Electricity sector in India

The utility electricity sector in India had an installed

capacity of 281.423 GW as of 30 November 2015.[1][2]
Renewable Power plants constituted 28% of total in-
stalled capacity and Non-Renewable Power Plants con-
stituted the remaining 72%. The gross electricity gen-
erated by utilities is 1,106 TWh (1,106,000 GWh) and
166 TWh by captive power plants during the 2014–15
fiscal.[3] The gross electricity generation includes auxil-
iary power consumption of power generation plants. In-
dia became the world’s third largest producer of electric-
ity in the year 2013 with 4.8% global share in electricity *Electricity Production in India till 2012
generation surpassing Japan and Russia.[4]
During the year 2014-15, the per capita electricity gener-
ation in India was 1,010 kWh with total electricity con-
sumption (utilities and non utilities) of 938.823 billion or
746 kWh per capita electricity consumption.[3] Electric
energy consumption in agriculture was recorded high-
est (18.45%) in 2014-15 among all countries.[3] The per
capita electricity consumption is lower compared to many
countries despite cheaper electricity tariff in India.[5]
In order to address the lack of adequate electricity avail-
ability to all the people in the country by the platinum ju-
bilee (2022) year of India’s independence, Government
of India under Narendra Modi as Prime Minister has
launched a scheme called “Power for All”. This scheme Ramagundam Thermal Power Station, Telangana
will ensure that there is 24/7 continuous electricity supply
provided to all households, industries and commercial es-
tablishments by creating and improving necessary infras-
tructure. Its a joint collaboration of centre with states to
share funding and create overall economic growth. Cur-
rently nine states have joined the scheme.[6]

Sabarmati Thermal Power Station, Gujarat

1 History
The first demonstration of electric light in Calcutta was
conducted on 24 July 1879 by P W Fleury & Co. On 7
Sources of electricity in India by Installed Capacity as of 2013 January 1897, Kilburn & Co secured the Calcutta elec-
tric lighting licence as agents of the Indian Electric Co,
which was registered in London on 15 January 1897. A
month later, the company was renamed the Calcutta Elec-

1
2 3 DEMAND

tric Supply Corporation. The control of the company was the rural areas) and 1 billion that only has ac-
transferred from London to Calcutta only in 1870. En- cess to unreliable electricity networks. We
thused by the success of electricity in Calcutta, power was need smart and practical approaches because
thereafter introduced in Bombay.[7] Mumbai saw electric energy, as a driver of development, plays a cen-
lighting demonstration for the first time in 1882 at Craw- tral role in both fighting poverty and address-
ford Market and Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways ing climate change. The implications are enor-
Company (BEST) set up a generating station in 1905 to mous: families forego entrepreneurial endeav-
provide electricity for the tramway.[8] The first hydroelec- ors, children cannot study after dark, health
tric installation in India was installed near a tea estate clinics do not function properly, and women are
at Sidrapong for the Darjeeling Municipality in 1897.[9] burdened with time consuming chores such as
The first electric streetlight in Asia was lit on 5 August pounding grain or hauling water, leaving them
1905 in Bangalore.[10] The first electric train ran between with less time to engage in income generating
Bombay’s Victoria Terminus and Kurla along the Har- activities. Further, it is estimated that kitchen
bour Line, in 1925.[11] smoke leads to around 1.5 million premature
deaths every year, more than the number of
deaths from malaria each year. After gaining
access to energy, households generate more in-
2 Installed capacity come, are more productive and are less hungry,
further multiplying the Millennium Develop-
The total installed power generation capacity is sum of ment Goal’s progress.”
utility capacity, captive power capacity and other non- — Rebeca Grynspan, UNDP Associate
utilities Administrator and Under Secretary General,
Bloomberg New Energy Summit, 7 April
2011[18]
2.1 Utility power
@
The break up of other renewable sources is small hydro Of the 1.4 billion people in the world who have no access
(4,055.36 MW), wind power (23,444.00 MW), biomass to electricity, India accounts for over 300 million. The
power/Cogeneration (1,410.20 MW), Bagasse cogenera- International Energy Agency estimates India will add be-
tion (3,008.35 MW), waste-to-power (115.08 MW) and tween 600 GW to 1,200 GW of additional new power
solar power (3,743.97 MW).[13] generation capacity before 2050.[19] This added new ca-
The planned additional thermal power generation capac- pacity is equivalent to the 740 GW of total power gen-
ity excluding renewable power during the last two years of eration capacity of European Union (EU-27) in 2005.
the 12th plan period (up to March 2017) is nearly 84,000 The technologies and fuel sources India adopts, as it adds
MW.[14] this electricity generation capacity, may make signifi-
cant impact to global resource usage and environmental
issues.[20]
2.2 Captive power Some 800 million Indians use traditional fuels –
fuelwood, agricultural waste and biomass cakes – for
The installed captive power generation capacity (above 1 cooking and general heating needs. These traditional fu-
MW capacity) in the industries is 47,082 as on 31 March els are burnt in cook stoves, known as chulah or chulha
2015.[3] Another 75,000 MW capacity diesel power gen- in some parts of India.[21][22] Traditional fuel is inef-
eration sets (excluding sets of size above 1 MW and be- ficient source of energy, its burning releases high lev-
low 100 KVA) are also installed in the country.[15][16] In els of smoke, PM10 particulate matter, NOX, SOX,
addition, there are innumerable DG sets of capacity less PAHs, polyaromatics, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide
than 100 KVA to cater to emergency power needs during and other air pollutants.[23][24][25] Some reports, includ-
the power outages in all sectors such as industrial, com- ing one by the World Health Organisation, claim 300,000
mercial, domestic and agriculture.[17] to 400,000 people in India die of indoor air pollution
and carbon monoxide poisoning every year because of
biomass burning and use of chullahs.[26] Traditional fuel
3 Demand burning in conventional cook stoves releases unnecessar-
ily large amounts of pollutants, between 5 to 15 times
higher than industrial combustion of coal, thereby affect-
Demand drivers
ing outdoor air quality, haze and smog, chronic health
problems, damage to forests, ecosystems and global cli-
“Expanding access to energy means includ- mate. Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop,
ing 2.4 billion people: 1.4 billion that still have these reports claim, unless electricity or clean burning
no access to electricity (87% of whom live in fuel and combustion technologies become reliably avail-
 3

