Urban Agriculture’s

Potential to
Advance Multiple
Sustainability Goals
An International Resource Panel Think Piece
© 2022 United Nations Environment Programme
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals - An International Resource Panel Think Piece
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Environment Programme, P. O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100, Ramaswami (IRP member, Princeton University, USA),
Kenya. Izabella Teixeira (IRP co-chair, Brazil)
Contributing Authors: Wisdom Akpalu (Ghana Institute
Disclaimers
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Das (Princeton University, USA), Emily Eckart (Princeton
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Suggested citation: International Resource Panel (2021).

Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability
Goals: An International Resource Panel Think Piece. Ayuk, E.T.,
Ramaswami, A., Teixeira, I., Akpalu, W., Eckart, E., Ferreira, J.,
Kirti, D., and de Souza Leao, V. A think piece of the International
Resource Panel. Nairobi: United Nations Environment
Programme.
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

Preface

By 2050, 70 per cent of the world’s population will live in urban areas, and 80 per cent of food globally is
expected to be consumed in cities. Thus, one of the biggest challenges we face as a society is: How do
we feed the world’s growing cities, while at the same time attending to the various social, economic, and
environmental needs and aspirations of cities.

In recent years, urban agriculture has been identified as a solution to advance multiple sustainability goals,
such as food security, climate and ecosystem resilience, health and well-being, job creation and social
equity. However, the effectiveness of urban agriculture, as well as the policy action needed to tap into its
potential, are not well understood.

Since 2007, the International Resource Panel has provided more than 40 impactful scientific assessments
on the status, dynamics and implications of natural resource use in cities and in food systems. In this Think
Piece, we evaluate to what extent, and in which conditions, urban agriculture can enhance the sustainability
of urban-rural food systems and promote a circular economy in cities.

The Think Piece provides an overview of different urban agriculture typologies, ranging from household
backyard gardens to community allotment gardens, from rooftop greenhouses to high-tech vertical
farming. With a systems lens, it analyses the natural resource use implications of urban agriculture in its
various forms and assesses its benefits and trade-offs across multiple sustainability goals, acknowledging
distinct regional specificities.

We note that urban agriculture is not a panacea. In realizing its multiple benefits, the objective of urban
agriculture needs to be clearly defined in the policy process, with due consideration of local context.

The Think Piece is accompanied by a policy guidance document that presents a road map for designing
“fit-for-purpose” urban agriculture policies, taking into account the interaction between urban and rural
systems. We call for action from both the agriculture sector and the urban planning sector to realize the
untapped potential of urban agriculture in advancing the Sustainable Development Goals of Agenda 2030.

Izabella Teixeira Janez Potočnik

IRP Co-Chair IRP Co-Chair

3
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

List of Tables
Table 1 Typologies of urban agriculture across the globe, by region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Table 2 Types of urban agriculture, technology adoption and user types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Table 3 Agriculture systems in urban agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Table 4 Benefits and trade-offs of urban agriculture typologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Table 5 Examples of existing policies to support urban agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

List of Figures
Figure 1 Relation between resource use, environmental impacts and food system activities. . . . . 11

Figure 2 Circular urban agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

List of Boxes
Box 1 Organic waste as compost for urban agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Box 2 Reusing wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Box 3 Urban agriculture in Accra, Ghana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Box 4 Allotment gardens and their ability to feed urban populations: Leicester, United Kingdom . . . . . 28

Box 5 High-tech commercial vertical farming: The case of AeroFarms, United States . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Box 6 Manguinhos Community Garden, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Box 7 Food labs and systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Box 8 Connect the Dots Project and Sampa+Rural Seal: São Paulo, Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Box 9 Online Vegetable Gardens, Peru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Annex: Definitions of Urban Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . 56

About the International Resource Panel. . . . . . . . . .58

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 Urban Agriculture’s
Potential to
Advance Multiple
Sustainability Goals

Table of Contents
Key Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1 Introduction:
Feeding the World’s
Bulging Cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Policies to Support
Urban Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1 Types of policies for urban agriculture. . . . 36

