Optimal State Estimation: Kalman, H Infinity, and Nonlinear Approaches (h
ttp://academic.csuohio.edu/simond/estimation/). Wiley-Interscience.
Warwick, K. (1987). "Optimal observers for ARMA models". International Journal of Control.
46 (5): 1493–1503. doi:10.1080/00207178708933989 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207178
708933989).
Bierman, G.J. (1977). Factorization Methods for Discrete Sequential Estimation.
Mathematics in Science and Engineering. Vol. 128. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications.
ISBN 978-0-486-44981-4.
Bozic, S.M. (1994). Digital and Kalman filtering. Butterworth–Heinemann.
Haykin, S. (2002). Adaptive Filter Theory. Prentice Hall.
Liu, W.; Principe, J.C. and Haykin, S. (2010). Kernel Adaptive Filtering: A Comprehensive
Introduction. John Wiley.
Manolakis, D.G. (1999). Statistical and Adaptive signal processing. Artech House.
 Welch, Greg; Bishop, Gary (1997). "SCAAT: incremental tracking with incomplete
information" (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~welch/media/pdf/scaat.pdf) (PDF). SIGGRAPH '97
Proceedings of the 24th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive
techniques. ACM Press/Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. pp. 333–344.
doi:10.1145/258734.258876 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F258734.258876). ISBN 978-0-
89791-896-1. S2CID 1512754 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1512754).
Jazwinski, Andrew H. (1970). Stochastic Processes and Filtering. Mathematics in Science
and Engineering. New York: Academic Press. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-12-381550-7.
Maybeck, Peter S. (1979). "Chapter 1" (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~welch/kalman/media/pdf/may
beck_ch1.pdf) (PDF). Stochastic Models, Estimation, and Control. Mathematics in Science
and Engineering. Vol. 141–1. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-480701-3.
Moriya, N. (2011). Primer to Kalman Filtering: A Physicist Perspective. New York: Nova
Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-1-61668-311-5.
Dunik, J.; Simandl M.; Straka O. (2009). "Methods for Estimating State and Measurement
Noise Covariance Matrices: Aspects and Comparison" (https://www.researchgate.net/public
ation/216411106). 15th IFAC Symposium on System Identification, 2009. 15th IFAC
Symposium on System Identification, 2009. France. pp. 372–377. doi:10.3182/20090706-3-
FR-2004.00061 (https://doi.org/10.3182%2F20090706-3-FR-2004.00061). ISBN 978-3-
902661-47-0.
Chui, Charles K.; Chen, Guanrong (2009). Kalman Filtering with Real-Time Applications.
Springer Series in Information Sciences. Vol. 17 (4th ed.). New York: Springer. p. 229.
ISBN 978-3-540-87848-3.
Spivey, Ben; Hedengren, J. D. and Edgar, T. F. (2010). "Constrained Nonlinear Estimation
for Industrial Process Fouling". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 49 (17):
7824–7831. doi:10.1021/ie9018116 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fie9018116).
Thomas Kailath; Ali H. Sayed; Babak Hassibi (2000). Linear Estimation. NJ: Prentice–Hall.
ISBN 978-0-13-022464-4.
Ali H. Sayed (2008). Adaptive Filters. NJ: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-25388-5.

External links
A New Approach to Linear Filtering and Prediction Problems (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~welch/
kalman/kalmanPaper.html), by R. E. Kalman, 1960
Kalman and Bayesian Filters in Python (https://github.com/rlabbe/Kalman-and-Bayesian-Filt
ers-in-Python). Open source Kalman filtering textbook.
How a Kalman filter works, in pictures (http://www.bzarg.com/p/how-a-kalman-filter-works-in-
pictures/). Illuminates the Kalman filter with pictures and colors
Kalman–Bucy Filter (http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~liptser/lectures1/lect6.pdf), a derivation of the
Kalman–Bucy Filter
MIT Video Lecture on the Kalman filter (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0D3VwBh5UQ)
on YouTube
Kalman filter in Javascript (https://github.com/piercus/kalman-filter). Open source Kalman
filter library for node.js and the web browser.
An Introduction to the Kalman Filter (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~tracker/media/pdf/SIGGRAPH2
001_CoursePack_08.pdf), SIGGRAPH 2001 Course, Greg Welch and Gary Bishop
Kalman Filter (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~welch/kalman/) webpage, with many links
Kalman Filter Explained Simply (https://thekalmanfilter.com/kalman-filter-explained-simply/),
Step-by-Step Tutorial of the Kalman Filter with Equations
 "Kalman filters used in Weather models" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110517044040/htt
p://www.siam.org/pdf/news/362.pdf) (PDF). SIAM News. 36 (8). October 2003. Archived from
the original (http://www.siam.org/pdf/news/362.pdf) (PDF) on 2011-05-17. Retrieved
2007-01-27.
Haseltine, Eric L.; Rawlings, James B. (2005). "Critical Evaluation of Extended Kalman
Filtering and Moving-Horizon Estimation". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 44
(8): 2451. doi:10.1021/ie034308l (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fie034308l).
Gerald J. Bierman's Estimation Subroutine Library (http://netlib.org/a/esl.tgz): Corresponds to
the code in the research monograph "Factorization Methods for Discrete Sequential
Estimation" originally published by Academic Press in 1977. Republished by Dover.
Matlab Toolbox implementing parts of Gerald J. Bierman's Estimation Subroutine Library (htt
p://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/32537): UD / UDU' and LD / LDL'
factorization with associated time and measurement updates making up the Kalman filter.
Matlab Toolbox of Kalman Filtering applied to Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (htt
p://eia.udg.es/~qsalvi/Slam.zip): Vehicle moving in 1D, 2D and 3D
The Kalman Filter in Reproducing Kernel Hilbert Spaces (https://web.archive.org/web/20160
304042652/http://www.cnel.ufl.edu/~weifeng/publication.htm) A comprehensive introduction.
Matlab code to estimate Cox–Ingersoll–Ross interest rate model with Kalman Filter (http://w
ww.mathfinance.cn/kalman-filter-finance-revisited/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
140209065941/http://www.mathfinance.cn/kalman-filter-finance-revisited/) 2014-02-09 at the
Wayback Machine: Corresponds to the paper "estimating and testing exponential-affine term
structure models by kalman filter" published by Review of Quantitative Finance and
Accounting in 1999.
Online demo of the Kalman Filter (https://web.archive.org/web/20140226174212/http://www.
data-assimilation.net/Tools/AssimDemo/?method=KF). Demonstration of Kalman Filter (and
other data assimilation methods) using twin experiments.
Botella, Guillermo; Martín h., José Antonio; Santos, Matilde; Meyer-Baese, Uwe (2011).
"FPGA-Based Multimodal Embedded Sensor System Integrating Low- and Mid-Level
Vision" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3231703). Sensors. 11 (12): 1251–
1259. Bibcode:2011Senso..11.8164B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Senso..11.81
64B). doi:10.3390/s110808164 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fs110808164). PMC 3231703 (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3231703). PMID 22164069 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/22164069).
Examples and how-to on using Kalman Filters with MATLAB (http://www.mathworks.com/dis
covery/kalman-filter.html) A Tutorial on Filtering and Estimation
Explaining Filtering (Estimation) in One Hour, Ten Minutes, One Minute, and One Sentence
(http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=space&uid=1565&do=blog&id=851754) by Yu-
Chi Ho
Simo Särkkä (2013). "Bayesian Filtering and Smoothing". Cambridge University Press. Full
text available on author's webpage https://users.aalto.fi/~ssarkka/.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalman_filter&oldid=1160108771"