able and widely adopted in rural and urban India. The • Over 2010–11, India’s industrial demand accounted
growth of electricity sector in India may help find a sus- for 35% of electrical power requirement, domestic
tainable alternative to traditional fuel burning. household use accounted for 28%, agriculture 21%,
In addition to air pollution problems, a 2007 study finds commercial 9%, public lighting and other miscella-
that discharge of untreated sewage is single most impor- neous applications accounted for the rest.
tant cause for pollution of surface and ground water in • The electrical energy demand for 2016–17 is ex-
India. There is a large gap between generation and treat- pected to be at least 1,392 Tera Watt Hours, with
ment of domestic wastewater in India. The problem is not a peak electric demand of 218 GW.
only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also
that the sewage treatment plants that exist do not oper- • The electrical energy demand for 2021–22 is ex-
ate and are not maintained. Majority of the government- pected to be at least 1,915 Tera Watt Hours, with
owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the a peak electric demand of 298 GW.
time in part because of the lack of reliable electricity
supply to operate the plants. The wastewater generated If current average transmission and distribution average
in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evapo- losses remain same (32%), India needs to add about 135
rates. The uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban ar- GW of power generation capacity, before 2017, to satisfy
eas cause unhygienic conditions, release heavy metals and the projected demand after losses.
pollutants that leaches to surface and groundwater.[27][28] McKinsey claims[37] that India’s demand for electricity
Almost all rivers, lakes and water bodies are severely pol- may cross 300 GW, earlier than most estimates. To ex-
luted in India. Water pollution also adversely impacts plain their estimates, they point to four reasons:
river, wetland and ocean life. Reliable generation and
supply of electricity is essential for addressing India’s wa- • India’s manufacturing sector is likely to grow faster
ter pollution and associated environmental issues. than in the past
Other drivers for India’s electricity sector are its rapidly
• Domestic demand will increase more rapidly as the
growing economy, rising exports, improving infrastruc-
quality of life for more Indians improve
ture and increasing household incomes.
• About 125,000 villages are likely to get connected
to India’s electricity grid
Demand trends
• Blackouts and load shedding artificially suppresses
demand; this demand will be sought as revenue po-
During the fiscal year 2014-15, the electricity generated tential by power distribution companies
in utility sector is 1,030.785 billion KWh with a short fall
of requirement by 38.138 billion KWh (−3.6%) against A demand of 300 GW will require about 400 GW of in-
the 5.1% deficit anticipated. The peak load met was stalled capacity, McKinsey notes. The extra capacity is
141,180 MW with a short fall of requirement by 7,006 necessary to account for plant availability, infrastructure
MW (−4.7%) against the 2.0% deficit anticipated. In maintenance, spinning reserve and losses.
a May 2015 report, India’s Central Electricity Author-
ity anticipated, for the 2015–16 fiscal year, a base load In 2010, electricity losses in India during transmission
energy deficit and peaking shortage to be 2.1% and 2.6% and distribution were about 24%, while losses because
respectively.[29] Southern and North Eastern regions are of consumer theft or billing deficiencies added another
anticipated to face energy shortage up to 11.3%. The 10–15%.[38]
marginal deficit figures clearly reflect that India would According to two studies published in 2004, theft of elec-
become electricity surplus during the 12th five-year plan tricity in India, amounted to a nationwide loss of $4.5
period.[30][31] billion.[39][40] This led several states of India to enact and
Despite an ambitious rural electrification programme,[32] implement regulatory, and institutional framework; de-
some 400 million Indians lose electricity access during velop a new industry and market structure; and priva-
blackouts.[33] While 80% of Indian villages have at least tize distribution. The state of Andhra Pradesh, for ex-
an electricity line, just 52.5% of rural households have ample, enacted an electricity reform law; unbundled the
access to electricity. In urban areas, the access to elec- utility into one generation, one transmission, and four dis-
tricity is 93.1% in 2008. The overall electrification rate tribution and supply companies; and established an in-
in India is 64.5% while 35.5% of the population still live dependent regulatory commission responsible for licens-
without access to electricity.[34] ing, setting tariffs, and promoting efficiency and compe-
tition. Some state governments amended the Indian Elec-
According to a sample of 97,882 households in 2002, tricity Act of 1910 to make electricity theft a cognisable
electricity was the main source of lighting for 53% of ru- offence and impose stringent penalties. A separate law,
ral households compared to 36% in 1993.[35] unprecedented in India, provided for mandatory impris-
The 17th electric power survey of India report claims:[36] onment and penalties for offenders, allowed constitution
4 5 ELECTRICITY GENERATION

of special courts and tribunals for speedy trial, and recog-

nised collusion by utility staff as a criminal offence. The
state government made advance preparations and consti-
tuted special courts and appellate tribunals as soon as the
new law came into force. High quality metering and en-
hanced audit information flow was implemented. Such
campaigns have made a big difference in the Indian util-
ities’ bottom line. Monthly billing has increased substan-
tially, and the collection rate reached more than 98%.
Transmission and distribution losses were reduced by 8%.
Power cuts are common throughout India and the con-
sequent failure to satisfy the demand for electricity has
adversely effected India’s economic growth.[41]
The per capita annual domestic electricity consumption
in India during the year 2009 was 96 kWh in rural ar-
eas and 288 kWh in urban areas for those with access to
electricity in contrast to the worldwide per capita annual
average of 2,600 kWh and 6,200 kWh in the European
Satellite pictures of India show thick haze and black carbon
Union.[42]
smoke above India and other Asian countries. This problem is
particularly severe along the Ganges Basin in northern India.
Major sources of particulate matter and aerosols are believed to
3.1 Rural electrification be smoke from biomass burning in rural parts of India, and air
pollution from large cities in northern India.
See also: Rural Electrification Corporation Limited

In December 2011, over 300 million Indian citizens had

no access to frequent electricity. Over one third of India’s
rural population lacked electricity, as did 6% of the urban
population. Of those who did have access to electricity
in India, the supply was intermittent and unreliable. In
2010, blackouts and power shedding interrupted irriga-
tion and manufacturing across the country.[19][43] States
such as Gujarat,[44] Madhya Pradesh,[45] etc. provide con-
tinuous power supply.
India’s Ministry of Power launched Deen Dayal Upad-
hyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) as one of its flag-
ship programme in July 2015 with the objective of pro- India lit up at night. This media, courtesy of NASA, was taken
viding round the clock power to the rural areas . It by the crew of Expedition 29 on 21 October 2011. It starts over
focuses on reforms in rural power sector by separation Turkmenistan, moving east. India begins past the long wavy
of feeder lines (rural households & agricultural) and solid orange line, marking the lights at the India-Pakistan border-
strengthening of transmission and distribution infrastruc- line. New Delhi, India’s capital and the Kathiawar Peninsula are
ture.The earlier scheme for rural electrification viz. Ra- lit. So are Mumbai, Hyderabad, Chennai, Bangalore and many
jiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) has smaller cities in central and southern India, as this International
been subsumed in the new scheme as its rural electrifica- Space Station’s video shifts south-eastward through southern In-
dia, into the Bay of Bengal. Lightning storms are also present,
tion component.[47]
represented by the flashing lights throughout the video. The pass
ends over western Indonesia.

4 Electricity consumption
than 1,000 MW are referred as Super Thermal Power Sta-
tions.
5 Electricity generation India’s electricity generation capacity additions from
1950 to 1985 were very low when compared to developed
Power development in India was first started in 1897 in nations. Since 1990, India has been one of the fastest
Darjeeling, followed by commissioning of a hydropower growing markets for new electricity generation capacity.
station at Sivasamudram in Karnataka during 1902. India’s electricity generation capacity has increased from
Thermal power stations which generates electricity more 179 TW-h in 1985 to 1,053 TW-h in 2012.[4]
 5

6 Conventional sources
Main article: Energy policy of India

6.1 Thermal power

Tehri Hydroelectric Power station’s lake in Uttarakhand. Tehri

is world’s 7th tallest dam.[49] With a capacity of 2.4 GW, it is
India’s largest hydroelectric power generation installation.