3.2 Governance of urban agriculture . . . . . . . . 41

2 Urban Agriculture
and the Sustainable
Development Goals. . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Urban agriculture and multi-stakeholder
governance mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4
2.1 Role of urban agriculture in the transition
towards a circular economy . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Conclusions,
Recommendations
2.2 Urban agriculture and climate change. . . . 17
and Further
2.3 Urban agriculture and biodiversity. . . . . . . 18 Research Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4 Urban agriculture and other SDGs. . . . . . . 19 4.1 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5 Urban agriculture and health. . . . . . . . . . . . 21 4.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6 Challenges and business models to 4.3 Knowledge gaps and further
enhance the transition to circular research needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
urban agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.7 Urban agriculture typologies around

the globe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.8 Benefits of urban agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5
 Key messages
Key Message 1: As environmental challenges grow and the COVID-19 pandemic
highlights the fragility of food systems, one of the biggest challenges facing the world
is feeding growing urban populations while attending to the social, economic, and
environmental needs and aspirations of cities.

Key Message 2: Done well, urban agriculture can help feed people in cities and alleviate
the triple planetary crises of climate change, nature and biodiversity loss, and pollution
and waste. For example, hydroponic closed-loop systems can save 40 per cent of
irrigation water and 35-54 per cent of nutrients.

Key Message 3: Despite the opportunities, we do not fully understand the effectiveness
of urban agriculture and the policy actions needed to tap its potential. Local contexts
and uncertainties need to be clarified, while diverse forms of urban agriculture must be
integrated into a portfolio of approaches that cover land-based and vertical farming,
poultry and fish farming, and high-tech indoor techniques.

Key Message 4: While there are trade-offs, a portfolio of urban agriculture policies
integrated within a larger regional agricultural system can support the transition to a more
resilient and sustainable food system while improving the circular economy of cities.

6
Key Message 5: When designed to support poor communities – in particular,
households led by women – urban agriculture can reduce poverty, improve nutrition,
reduce inequities, increase well-being and generate livelihoods. For example, a study in
São Paulo, Brazil showed that enhanced urban agriculture could supply all 21 million
residents of the city with vegetables while creating more than 180,000 jobs.

Key Message 6: When designed to develop a local food economy, high-tech indoor
agriculture and local food hubs may play an important role. For example, vertical
farming is expected to reach a value of $7.3 billion globally by 2025. However, when
looking at the scalability of business models, decision makers should consider
impacts on energy, land, labour, and water, and the effects of pollution on food quality
and safety.

Key Message 7: Due to the proximity to consumers, diversified and coordinated urban-
regional agriculture can promote resilience to food system disruptions, such as those
caused by COVID-19.

Key Message 8: Urban agriculture’s contribution to reducing environmental impacts

from food systems depends on business models and local contexts. Cities must gather
data that are more locally and context-specific to measure the environmental impacts
of different modes of urban agriculture and policies designed to address them.

Key Message 9: Institutional, governance, behavioural and technical barriers need to

be addressed to make urban agriculture part of a sustainable food systems portfolio.
Proper attention must be given to land-use planning, urban-regional policy directives,
and the cost of land and energy.

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Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

1. Introduction:
Feeding the World’s Bulging Cities

The world population is projected to reach This Think Piece applies a systems approach to
9.7 billion by 2050, with an estimated 70 per cent of assess the contribution of urban agriculture to
the population living in urban areas (United Nations achieving the Sustainable Development Goals
[UN] 2015; UN 2019). Most of this growth (90 per (SDGs). In line with the mandate of the International
cent) is expected to occur in Africa and Asia (UN Resource Panel (IRP), it assesses the implications
2020a; Trottet et al. 2021). Currently, around 55 that using different urban agriculture typologies has
per cent of the population lives in cities. As this for natural resources and related environmental
trend continues, an estimated 80 per cent of food impacts. It explores urban agriculture’s contributions to
will be consumed in urban areas by 2050 (Veolia job creation, food security and nutrition. Specifically,
Institute 2019; Food and Agriculture Organization it highlights the contributions of urban agriculture to
of the United Nations [FAO] 2021). Feeding the circularity, climate change, biodiversity loss and the
world’s cities means that food production systems SDGs; synthesizes the approaches to and benefits of
will have to change in significant ways, including by urban agriculture worldwide; and identifies challenges
bringing food production closer to urban areas. for transitioning to a circular urban agriculture.4