India’s Power Finance Corporation Limited projects A super thermal power plant in Rajasthan
that current and approved electricity capacity addition
projects in India are expected to add about 100 GW of
installed capacity between 2012 and 2017. This growth
makes India one of the fastest growing markets for elec-
tricity infrastructure equipment.[50][51] India’s installed
capacity growth rates are still less than those achieved by
China, and short of capacity needed to ensure universal
availability of electricity throughout India by 2017.
State-owned and privately owned companies are signifi-
cant players in India’s electricity sector, with the private
sector growing at a faster rate. India’s central government
and state governments jointly regulate electricity sector in
India.
Major economic and social drivers for India’s push for
electricity generation include India’s goal to provide uni-
versal access, the need to replace current highly pollut-
ing energy sources in use in India with cleaner energy
sources, a rapidly growing economy, increasing house-
hold incomes, limited domestic reserves of fossil fuels
and the adverse impact on the environment of rapid de-
velopment in urban and regional areas.[52]
In 2010, the five largest power companies in India, by
installed capacity, in decreasing order, were the center-
owned NTPC, center-owned NHPC, followed by three
privately owned companies: Tata Power, Reliance Power
and Adani Power.
In India’s effort to add electricity generation capacity over
2009–2011, both central government and state govern- A thermal power plant in Maharashtra
ment owned power companies have repeatedly failed to
add the capacity targets because of issues with procure- Thermal power plants convert energy rich fuels such as
ment of equipment and poor project management. Pri- coal, natural gas, petroleum products, agricultural waste,
vate companies have delivered better results.[54] domestic trash/waste, etc. into electricity. Other sources
The total installed utility power generation capacity as on of fuel include landfill gas and biogases. In some plants,
31 March 2015 with sector wise & type wise break up is renewal fuels such as biogas are co-fired with coal.
as given below.[55] Coal and lignite accounted for about 60% of India’s total
6 6 CONVENTIONAL SOURCES

installed capacity.[56] India’s electricity sector consumes Natural gas supply constraints
about 72% of the coal produced in the country.[57]
India expects its projected rapid growth in electricity gen-
eration over the next couple of decades to be largely met
by thermal power plants.

Coal supply constraints

A large part of Indian coal reserve is similar to Gondwana

coal. It is of low calorific value and high ash content. The
carbon content is low in India’s coal, and toxic trace ele-
ment concentrations are negligible. The natural fuel value Gasification of Char/Coal
of Indian coal is poor. On average, the Indian power
plants using India’s coal supply consume about 0.7 kg The installed capacity of natural gas-based power plants
of coal to generate a kWh, whereas United States ther- and the ready to be commissioned with the commence-
mal power plants consume about 0.45 kg of coal per ment of natural gas supply is nearly 26,765 MW at the
kWh. This is because of the difference in the quality end of financial year 2014-15. These base load power
of the coal, as measured by the Gross Calorific Value plants are operating at overall PLF of 25% only due to se-
(GCV). On average, Indian coal has a GCV of about vere shortage of Natural gas in the country.[62] Imported
4500 Kcal/kg, whereas the quality elsewhere in the world LNG was too costly for the power generation. Many of
is much better; for example, in Australia, the GCV is these power stations are shut down throughout the year for
6500 Kcal/kg approximately.[58] India imported nearly 95 lack of natural gas supply. Natural gas shortage for power
Mtoe of steam coal and coking coal which is 29% of to- sector alone is nearly 100 MMSCMD.[63] The break even
tal consumption to meet the demand in electricity, ce- price for switching from imported coal to LNG in elec-
ment and steel production.[59] China has banned import tricity generation is estimated near 6 US$/mmBtu.[64] In-
of high ash coal, high sulphur coal and contaminated coal dian government has taken steps to enhance the genera-
with trace metals which are causing air pollution.[60] tion from the stranded gas based power plants for meet-
ing peak load demand by waiving applicable import du-
The high ash content in India’s coal affects the ther- ties and taxes due to drastic fall in the LNG and crude oil
mal power plant’s potential emissions. Therefore, India’s international prices.[65]
Ministry of Environment & Forests has mandated the
use of beneficiated coals whose ash content has been re- Gasification of coal or lignite or biomass, produces syngas
duced to 34% (or lower) in power plants in urban, eco- or coal gas or wood gas which is a mixture of hydro-
logically sensitive and other critically polluted areas, and gen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gases. Coal
ecologically sensitive areas. Coal benefaction industry gas can be converted into synthetic natural gas by us-
has rapidly grown in India, with current capacity topping ing Fischer–Tropsch process at low pressure and high
90 MT. temperature. Coal gas can also be produced by under-
ground coal gasification where the coal deposits are lo-
Thermal power plants in India deploy a wide range of cated deep in the ground or uneconomical to mine the
technologies. Some of the major technologies include: coal.[66] Synthetic natural gas production technologies
have tremendous scope to meet the SNG requirements
• Steam cycle facilities (most commonly used for large
of gas-based power stations fully using the locally avail-
utilities);
able coal (or imported coal in short run). Dankuni coal
• Gas turbines (commonly used for moderate sized complex is producing syngas which is piped to the in-
peaking facilities); dustrial users in Calcutta.[67] Many coal based fertiliser
plants which are shut down can also be retrofitted eco-
• Cogeneration and combined cycle facility (the com- nomically to produce synthetic natural gas for bridging
bination of gas turbines or internal combustion en- natural gas shortages. It is estimated that SNG production
gines with heat recovery systems); and cost would be below 6 $ per mmBtu.[68][69] The indige-
• Internal combustion engines (commonly used for nously produced natural gas by the Exploration & Pro-
small remote sites or stand-by power generation). duction (E&P) contractors sold at prevailing international
gas prices do not guarantee the natural gas supply whereas
India has an extensive review process, one that includes the SNG produced from coal/ biomass is reliable & de-
environment impact assessment, prior to a thermal power pendable fuel supply to the gas based power stations and
plant being approved for construction and commission- other natural gas consumers.
ing. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has pub-
lished a technical guidance manual to help project pro- Replacement of old thermal power plants
posers and to prevent environmental pollution in India
from thermal power plants.[61] India’s coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal
6.3 Nuclear power 7

power plants are inefficient and offer significant poten- The present installed capacity as of 31 May 2014 is ap-
tial for greenhouse gas (CO2 ) emission reduction through proximately 40,661.41 MW which is 16.36% of total
better technologies. Compared to the average emis- electricity generation in India.[56] The public sector has
sions from coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired ther- a predominant share of 97% in this sector.[72] National
mal power plants in European Union (EU-27) countries, Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC), Northeast
India’s thermal power plants emit 50% to 120% more Electric Power Company (NEEPCO), Satluj jal vidyut
CO2 per kWh produced.[70] The central government has nigam (SJVNL), Tehri Hydro Development Corporation,
firmed up plans to shut down 11,000 MW of thermal NTPC-Hydro are a few public sector companies engaged
power generation capacity that are at least 25 years old in development of hydroelectric power in India.
and replace with bigger size plants of super-critical pres-
Pumped storage schemes are perfect centralised peaking
sure technology totalling to at least 20,000 MW with the
power stations for the load management in the electric-
coal being consumed presently by these old and small
ity grid. Pumped storage schemes would be in high de-
units.[71]
mand for meeting peak load demand and storing the sur-
plus electricity as India graduates from electricity deficit
to electricity surplus. They also produce secondary /sea-
6.2 Hydro power sonal power at no additional cost when rivers are flood-
ing with excess water. Storing electricity by other alter-
Main article: Hydroelectric power in India native systems such as batteries, compressed air storage
The hydro-electric power plants at Darjeeling and systems, etc. is more costlier than electricity production
by standby generator. India has already established nearly
6800 MW pumped storage capacity which is part of its
installed hydro power plants.[73]

6.3 Nuclear power

Indira Sagar Dam partially completed in 2008
Main article: Nuclear power in India
As of 2013, India had 5.78 GW of installed electricity

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant under construction in 2009.

It was 96% complete as of March 2011, with first phase expected
to be in use in 2012. With initial installed capacity of 2 GW, this
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam and the 810 MW hydroelectric power plant will be expanded to 6.8 GW capacity.
plant on the Krishna River.
generation capacity using nuclear fuels. India’s Nuclear
Shimsha (Shivanasamudra) were established in 1898 and plants generated 32455 million [74]
units or 3.75% of total
1902 respectively and were among the first in Asia. electricity produced in India.

India is endowed with economically exploitable and vi- India’s nuclear power plant development began in 1964.
able hydro potential assessed to be about 84,000 MW India signed an agreement with General Electric of the
at 60% load factor. In addition, 6740 MW in terms of United States for the construction and commissioning of
installed capacity from Small, Mini, and Micro Hydel two boiling water reactors at Tarapur. In 1967, this effort
schemes have been assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped was placed under India’s Department of Atomic Energy.
storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of In 1971, India set up its first pressurised heavy water reac-
94,000 MW have been identified. It is the most widely tors with Canadian collaboration in Rajasthan. In 1987,
used form of renewable energy. India is blessed with im- India created Nuclear Power Corporation of India Lim-
mense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in ited to commercialise nuclear power.
terms of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited is a public
8 7 NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES

sector enterprise, wholly owned by the Government of based nuclear power. The country currently gets under
India, under the administrative control of its Department 2% of its electricity from nuclear power, with the rest
of Atomic Energy. Its objective is to implement and op- coming from coal (60%), hydroelectricity (16%), other
erate nuclear power stations for India’s electricity sector. renewable sources (12%) and natural gas (9%). It ex-
The state-owned company has ambitious plans to estab- pects to produce around 25% of its electricity from nu-
lish 63 GW generation capacity by 2032, as a safe, en- clear power.[77]
vironmentally benign and economically viable source of
electrical energy to meet the increasing electricity needs
of India.[75] 7 Non-conventional sources
India’s nuclear power generation effort satisfies many
safeguards and oversights, such as getting ISO-14001 ac- Main article: Renewable energy in India
creditation for environment management system and peer
review by World Association of Nuclear Operators in-
Renewable energy in India is a sector that is still in its
cluding a pre-start up peer review. Nuclear Power Cor-
infancy.
poration of India Limited admits, in its annual report for
2011, that its biggest challenge is to address the pub- India’s electricity sector is amongst the world’s most ac-
lic and policy maker perceptions about the safety of nu- tive players in renewable energy utilization, especially
clear power, particularly after the Fukushima incident in wind energy.[78] As of 31 July 2015, India had grid
Japan.[74] connected installed capacity of about 36.64 GW non-
conventional renewable technologies-based electricity ca-
In 2011, India had 18 pressurised heavy water reactors in
pacity, about 13.32% of its total.[79][80] For context, the
operation, with another four projects of 2.8 GW capacity
total installed capacity for electricity in Switzerland was
launched. The country plans to implement fast breeder
about 18 GW in 2009.
reactors, using plutonium based fuel. Plutonium is ob-
tained by reprocessing spent fuel of first stage reactors.
India successfully launched its first prototype fast breeder
reactor of 500 MW capacity in Tamil Nadu, and now op-
erates two such reactors.
India has nuclear power plants operating in the following
states: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These reactors have an in-
stalled electricity generation capacity between 100 to 540
MW each. New reactors with installed capacity of 1000
MW per reactor are expected to be in use by 2012.
In 2011, The Wall Street Journal reported the discovery
of uranium in a new mine in India, the country’s largest
ever. The estimated reserves of 64,000 tonnes, could be
as large as 150,000 tonnes (making the mine one of the
world’s largest). The new mine is expected to provide
India with a fuel that it now imports. Nuclear fuel sup-
ply constraints had limited India’s ability to grow its nu-
clear power generation capacity. The newly discovered
ore, unlike those in Australia, is of slightly lower grade.
This mine is expected to be in operation in 2012.[76]
India’s share of nuclear power plant generation capac-
ity is just 1.2% of worldwide nuclear power production Solar resources in India
capacity, making it the 15th largest nuclear power pro-
ducer. Nuclear power provided 3% of the country’s to- As of August 2011, India had deployed renewal energy to
tal electricity generation in 2011. India aims to supply provide electricity in 8846 remote villages, installed 4.4
9% of it electricity needs with nuclear power by 2032.[74] million family biogas plants, 1800 microhydel units and
India’s largest nuclear power plant project under imple- 4.7 million square metres of solar water heating capac-
mentation is at Jaitapur, Maharashtra in partnership with ity. India anticipates to add another 3.6 GW of renewal
Areva, France. energy installed capacity by December 2012.[81]

India’s government is also developing up to 62, mostly India plans to add about 30 GW of installed electricity
thorium reactors, which it expects to be operational by generation capacity based on renewal energy technolo-
2025. It is the “only country in the world with a detailed, gies, by 2017.[82]
funded, government-approved plan” to focus on thorium- Renewable energy projects in India are regulated and
7.1 Solar power 9

championed by the central government’s Ministry of New 90

and Renewable Energy. 80

$76.00
70

7.1 Solar power 60

Price history of silicon PV cells
50 in US$ per watt
Main article: Solar power in India
40

$/watt
30
India is endowed with vast solar energy. The solar ra-
diation of about 5,000 trillion kWh per year is incident 20

over its land mass with average daily solar power poten-
10
tial of 0.25 kWh per m2 of used land area with the avail- $0.30
able commercially proven technologies.[83] As of 13 July 1977 1981 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
2015, the installed capacity is 4097 MW.[84] India ex-
Source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance & pv.energytrend.com
pects to install an additional 10,000 MW by 2017, and a
total of 100,000 MW by 2022.[85][86]
Price history of silicon PV cells since 1977. The great thing about
The Government of Gujarat taking advantage of the na- solar power is that it is a technology and not a fuel. It is unlimited
tional initiative and high solar irradiation in the state, and the more it is deployed the cheaper it would be.[90] While
launched the Solar Power Policy in 2009 and proposes to the more limited fossil fuels are used, the more expensive they
establish a number of large-scale solar parks starting with become.
the Charanka Solar Park in Patan district in the sparsely
populated northern part of the state. The development of
solar parks will streamline the project development time-Installation of solar power plants require nearly 2.4
line by letting government agencies undertake land ac- hectares (6 acres) land per MW capacity which is simi-
quisition and necessary permits, and provide dedicated lar to coal-fired power plants when life cycle coal mining,
common infrastructure for setting up solar power gener- consumptive water storage & ash disposal areas are also
ation plants largely in the private sector. This approachaccounted and hydro power plants when submergence
area of water reservoir is also accounted. 1.33 million
will facilitate the accelerated installation of private sec-
tor solar power generation capacity reducing costs by ad-MW capacity solar plants can be installed in India on its
dressing issues faced by stand alone projects. Common 1% land (32,000 square km). There are vast tracts of land
suitable for solar power in all parts of India exceeding 8%
infrastructure for the solar park include site preparation
of its total area which are unproductive barren and de-
and leveling, power evacuation, availability of water, ac-
void of vegetation.[91] Part of waste lands (32,000 square
cess roads, security and services. In parallel with the cen-
km) when installed with solar power plants can produce
tral government’s initiative, the Gujarat Electricity Regu-
latory Commission has announced feed-in tariff to main- 2000 billion Kwh of electricity (two times the total gen-
stream solar power generation which will be applied for eration in the year 2013-14) with land productivity/yield
of 1.5 million Rs per acre (6 Rs/kwh price) which is at
solar power generation plants in the solar park. Gujarat
Power Corporation Limited is the responsible agency for par with many industrial areas and many times more than
the best productive irrigated agriculture lands. Moreover,
developing the solar park of 500 MW and will lease the
lands to the project developers to generate solar power. these solar power units are not dependent on supply of any
raw material and are self productive. There is unlimited
Gujarat Energy Transmission Corporation Limited will
develop the transmission evacuation from the identified scope for solar electricity to replace all fossil fuel energy
requirements (natural gas, coal, lignite, nuclear fuels and
interconnection points with the solar developer. This
project is being supported, in part, by the Asian Devel- crude oil) if all the marginally productive lands are oc-
opment Bank.[87] cupied by solar power plants in future. The solar power
potential of India can meet perennially to cater per capita
The Indian Solar Loan Programme, supported by the energy consumption at par with USA/Japan for the peak
United Nations Environment Programme has won the population in its demographic transition.[92]
prestigious Energy Globe World award for Sustainability
for helping to establish a consumer financing programme In the year 2015, the levelized tariff in US$ for solar elec-
for solar home power systems. Over the span of three tricity has fallen below 4 cents/kWh which is far cheaper
years more than 16,000 solar home systems have been than the electricity sale price [93]
from coal based electricity
financed through 2,000 bank branches, particularly in ru- generation plants in India.
ral areas of South India where the electricity grid does Land acquisition is a challenge to solar farm projects in
not yet extend. Launched in 2003, the Indian Solar Loan India. Some state governments are exploring means to
Programme was a four-year partnership between UNEP, address land availability through innovation; for example,
the UNEP Risoe Centre, and two of India’s largest banks, by exploring means to deploy solar capacity above their
the Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank.[88][89] extensive irrigation canal projects, thereby harvesting so-
10 7 NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES

Wind farm in Rajasthan.