Urban agriculture has been advocated worldwide as Definitions of urban agriculture vary widely (see
a strategy to provide food and many other benefits Annex), with some mentioning intra-city and peri-
to city dwellers, especially as the planet faces the urban agriculture and others referring generally
triple crises of climate change, biodiversity loss and to agriculture around cities, without specifying
pollution. This Think Piece explores the potential boundaries or distances. Meanwhile, separate
of urban agriculture to address these challenges. terms for regional and local agriculture refer to
Specifically, how can urban agriculture be a nature- farms at much greater distances from cities. In this
based solution1 to support the transition to a more Think Piece, the term “urban agriculture” includes
resilient and sustainable food system? What is its
2
peri-urban agriculture. It is based on the definition
potential to improve the circular economy3 in cities? in FAO (2019), which highlights the growing of
plants and the raising of animals within and around
cities. The emphasis is on urban agriculture for
food production and consumption.

1 Nature-based solutions are actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address societal challenges
effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits (UNEP 2021a).
2 The food system relates to all the “food system activities (growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consuming, and
disposing of food and food-related items) and to the outcomes of these activities, not only for food security and other socioeconomic issues, but
also for the environment” (UNEP 2016).
3 A circular economy is one in which the value of products, materials and resources is maintained for as long as possible, and the generation of
waste is minimized (https://www.resourcepanel.org/glossary).
4 In circular urban agriculture, the use of all by-products and waste streams along the whole food supply chain is recirculated and waste and inputs
collide, limiting the use and exhaustion of resources such as soil, energy and water (D’Ostuni and Zaffi 2021).

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 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

A review of 100 cities by the Intergovernmental growth), financial resources, and access to unused
Panel on Climate Change (2019) found that urban resources such as vacant spaces, roofs, waste
food consumption is one of the largest sources of heat, organic waste and run-off water. The capacity
material flows and carbon footprints in cities. In a to recover and reuse these resources makes urban
2016 report, the IRP suggested four key actions agriculture an important element of a circular
to decrease pressures and impacts on natural economy (Veolia Institute 2019).
resources, one of which is to test innovative ideas
Urban agriculture initiatives and policies are seen as
in cities (United Nations Environment Programme
an emerging solution to the need to find alternative
[UNEP] 2016). Urban agriculture can be part of
ways to grow food and feed cities. If done right,
a broader strategy towards a circular economy,
urban agriculture can benefit multiple sustainability
especially if allied with food waste management
outcomes, close the loops of nutrient cycles and
and shifts towards healthy, sustainable diets. Here,
build a resilient food system (Ellen MacArthur 2019;
the aim is not to propose urban agriculture as the
Veolia Institute 2019; Kihara and Nzuki 2020). Urban
solution to agricultural sustainability, but to analyse
agriculture also provides job opportunities and can
its potential contributions to promoting sustainable
support greater community development as well as
urban food systems.
social integration of disadvantaged groups (e.g., the
Most cities depend on conventional industrial unemployed and women) into economic activities
agriculture and global value chains, which degrade (Wuppertal Institute, UN-Habitat and UNEP 2019).
soils and require large amounts of water (Wuppertal
Despite the many benefits of urban agriculture,
Institute, UN-Habitat and UNEP 2019). Consolidation
possible trade-offs exist. Urban agriculture
in the retail sector increases the power imbalances
competes with other, more profitable, options
of food systems (UNEP 2016), and greater urban-
for the city, such as parking lots and buildings. In
rural divides and food transport distances favour
addition, water quality and air pollution concerns
unsustainable diets (IPCC 2019). Climate change,
can greatly affect food quality and safety. Moreover,
socioeconomic shocks and urban encroachment
the extent to which urban agriculture can, for
put the urban poor at higher risk of vulnerability
example, address biodiversity loss or reduce the
(Dubbeling, van Veenhuizen and Halliday 2019). The
local carbon footprint (e.g., by serving as carbon
COVID-19 pandemic has aggravated urban food
sinks) could be limited depending on the food
insecurity, affected livelihoods and food prices, and
production system used. Overall, information and
increased the urban waste burden (Kihara and Nzuki
data are lacking on the environmental impacts of
2020; Lal 2020).
the different typologies of urban agriculture across
Cities offer several favourable conditions for the globe. In any case, urban agriculture should aim
urban agriculture. These include high levels of to maximize synergies and reduce trade-offs.
carbon dioxide concentration (which speeds plant