Canal Solar Power Project in Kadi, Gujarat

lar energy while reducing the loss of irrigation water by

solar evaporation.[94] The state of Gujarat was first to im-
plement the Canal Solar Power Project, to use 19,000 km
(12,000 mi) long network of Narmada canals across the
state for setting up solar panels to generate electricity. It
was the first ever such project in India.
Synergy with irrigation water pumping and hydro
power stations
The major disadvantage of solar power (PV type) is that
it can not produce electricity during the night time and
cloudy day time also. In India, this disadvantage can be
Wind turbines midst India’s agricultural farms.
overcome by installing pumped-storage hydroelectricity
stations. Ultimate electricity requirement for river water
pumping (excluding ground water pumping) is 570 billion has significantly increased in the last few years. Suzlon
Kwh to pump one cubic meter of water for each square is the leading Indian company in wind power, with an in-
meter area by 125 m height on average for irrigating 140 stalled generation capacity of 6.2 GW in India. Vestas
million hectares of net sown area (42% of total land) for is another major company active in India’s wind energy
three crops in a year.[95] This is achieved by utilising all initiative.[99]
the usable river waters by interlinking Indian rivers.[96]
These river water pumping stations would also be en- As December 2011, the installed capacity of wind power
visaged with pumped-storage hydroelectricity features to in India was 15.9 GW, spread across many states of
generate electricity during the night time. These pumped- India.[82][98] The largest wind power generating state was
storage stations would work at 200% water pumping re- Tamil Nadu accounting for 30% of installed capacity,
quirement during the day time and generate electricity followed in decreasing order by Maharashtra, Gujarat,
at 50% of total capacity during the night time. Also, Karnataka, and Rajasthan.[100] It is estimated that 6 GW
all existing and future hydro power stations can be ex- of additional wind power capacity will be installed in In-
panded with additional pumped-storage hydroelectricity dia by 2012.[101] In Tamil Nadu, wind power is mostly
units to cater night time electricity consumption. Most of harvested in the southern districts such as Kanyakumari,
the ground water pumping power can be met directly by Tirunelveli and Tuticorin.
solar power.[97] The state of Gujarat is estimated to have the maximum
gross wind power potential in India, with a potential of
10.6 GW.[99]
7.2 Wind power
7.3 Biomass power
Main article: Wind power in India
India has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity
In this system biomass, bagasse, forestry, domestic or-
in the world.[98] In 2010, wind power accounted for 6% ganic wastes, industrial organic wastes and agro residue
of India’s total installed power capacity, and 1.6% of the
& agricultural wastes are used as fuel to produce
country’s power output. electricity.[102] Nearly 750 million tons of non edible (by
The development of wind power in India began in the cattle) biomass is available annually in India which can be
1990s by Tamil Nadu Electric Board near Tuticorin, and put to use for higher value addition.[103]
7.4 Geothermal energy 11

This pilot programme aims to install small-scale biogas

plants for meeting the cooking energy needs in rural areas
of India. During 2011, some 45000 small-scale biogas
plants were installed. Cumulatively, India has installed
4.44 million small-scale biogas plants.
In 2011, India started a new initiative with the aim to
demonstrate medium size mixed feed biogas-fertiliser pi-
lot plants. This technology aims for generation, purifica-
tion/enrichment, bottling and piped distribution of bio-
gas. India approved 21 of these projects with aggre-
gate capacity of 37016 cubic metre per day, of which
2 projects have been successfully commissioned by De-
cember 2011.[82]
India has additionally commissioned 158 projects under
its Biogas based Distributed/Grid Power Generation pro-
gramme, with a total installed capacity of about 2 MW.
India is rich in biomass and has a potential of 16,881 MW
(agro-residues and plantations), 5000 MW (bagasse co-
generation) and 2700 MW (energy recovery from waste).
Biomass power generation in India is an industry that at-
tracts investments of over INR 6 billion every year, gen-
erating more than 5000 million units of electricity and
yearly employment of more than 10 million man-days in
the rural areas.
As of 2010, India burnt over 200 million tonnes of coal
replacement worth of traditional biomass fuel every year
Wind farms midst paddy fields in India.
to meet its energy need for cooking and other domes-
tic use. This traditional biomass fuel – fuelwood, crop
Torrefied biomass waste and animal dung – is a potential raw material for
the application of biomass technologies for the recovery
Huge quantity of imported coal is being used in pul- of cleaner fuel, fertilisers and electricity with significantly
verised coal-fired power stations. Raw biomass can not lower pollution.
be used in the pulverised coal mills as they are diffi-
Biomass available in India can and has been playing an
cult to grind into fine powder due to caking property
important role as fuel for sugar mills, textiles, paper mills,
of raw biomass. However biomass can be used after
and small and medium enterprises (SME). In particular
Torrefaction in the pulverised coal mills for replacing im-
there is a significant potential in breweries, textile mills,
ported coal.[104] North west and southern regions can re-
fertiliser plants, the paper and pulp industry, solvent ex-
place imported coal use with torrefied biomass where sur-
traction units, rice mills, petrochemical plants and other
plus agriculture/crop residual biomass is available.
industries to harness biomass power.[105]
Biomass gasifier
7.4 Geothermal energy
India has been promoting biomass gasifier technologies in
its rural areas, to utilise surplus biomass resources such Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and
as rice husk, crop stalks, small wood chips, other agro- stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that
residues. The goal was to produce electricity for villages determines the temperature of matter. India’s geother-
with power plants of up to 2 MW capacities. During mal energy installed capacity is experimental. Commer-
2011, India installed 25 rice husk based gasifier systems cial use is insignificant.
for distributed power generation in 70 remote villages of
Bihar. The largest biomass-based power plant in India is According to some ambitious estimates, India has 10,600
at Sirohi, Rajasthan, having the capacity of 20 MW, i.e., MW of potential in the geothermal provinces but it still
Sambhav Energy Limited. In addition, gasifier systems needs to be exploited.[106] India has potential resources to
are being installed at 60 rice mills in India. During the harvest geothermal energy. The resource map for India
year, biomass gasifier projects of 1.20 MW in Gujarat and has been grouped into six geothermal provinces:[107]
0.5 MW in Tamil Nadu were successfully installed.[82]
• Himalayan Province – Tertiary Orogenic belt with
Biogas Tertiary magmatism
12 7 NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES

• Areas of Faulted blocks – Aravalli belt, Naga-Lushi, 7.5 Tidal wave energy
West coast regions and Son-Narmada lineament.
Tidal energy technologies harvest energy from the seas.
• Volcanic arc – Andaman and Nicobar arc.
The potential of tidal wave energy becomes higher in cer-
• Deep sedimentary basin of Tertiary age such as tain regions by local effects such as shelving, funnelling,
Cambay basin in Gujarat. reflection and resonance.
India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its potential to
• Radioactive Province – Surajkund, Hazaribagh, harness tidal energy is significant.
Jharkhand.
Energy can be extracted from tides in several ways. In
• Cratonic province – Peninsular India one method, a reservoir is created behind a barrage and
then tidal waters pass through turbines in the barrage to
generate electricity. This method requires mean tidal dif-
India has about 340 hot springs spread over the coun- ferences greater than 4 metres and also favourable topo-
try. Of this, 62 are distributed along the northwest Hi- graphical conditions to keep installation costs low. One
malaya, in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal report claims the most attractive locations in India, for the
Pradesh and Uttarakhand. They are found concentrated barrage technology, are the Gulf of Khambhat and the
along a 30-50-km wide thermal band mostly along the Gulf of Kutch on India’s west coast where the maximum
river valleys. Naga-Lusai and West Coast Provinces man- tidal range is 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of
ifest a series of thermal springs. Andaman and Nicobar 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the
arc is the only place in India where volcanic activity, a Sunderbans, West Bengal is another possibility, although
continuation of the Indonesian geothermal fields, and can with significantly less recoverable energy; the maximum
be good potential sites for geothermal energy. Cambay tidal range in Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an
graben geothermal belt is 200 km long and 50 km wide average tidal range of 2.97 m. The report claims, barrage
with Tertiary sediments. Thermal springs have been re- technology could harvest about 8 GW from tidal energy in
ported from the belt although they are not of very high India, mostly in Gujarat. The barrage approach has sev-
temperature and discharge. During oil and gas drilling eral disadvantages, one being the effect of any badly engi-
in this area, in recent times, high subsurface temperature neered barrage on the migratory fishes, marine ecosystem
and thermal fluid have been reported in deep drill wells in and aquatic life. Integrated barrage technology plants can
depth ranges of 1.7 to 1.9 km. Steam blowout have also be expensive to build.
been reported in the drill holes in depth range of 1.5 to 3.4
km. The thermal springs in India’s peninsular region are In December 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable
more related to the faults, which allow down circulation Energy, Government of India and the Renewable Energy
of meteoric water to considerable depths. The circulat- Development Agency of Govt. of West Bengal jointly
ing water acquires heat from the normal thermal gradient approved and agreed to implement India’s first 3.75 MW
in the area, and depending upon local condition, emerges Durgaduani mini tidal power project. Indian government
out at suitable localities. The area includes Aravalli range, believes that tidal energy may be an attractive solution
Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament, Godavari and Mahanadi to meet the local energy demands of this remote delta
valleys and South Cratonic Belts.[107] region.[108]
In a December 2011 report, India identified six most Another tidal wave technology harvests energy from sur-
promising geothermal sites for the development of face waves or from pressure fluctuations below the sea
geothermal energy. These are, in decreasing order of po- surface. A report from the Ocean Engineering Centre,
tential: Indian Institute of Technology, Madras estimates the an-
nual wave energy potential along the Indian coast is be-
tween 5 MW to 15 MW per metre, suggesting a theo-
• Tattapani in Chhattisgarh retical maximum potential for electricity harvesting from
India’s 7500 kilometre coast line may be about 40 GW.
• Puga in Jammu & Kashmir
However, the realistic economical potential, the report
• Cambay Graben in Gujarat claims, is likely to be considerably less.[109] A significant
barrier to surface energy harvesting is the interference of
• Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh its equipment to fishing and other sea bound vessels, par-
ticularly in unsettled weather. India built its first seas sur-
• Surajkund in Jharkhand face energy harvesting technology demonstration plant in
Vizhinjam, near Thiruruvananthpuram.
• Chhumathang in Jammu & Kashmir The third approach to harvesting tidal energy consists of
ocean thermal energy technology. This approach tries to
India plans to set up its first geothermal power plant, with harvest the solar energy trapped in ocean waters into us-
2–5 MW capacity at Puga in Jammu and Kashmir.[108] able energy. Oceans have a thermal gradient, the sur-
 13

face being much warmer than deeper levels of ocean. See also: Availability based tariff
This thermal gradient may be harvested using modified
Rankine cycle. India’s National Institute of Ocean Tech- #
the ratio to be multiplied with transmission line capacity
nology (NIOT) attempted this approach over the last 20 (MVA) to give average installed length of transmission
years, but without success. In 2003, with Saga University line per one MVA of installed substation capacity at each
of Japan, NIOT attempted to build and deploy a 1 MW voltage level.
demonstration plant.[110] However, mechanical problems
prevented success. After initial tests near Kerala, the unit The spread of high voltage transmission lines is such that
was scheduled for redeployment and further development it can form a square matrix of area 416 km2 (i.e. on aver-
in the Lakshadweep Islands in 2005. The demonstration age, at least one HV line within 10.2 km distance/vicinity)
project’s experience have limited follow-on efforts with in entire area of the country. The length of high-voltage
ocean thermal energy technology in India. transmission lines is nearly equal to that of the USA
(322,000 km of 230 KV and above) but transmits far
less electricity.[113] The HV transmission lines (132 KV
and above) installed in the country is nearly 700,000 km
8 Electricity transmission and dis- (i.e. on average, at least one ≥132 KV transmission line
tribution within 4.5 km distance).[114] The length of transmission
lines (400 V and above and excluding 220 V lines) is
10,558,177 km as on 31 March 2015 in the country.[3]
The spread of total transmission lines (≥400 V) is such
that it can form a square matrix of area 36.8 km2 (i.e. on
average, at least one transmission line within 3 km dis-
tance) in entire area of the country.
The all-time maximum peak load is not exceeding
153,515 MW in the unified grid whereas the all-time peak
load met is 148,005 MW on 11 September 2015.[115] The
maximum achieved demand factor of substations is not
exceeding 60% at 200 kV level. The operational per-
formance of the huge capacity substations and the vast
network of high voltage transmission lines with low de-
Electricity transmission grid in eastern India.
mand factor is not satisfactory in meeting the peak elec-
tricity load.[116] Detailed forensic engineering studies are
to be undertaken and system inadequacies rectified to
evolve into smart grid for maximising utility of the exist-
ing transmission infrastructure with optimum future cap-
ital investments.[16]
The July 2012 blackout, affecting the north of the coun-
try, was the largest power grid failure in history by num-
ber of people affected. The introduction of Availability
Based Tariff (ABT) has brought about stability to a
great extent in the Indian transmission grids. However,
presently it is becoming outdated in a power surplus grid.
India’s Aggregate Transmission and Commercial (ATC)
losses is 27% in 2011-12.[117][118] Whereas the total
ATC loss was only 9.43% out of the 4113 billion kWh
electricity supplied in USA during the year 2013. The
Government has pegged the national ATC losses at
around 24% for the year 2011 & has set a target of reduc-
ing them to 17.1% by 2017 & to 14.1% by 2022. A high
proportion of non-technical losses are caused by illegal
tapping of lines, and faulty electric meters that underesti-
mate actual consumption also contribute to reduced pay-
ment collection. A case study in Kerala estimated that
replacing faulty meters could reduce distribution losses
from 34% to 29%.[19]

A tower supporting 220 kV line near Ennore, Chennai

14 9 PROBLEMS WITH INDIA’S POWER SECTOR

9 Problems with India’s power sec- state governments.[126] This situation has been wors-
ened by state government departments that do not
tor pay their electricity bills.