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Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

Realizing the frontier of urban agriculture in

improving health and environmental outcomes is
limited. Urban agriculture has both environmental
benefits and disbenefits; very few studies explore
whether the practice is resource efficient (Santo,
Palmer and Kim 2016). Where it can play a role in
resource circularity (by using nutrients from food
waste), studies suggest that much more land will
be needed than is available in cities (Miller-Robbie,
Ramaswami and Amerasinghe 2017). Data and case
studies show that the benefits of urban agriculture
may only serve niche purposes in cities. Its potential
benefits are likely not universal but will be context-
dependent and specific to addressing the needs
of underserved populations, providing recreational
benefits and providing opportunities for high-tech
production of niche items such as herbs, helping to
complement the diet.

This Think Piece looks at urban agriculture from a

food systems perspective. As shown in Figure 1,
urban agriculture interacts with the natural resource
base in different ways during the processes of
growing plants and raising animals in and around
cities. The outcomes of urban agriculture have direct
consequences on environmental and social factors
and on food security. These consequences vary by
urban agriculture typology and are context specific.

5 Keeping resource materials at the highest possible value along the entire value chain (UNEP 2016).

10
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

Figure 1: Relation between resource use, environmental impacts and food system activities

Major food system activities and their outcomes

Natural resources Food system “activities“

• Land, landscape and soils • Producing food
• Ocean and coastal zones • Processing and packaging food
• Fresh water • Distributing and retailing food
• Nutrients • Consuming food
• Biodiversity
• Genetic resources Socio-
economic
driver

Food system outcomes contributing to:

Environmental factors Food security Societal factors
• Land use • Food utilization • Income
• Water use Nutritional value; • Employment
• Biodiversity loss Social value; Food safety • Wealth
• Soil degradation • Food access • Health
Affordability, allocation,
• Greenhouse gas • Social capital
preference
emissions • Political capital
• Food availability
• Pollution Production, distribution,
exchange

Source: UNEP 2016

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Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

Table 1 illustrates the wide diversity of urban agriculture typologies across the globe. It highlights three
features of urban agriculture – market engagement (for sale or not for sale), ownership (private or public)
and location (indoor or outdoor) – as well as the types of technologies used for indoor urban agriculture.

Table 1: Typologies of urban agriculture across the globe, by region

Region Market Engagement Ownership

For Sale Not for Sale Private Semi-public and

Public

United States Commercial food Household gardens; Household gardens; Community gardens
production farms*; community gardens commercial farms and greenhouses**
community-
supported agriculture

Europe Onsite services Household gardens; Household gardens; Community/

farms; commercial community/allotment commercial farms allotment gardens
food production gardens***** and greenhouses
farms; community-
supported agriculture

Asia Commercial Household gardens; Household gardens; Community/allotment

farms; informal/ community/allotment commercial farms gardens; informal/
unauthorized urban gardens; informal/ unauthorized urban
and peri-urban unauthorized urban and peri-urban
agriculture and peri-urban agriculture on public
agriculture land

Africa Small-scale Household gardens; Household gardens; Informal and

commercial and small-scale commercial and unauthorized public
semi-commercial subsistence farming semi-commercial spaces in urban and
farming in urban and in urban and peri- farms peri-urban areas
peri-urban areas urban areas

Latin America Commercial Household gardens; Household gardens; Community/

food production community commercial farms allotment gardens
farms; small-scale gardens; small-scale and greenhouses
commercial farming subsistence farming
in urban areas; small- in urban and peri-
and medium-scale in urban areas
peri-urban areas

* A farm run for commercial purposes as opposed to for home consumption.

** A structure with its walls and roof made mostly of transparent material, such as glass, in which plants that require
regulated climatic conditions are grown.
*** Modification of the natural environment to increase yield and/or extend the growing season (Merle 2002).