India’s electricity sector faces many issues. Some • Name plate/declared capacity of the many coal
are:[25][43][119][120] fired plants owned by IPPs are overrated above the
actual maximum continuous rating (MCR) capacity.
• Inadequate last mile connectivity is the main These plants operate 15 to 10% below their declared
problem to supply electricity for all users. The coun- capacity on daily basis and operate rarely at declared
try already has adequate generation and transmission capacity. Thus these units are not effectively con-
capacity to meet the full demand temporally and tributing to the on line spinning reserves to maintain
spatially.[3] However, due to lack of last-mile link- power system / grid stabilisation.This is also due to
up with all electricity consumers and reliable power reason that point of connection charges are levied
supply (to exceed 99%), many consumers depend in India based on energy exported instead of MCR
on DG sets using costly diesel oil for meeting un- capacity as applicable for national grid in UK.
avoidable power requirements.[16] The distribution
companies should focus on providing uninterrupted • Intra day load and demand graphs are not made
power supply to all the consumers who are using in India at every 15 minutes or less intervals to
costly DG set’s power. This should be achieved by understand power grid nature and its short com-
laying separate buried power cables (not to be ef- ings with respect to grid frequency. These graphs
fected by rain and winds) for emergency power sup- should be plotted with comprehensive data collected
ply in addition to the normal supply lines. Emer- from SCADA / on line for all grid connected gen-
gency supply power line shall supply power when erating stations (≥ 100 KW) and load data from
the normal power supply line is not working. Emer- all substations to impart authenticity to the data
gency power supply would be charged at higher price presented.[127] Comprehensive list of grid connected
without any subsidy but less than the generation cost power stations along with declared capacity shall
from diesel oil. Nearly 80 billion KWh electricity is be prepared by CEA/POSOCO for all types of
generated annually in India by DG sets which are power plants (including wind, solar, biomass, co-
consuming nearly 15 million tons of diesel oil. generation, etc.) and update the data on weekly ba-
sis.
• Demand build up measures can be initiated to
consume the cheaper electricity (average price Rs • Shortages of fuel: Despite abundant reserves of
2.5 per kWhr at generator’s supply point) available coal, India is facing a severe shortage of coal. The
from the grid instead of running the coal/gas/oil country isn't producing enough to feed its power
fired captive power plants in various electricity in- plants. Some plants do not have reserve coal sup-
tensive industries.[121] The captive power genera- plies to last a day of operations. India’s monopoly
tion capacity by coal/gas/oil fired plants is nearly coal producer, state-controlled Coal India, is con-
47,000 MW mainly established in steel, fertiliser, strained by primitive mining techniques and is rife
aluminium, cement, etc. industries.[3] These bulk with theft and corruption; Coal India has consis-
captive electricity producers can draw cheaper tently missed production targets and growth tar-
electricity from the grid on short term open ac- gets. Poor coal transport infrastructure has wors-
cess (STOA) basis and avoid the costly imported ened these problems. To expand its coal production
coal/RLNG/natural gas or utilise these fuels for pro- capacity, Coal India needs to mine new deposits.
cess purposes instead of electricity generation.[122] However, most of India’s coal lies under protected
Some of these idling captive power plants can forests or designated tribal lands. Any mining ac-
be used for grid reserve service for earning extra tivity or land acquisition for infrastructure in these
revenue.[123] coal-rich areas of India, has been rife with politi-
cal demonstrations, social activism and public in-
• A system of cross-subsidization is practised based terest litigations. By the end of year 2015, the in-
on the principle of 'the consumer’s ability to pay'. ternational coal prices have dropped to US$ 42.55
In general, the industrial and commercial con- per ton which is below the local coal producers sale
sumers subsidize the domestic and agricultural price. This situation is transforming coastal power
consumers.[124][125] Further, Government giveaways station’s generation cheaper than pit head power sta-
such as free electricity for farmers, partly to curry tion’s generation when electricity is made available
political favour, have depleted the cash reserves of to major load centres.[128]
state-run electricity-distribution system. This has fi-
nancially crippled the distribution network, and its • Poor pipeline connectivity and infrastructure to
ability to pay for purchasing power to meet the de- harness India’s abundant coal bed methane and shale
mand in the absence of subsidy reimbursement from gas potential. The giant new offshore natural gas
 15

field has delivered far less gas than claimed causing 10 Resource potential in electricity
shortage of natural gas.
sector
• Average transmission, distribution and
consumer-level losses exceeding 30% which According to Oil and Gas Journal, India had approxi-
includes auxiliary power consumption of thermal mately 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas
power stations, fictitious electricity generation by reserves as of January 2011, world’s 26th largest. United
wind generators & independent power producers States Energy Information Administration estimates that
(IPPs), etc. India produced approximately 1.8 Tcf of natural gas in
2010, while consuming roughly 2.3 Tcf of natural gas.
• The residential building sector is one of the largest The electrical power and fertiliser sectors account for
consumers of electricity in India. Continuous ur- nearly three-quarters of natural gas consumption in In-
banisation and the growth of population result in dia. Natural gas is expected to be an increasingly im-
increasing power consumption in buildings. Thus, portant component of energy consumption as the country
while experts express the huge potential for en- pursues energy resource diversification and overall energy
ergy conservations in this sector, the belief still pre-security.[131][132]
dominates among stakeholders that energy-efficient
buildings are more expensive than conventional Until 2008, the majority of India’s natural gas produc-
buildings, which adversely affects the “greening” of tion came from the Mumbai High complex in the north-
the building sector.[129] west part of the country. Recent discoveries in the Bay of
Bengal have shifted the centre of gravity of Indian natural
• Key implementation challenges for India’s elec- gas production.
tricity sector include new project management and The country already produces some coalbed methane and
execution, ensuring availability of fuel quantities has major potential to expand this source of cleaner fuel.
and qualities, lack of initiative to develop large coal According to a 2011 Oil and Gas Journal report, India is
and natural gas resources available in India, land ac- estimated to have between 600 to 2000 Tcf of shale gas
quisition, environmental clearances at state and cen- resources (one of the world’s largest). Despite its natural
tral government level, and training of skilled man- resource potential, and an opportunity to create energy in-
power to prevent talent shortages for operating latest dustry jobs, India has yet to hold a licensing round for its
technology plants.[130] shale gas blocks. It is not even mentioned in India’s cen-
tral government energy infrastructure or electricity gen-
• Hydroelectric power projects in India’s mountain- eration plan documents through 2025. The traditional
ous north and north east regions have been slowed natural gas reserves too have been very slow to develop
down by ecological, environmental and rehabilita- in India because regulatory burdens and bureaucratic red
tion controversies, coupled with public interest liti- tape severely limit the country’s ability to harness its nat-
gations. ural gas resources.[43][70][133]
• Theft of power

• Losses in the connector systems/service connec- 11 Electricity trading with neigh-

tions leading to premature failure of capital equip-
ments like transformers bour countries
• India’s nuclear power generation potential has Despite low electricity per capita consumption in India,
been stymied by political activism since the the country is going to achieve surplus electricity gener-
Fukushima disaster in Japan. ation during the 12th plan (2012 to 2017) period pro-
vided its coal production and transport infrastructure is
• Over 300 million (300 million) people in India have
developed adequately.[134][135][136] India has been export-
no access to electricity. Of those who do, almost
ing electricity to Bangladesh and Nepal and importing
all find electricity supply intermittent and unreliable.
excess electricity in Bhutan.[137][138] Surplus electricity
• Lack of clean and reliable energy sources such can be exported to the neighbouring countries in return
as electricity is, in part, causing about 800 million for natural gas supplies from Pakistan, Bangladesh and
(800 million) people in India to continue using tra- Myanmar.
ditional biomass energy sources – namely fuel wood, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan are producing sub-
agricultural waste and livestock dung – for cooking stantial natural gas and using for electricity genera-
and other domestic needs.[21] Traditional fuel com- tion purpose. Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan pro-
bustion is the primary source of indoor air pollution duce 55 million cubic metres per day (mcmd), 9 mcmd
in India, causes between 300,000 to 400,000 deaths and 118 mcmd out of which 20 mcmd, 1.4 mcmd
per year and other chronic health issues. and 34 mcmd are consumed for electricity generation
16 14 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