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 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

Indoor or Outdoor Indoor Source Region

Technologies
Indoor Outdoor

Indoor household Outdoor household Controlled- McClintock 2014; United States

gardens; commercial gardens; commercial environment Mok et al. 2014;
greenhouses; vertical farms; community farming***; vertical Ramaswami et al.
farms gardens farming**** 2021

Indoor household Outdoor household Controlled- de Vries and Fleuren Europe

gardens; commercial gardens; commercial environment farming; eds. 2015; Lohrberg
greenhouses; vertical farms; community/ vertical farming; et al. eds. 2016;
farms allotment gardens underground farming McEldowney 2017;
Skar et al. 2019;
Nicholls et al. 2020;
Broom 2021

Indoor household Outdoor household Controlled- National Academy of Asia

gardens (mainly gardens (mainly environment farming; Agricultural Sciences
container and rooftop); commercial vertical farming 2013; World Bank
balcony); commercial farms; community/ (mainly in developed 2013; Hamilton et al.
greenhouses; allotment Asian countries) 2014; Sahasranaman
vertical farms gardens; informal/ 2016; Nandwani and
unauthorized urban Akaeze 2020; Harada
and peri-urban et al. 2021
agriculture

Indoor (animal Outdoor household Not applicable Orsini et al. 2013; Africa
husbandry) gardens; commercial World Bank 2013;
and semi-commercial Magnusson and
farms cultivating Bergman eds. 2014
crops and raising
livestock

Indoor household Outdoor household Vertical farming (few Monteiro and Latin America
gardens; vertical gardens; commercial experiences in Brazil) Monteiro 2006;
farms farms; community/ Lattuca 2011; Maciel
allotment gardens et al. 2018; Feola et
al. 2020; Instituto
Escolhas and URBEM
2020

**** The practice of growing plants and crops in vertically stacked layers (Birkby 2016).
***** A community garden (US) or allotment garden (UK) is a plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial
gardening or growing food plants.

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Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

2. Urban Agriculture and the

Sustainable Development Goals

Urban agriculture encompasses several of the 2.1 Role of urban agriculture

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals in the transition towards
(SDGs), such as eradicating poverty, ending hunger, a circular economy
achieving gender equality, contributing to well-
Geissdoerfer et al. (2017) define a circular economy
being, promoting sustainable cities and supporting
as “a regenerative system in which resource
ecosystem services. Numerous sources also point
input and waste, emission, and energy leakage
to urban agriculture’s potential to contribute to a
are minimized by slowing, closing, and narrowing
circular economy, where resources are circulated
energy and material loops”. Thus, circularity refers
and waste is minimized. However, challenges remain
to the economy running in cycles to conserve
to transitioning to circular urban agriculture, and the
resources and ensure sustainable development. In a
conditions required to adapt it to the urban context
circular economy, resources stay in the economy for
are little explored. Given the diversity of typologies
as long as possible. Circularity has gained currency
and contexts, it is crucial to equalize the possibilities
as an option that has to be intensified to ensure
and risks of urban agriculture to promote desirable
sustainable development.
policy guidelines and business models.
Within the context of urban agriculture, circularity
focuses on agricultural production and engagement
in related activities using minimal amounts
of external inputs, closing nutrient loops and
reducing negative discharges into the environment
(de Boer and van Ittersum 2018). Urban agriculture
is key for transitioning the global economy to
circularity because resources per person tend to
be lower in urban areas, while the generation of
potentially reusable waste tends to be larger. Thus,
both the demand for circularity and the supply of
inputs needed to develop circularity converge in
urban centres.

Food transported long distances to urban

centres often arrives in poor condition and with
degraded quality, especially when refrigeration
facilities are lacking. Urban agriculture means
producing and buying locally, which can potentially
diminish the environmental and climate impacts
of food distribution and transport. Reconnecting
consumers and farmers reshapes the traditional
supply chain, with the potential to reduce food