respectively.[139][140] Whereas the natural gas production of LPG and kerosene in household cooking, would re-
in India is not even adequate to meet its non-electricity duce the government subsidies and idle capacity of ther-
requirements. mal power stations can be put to use economically. The
Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan have proven reserves domestic consumers who are willing to surrender the sub-
of 184 billion cubic metres (bcm), 283 bcm and 754 sidised LPG/kerosene permits or eligible for subsidised
bcm respectively. There is ample opportunity for mu- LPG/kerosene permits, may be given free electricity con-
tually beneficial trading in energy resources with these nection and subsidised electricity tariff.
countries.[141] India can supply its surplus electricity to During the year 2014, IPPs are offering to sell solar
Pakistan and Bangladesh in return for the natural gas im- power below 5.50 Rs/Kwh to feed into the high voltage
ports by gas pipe lines. Similarly India can develop on grid.[144][145] This price is close to affordable electricity
BOOT basis hydro power projects in Bhutan, Nepal and tariff for the solar power to replace LPG and Kerosene
Myanmar. India can also enter into long term power pur- use (after including subsidy on LPG & Kerosene) in do-
chase agreements with China for developing the hydro mestic sector.
power potential in Brahmaputra river basin of Tibet re-
gion. India can also supply its surplus electricity to Sri
Lanka by undersea cable link. There is ample trading syn- 13 Electricity driven vehicles
ergy for India with its neighbouring countries in securing
its energy requirements.
The retail prices of petrol and diesel are high in India
to make electricity driven vehicles more economical as
more and more electricity is generated from solar en-
12 Electricity as substitute to im- ergy in near future without appreciable environmental
ported LPG and kerosene effects. The retail price of diesel is 53.00 Rs/litre in
the year 2012-13. The affordable electricity retail price
(860 Kcal/Kwh at 75% input electricity to shaft power
The net import of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is 6.093 efficiency) to replace diesel (lower heating value 8572
million tons and the domestic consumption is 13.568 mil- Kcal/litre at 40% fuel energy to crank shaft power ef-
lion tons with Rs. 41,546 crores subsidy to the domes- ficiency) is 9.97 Rs/Kwh. The retail price of petrol is
tic consumers in the year 2012-13.[142] The LPG import 75.00 Rs/litre in the year 2012-13. The affordable elec-
content is nearly 40% of total consumption in India. The tricity retail price (860 Kcal/Kwh at 75% input electricity
affordable electricity retail tariff (860 Kcal/Kwh at 90% to shaft power efficiency) to replace petrol (lower heating
heating efficiency) to replace LPG (lower heating value value 7693 Kcal/litre at 33% fuel energy to crank shaft
11,000 Kcal/Kg at 75% heating efficiency) in domestic power efficiency) is 19.06 Rs/Kwh. In the year 2012-13,
cooking is 6.47 Rs/Kwh when the retail price of LPG India consumed 15.744 million tons petrol and 69.179
cylinder is Rs 1000 (without subsidy) with 14.2 kg LPG millon tons diesel which are mainly produced from im-
content. Replacing LPG consumption with electricity re- ported crude oil at huge foreign exchange out go.[142]
duces its imports substantially.
V2G is also feasible with electricity driven vehicles to
The domestic consumption of kerosene is 7.349 mil- contribute for catering to the peak load in the electric-
lion tons with Rs. 30,151 crores subsidy to the domes- ity grid. Electricity driven vehicles would become pop-
tic consumers in the year 2012-13. The subsidised re- ular in future when its energy storage/battery technology
tail price of kerosene is 13.69 Rs/litre whereas the ex- becomes more long lasting and maintenance free.
port/import price is 48.00 Rs/litre. The affordable elec-
tricity retail tariff (860 Kcal/Kwh at 90% heating effi-
ciency) to replace kerosene (lower heating value 8240
Kcal/litre at 75% heating efficiency) in domestic cooking 14 Human resource development
is 6.00 Rs/Kwh when Kerosene retail price is 48 Rs/litre
(without subsidy). Rapid growth of electricity sector in India demands that
In the year 2014-15, the plant load factor (PLF) of coal- talent and trained personnel become available as India’s
fired thermal power stations is only 64.46% whereas these new installed capacity adds new jobs. India has initi-
stations can run above 85% PLF comfortably provided ated the process to rapidly expand energy education in
there is adequate electricity demand in the country.[143] the country, to enable the existing educational institutions
The additional electricity generation at 85% PLF is nearly to introduce courses related to energy capacity addition,
240 billion units which is adequate to replace all the LPG production, operations and maintenance, in their regular
and kerosene consumption in domestic sector. The in- curriculum. This initiative includes conventional and re-
cremental cost of generating additional electricity is only newal energy.
their coal fuel cost which is less than 3 Rs/Kwh. Enhanc- A Ministry of Renewal and New Energy announcement
ing the PLF of coal-fired stations and encouraging domes- claims State Renewable Energy Agencies are being sup-
tic electricity consumers to substitute electricity in place ported to organise short-term training programmes for
15.3 Funding of power infrastructure 17

installation, operation and maintenance and repair of re- in India’s electricity sector. Examples of state corpora-
newable energy systems in such places where intensive tions include Telangana Power Generation Corporation,
RE programme are being implemented. Renewable En- Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited,
ergy Chairs have been established in IIT Roorkee and IIT Assam Power Generation Corporation Limited, Tamil
Kharagpur.[82] Nadu Electricity Board, Maharashtra State Electricity
Education and availability of skilled workers is expected Board, Kerala State Electricity Board, and Gujarat Urja
to be a key challenge in India’s effort to rapidly expand its Vikas Nigam Limited.
electricity sector.
15.3 Funding of power infrastructure
15 Regulation and administration India’s Ministry of Power administers Rural Electrifica-
tion Corporation Limited and Power Finance Corpora-
The Ministry of Power is India’s apex central govern- tion Limited. These central government owned public
ment body regulating the electrical energy sector in In- sector enterprises provide loans and guarantees for pub-
dia. This ministry was created on 2 July 1992. It is re- lic and private electricity sector infrastructure projects in
sponsible for planning, policy formulation, processing of India.
projects for investment decisions, monitoring project im-
plementation, training and manpower development, and
the administration and enactment of legislation in regard 15.4 Budgetary support
to thermal, hydro power generation, transmission and dis-
tribution. It is also responsible for the administration of After the enactment of Electricity Act 2003 budgetary
India’s Electricity Act (2003), the Energy Conservation support to power sector is negligible.[149] State Electricity
Act (2001) and to undertake such amendments to these Boards get initial financial help from Central Government
Acts, as and when necessary, in conformity with the In- in the event of their unbundling.
dian government’s policy objectives.[146]
Electricity is a concurrent list subject at Entry 38 in List
III of the seventh Schedule of the Constitution of In- 16 See also
dia. In India’s federal governance structure, this means
that both the central government and India’s state gov-
ernments are involved in establishing policy and laws for
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18 External links
• Indianpowersector.com - Latest news about Indian
Power Sector at one place
• National electricity Plan - 2012, CEA, GoI

• Electricity grid maps of southern region

• Macro Patterns in the Use of Traditional Biomass
Fuels – A Stanford/TERI report on energy sector
and human history

• India’s Energy Policy and Electricity Production

• Electricity industry in Public Sector in India - Dr. M
Sarngadharan and Dr. D. Shina Radhakrishnan
• - How to find out power thefts or meter tampering
22 19 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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