14
losses and greenhouse gas emissions. Connecting Biochar, created by burning biomass through
city dwellers with food production can also bring pyrolysis, has also shown promise in improving soil
greater transparency to the benefits and impacts of quality, sequestering carbon and reducing water
the production chain and subsidize better choices. pollution (Lehman 2007; Lehman and Joseph 2015;
Cornell University 2021). Production of biochar
Globally, around 71 per cent of municipal solid
using food waste, for example from large farms, has
waste ends up in landfills; this includes food
greater bioresource potential than composting and
waste, which represents roughly a third of all food
anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste, which
produced for human consumption (Zacarias-
also create nutrients but occur at a relatively small
Farah and Geyer-Allély 2003; FAO 2011a; UNEP
scale.
2021b). Advancements are paving the way to
use food waste to create circular food systems Figure 2 illustrates the concept of circular urban
in urban areas. Hydroponics and aquaponics 6
agriculture. The two-way linkages between soil-
– which contribute to waste reduction, nutrient based and soil-less cultivation and resource
recycling and water reuse – have gained traction recoveries highlight the principle of making
globally, although more research is required to maximum use of available resources.
determine their economic feasibility and large-
Economic circularity provides resilience to new risks
scale implementation (Love et al. 2015; Browning
(such as COVID-19) and supports the need for more
2018; Markets and Markets 2020).
efficient food production and distribution methods
In Europe, niche operations are using waste coffee in cities. Urban centres provide fertile test beds
grounds to grow mushrooms for local consumption for developing circularity-supporting techniques
(GroCycle 2021; Haagse 2021; PermaFungi 2021). such as vertical farming, hydroponics and rooftop

6 In hydroponics, plants and crops are grown without using soil, either in containers with nutrient solutions or where
the solution is circulated past the roots (https://www.livinggreenfarm.com). Aquaponics, which combines aquaculture
and hydroponic, is a system of aquaculture whereby the waste from farmed fish or other aquatic creatures supplies
the nutrients for the plants and crops grown.

15
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

Figure 2: Circular urban agriculture

Circular urban agriculture

Fresh resources input Mineral

Genetic
Soil
Water

Resource
recovery

Soil-less cultivation Soil-based cultivation

• Aquaponics • Raised beds
• Hydroponics • Tree trench
• Aeroponics • Gardening

Adapted from Deksissa et al. 2021.

greenhouses. Soil-less cultivation typologies such The economic literature on circularity has just
as hydroponics and integrated-rooftop gardens are emerged in the past few years (Lahane, Prajapati
being promoted as the best agriculture systems and Kant 2021). This is particularly true in the
that ensure circularity by closing nutrient loops and developing world where, although many activities
supporting regeneration of the environment (Putra are consistent with circularity principles, they
and Yuliando 2015). Compared with linear systems, are not formally documented. In general, making
hydroponic closed-loop systems can save 40 per the shift to circular behaviours might be more
cent of irrigation water and 35-54 per cent of nutrients “intuitive” in low- and middle-income economies,
daily (Rufí-Salís et al. 2020). Additionally, household requiring fewer behavioural changes as compared
organic waste can be composted to fertilize organic to richer countries, since a high share of economic
food production (Deelstra and Girardet 2000). The activity entails repairing items and recycling waste
reuse of nutrients from manure and waste is very (Marini 2021).
significant in many African countries (Magnusson
and Bergman eds. 2014) as well as in Latin America
(Box 1).

16
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

BOX 1:
Organic waste as compost for urban agriculture

A circular economy solution that urban agriculture

can provide for cities is the use of urban organic
waste as an input for food production. In São
Paulo, Brazil, a municipal programme to install five
composting yards has made it possible to process
waste into organic compost. In the first half of
2020, the yards received 7,100 tons of waste and
produced 1,400 tons of compost, which is offered
for free to urban farmers and residents (São Paulo
2021). A study in São Paulo showed that a typical
commercial composting unit could incorporate
31 tons of organic waste from markets and urban
pruning every three months, or 125 tons annually
(Instituto Escolhas 2021).

2.2 Urban agriculture Production and consumption of foods grown in

and climate change urban areas decrease the amount of energy used in
long-distance transport and in cooling and storage
Urbanization is closely linked to climate change.
(Lwasa et al. 2014). Mbow et al. (2019) found that
Greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, are
urban agriculture has a limited effect on mitigating
emitted at higher levels in urban areas due to the
climate change but has a high impact on adaptation.
burning of fossil fuels to support transport, industrial,
For urban agriculture to contribute more effectively
commercial and domestic activities (Dubbeling
to mitigation, it needs to become more resilient to
2014). The urban heat-island effect – the increase
climate change itself. Developing and adapting
in mean daily temperature in built-up areas owing
crop varieties to fight pests, drought and higher
to human activities and the reflection of heat by
temperatures must go together with integrating
buildings/pavements – will likely worsen as climate
urban forestry in architecture, to help moderate
change continues (Dubbeling and de Zeeuw 2011).
temperatures.
The literature identifies several pathways through
which urban agriculture mitigates the effects of
climate change. Enhancing green infrastructure
and vegetation cover through such systems can
reduce temperatures and provide storm attenuation
services (Xiao and McPherson 2002; Gill et al.
2007). At the garden level, vegetation can influence
the energy loads of buildings (Stewart 2011). In
Germany, urban allotment gardens have been
found to reduce heat and the use of air conditioning
(Drescher, Holmer and Iaquinta 2006). Urban
agriculture can also reduce the carbon footprints of
foods consumed in cities.

17
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

2.3 Urban agriculture Empirical research on how urban agriculture

and biodiversity interacts with biodiversity is limited, however.
Clucas, Parker and Feldpausch-Parker (2018) have
In some Latin American cities, peri-urban agriculture
noted that more studies are needed to sustain the
is connected to nearby forest areas that provide
claim that urban agriculture will have a positive
important ecosystem services, such as water
influence on biodiversity in cities. In a systematic
yield (Instituto Escolhas 2021). Urban agriculture
review of papers published on urban agriculture
can impede urban encroachment into forest areas
and biodiversity between 2000 and 2017, they
and provide an ecological corridor for fauna, thus
found that only 18 papers involved urban agriculture
helping to reduce biodiversity loss. Some local
and measured biodiversity; of the studies that did
governments have encouraged agriculture in peri-
measure biodiversity, some showed increases in
urban areas. For example, São Paulo, Brazil has
biodiversity compared to urban vacant lots, while
recognized the importance of urban agriculture in
others showed no difference.
its land-use planning. Rio Branco, in the Brazilian
Amazon, has implemented agroforestry systems Beyond providing beneficial ecosystem services,
on degraded pastures (Maciel et al. 2018). urban agriculture has the potential to produce some
disservices that must be managed properly to avoid
Other studies show urban agriculture’s contribution
damage to ecosystem functions and the health of
to maintaining agrobiodiversity. A survey of 25 urban
urban communities. Urban agricultural systems can
backyards in Santarém, in Brazil’s Amazon, identified
lead to biological invasions that could harm native
176 species (WinklerPrins and Oliveira 2010). Urban
species, to greater mosquito-borne disease because
agriculture is also associated with the conservation
of stagnant water from irrigation, and to spill-over
of pollinating insects (Zhao, Sander and Hendrix
of chemicals, leading to soil-, air- or water-based
2019).
ecological and health risks (Niinemets and Peñuelas
2008; Matthys et al. 2010).

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 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

2.4 Urban agriculture In developed countries, urban agriculture has not

and other SDGs always been about food security, but is increasingly
so (Bettencourt et al. 2007; Kortright and Wakefield
Urban agriculture can play a strategic role in
2011; Pfeiffer, Silva and Colquhoun 2015; Plumer
feeding cities because of its proximity to consumer
2016; Santo, Palmer and Kim 2016; Poulsen 2017).
centres. While it cannot solve the global demand
Interventions to improve nutrition via household
for food by itself, it can make a difference during
and community gardening (Algert et al. 2016;
times of disruption in urban supply (de Zeeuw,
Sickler 2018) were found to increase participants’
van Veenhuizen and Dubbeling 2011; Corrêa et al.
access to and consumption of fresh produce.
2020). Urban agriculture can also play a strategic
Urban agriculture has also supported food security
role in regions that have high social vulnerability,
in times of stress, such as during World War II
where fresh and healthy foods are lacking (Mougeot
(Andreatta 2015; Opitz et al. 2016; Edmondson et
ed. 2005; FAO 2014; McClintock 2014; Lopes, de
al. 2020) and the COVID-19 pandemic (Mui et al.
Menezes and de Araújo 2017; Rekow 2017).
2021).
In Latin America, some cities are betting on urban
When urban agriculture practices are designed
agriculture to promote food security. Teresina, in
to increase access to fresh and healthy food at
north-eastern Brazil, has implemented community
fair prices, they contribute directly to the capacity
gardens in vulnerable areas to facilitate access to
of cities to eliminate poverty and hunger, reduce
fresh foods and reduce food imports (Monteiro and
inequities, increase health and well-being, as well
Monteiro 2006; Gomes, Gomes and Souza 2019).
as generate decent work – a key theme of the
In Medellín, Colombia, the plan to promote food and
SDGs. A study of São Paulo, Brazil concluded
nutritional security includes actions to integrate
that enhanced urban agriculture has the potential
local producers into markets fairly and equitably
to supply all 21 million residents of the city with
(Dubbeling et al. 2017). In Asia, urban agriculture
vegetables while generating more than 180,000
has been found to contribute to food security by
jobs (Instituto Escolhas and URBEM 2020).
enabling poorer households to consume more
nutritious diets (Zezza and Tasciotti 2010).

In low-income developing countries, the role of

urban agriculture in providing food security is
critical for women (Maxwell 1995). Studies indicate
that in such countries, a higher share of women
than men are engaged in urban agriculture (to feed
their families and generate income) (Maxwell 1995;
Slater 2001; Hovorka et al. 2009; Hadebe and Mpofu
2013; Orsini et al. 2013; Poulsen et al. 2015). Urban
agriculture provides women with the opportunity
to contribute to household food security while
taking care of other domestic responsibilities, such
as caring for their children (Hovorka et al. 2009;
Orsini et al. 2013; Poulsen et al. 2015). Additionally,
experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic have
shown urban agriculture’s ability to respond to
stressful situations in the food system, either
through coordinated action across municipalities
(Friedmann 2020) or through civil society acting
alongside urban farmers (Instituto Escolhas and
URBEM 2020; Mees 2020).

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Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

If practiced sustainably and integrated into a During the COVID-19 pandemic, household
territory’s challenges, urban agriculture can be gardening has increased, especially in developed
a nature-based solution to address numerous countries (National Gardening Association
environmental concerns in cities. Changes in urban Research Division 2021). Some jurisdictions have
“grey” infrastructure can simultaneously mitigate also experimented with household delivery. For
and promote adaptation to the climate crisis (SDG example, the non-profit Food For Free and the City
13). Expanding green and sustainably cultivated of Cambridge, Massachusetts together initiated the
areas can mitigate the heat-island effect while COVID-19 Relief Delivery Program to provide food to
increasing the uptake of soil water and atmospheric people at high risk of food insecurity (Food For Free
carbon. Urban agriculture can also play a role in and City of Cambridge 2021).
flood mitigation. A study in São Paulo showed that
Research indicates that certain conditions must be
urban agriculture based on ecological practices
met to realize the long-term food security benefits
could prevent the erosion of 1 million tons of soil
of urban agriculture. Food must be supplied to
from riverbanks, reduce the average temperature by
the communities where it is grown, must be
0.1 degree Celsius and increase rainfall infiltration in
economically and physically accessible, and must
the soil (Instituto Escolhas 2021).
be culturally appropriate; urban agriculture also has
While urban agriculture can stimulate food security to be long-term, free from the uncertainties caused
for underserved populations, it cannot completely by politics, land-use pressures, zoning and sale
address food insecurity. This is because participation (Kortright and Wakefield 2011; Kato 2013; Pfeiffer,
in community agriculture is low compared with Silva and Colquhoun 2015; Santo, Palmer and
household gardening, which is typically dominated Kim 2016; Poulsen 2017). More context-sensitive
by wealthier, food-secure urban residents (National research is needed to determine how best to
Gardening Association Research Division 2021). address food insecurity (Poulsen et al. 2015).

20
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

2.5 Urban agriculture and fertilizer poisoning due to run-off or improper

and health disposal can affect urban farmers, consumers and
residents (Brown and Jameton 2000).
Studies across the globe point to potential health
benefits and risks from urban agriculture, including These hazards are more prominent in low-
for certain populations and by gender. Benefits income, minority communities, which are more
include improved mental health, increased physical susceptible to the health risks of urban agriculture
activity, consumption of fresher food, better (Lee and Mohai 2012). Cole et al. (2006) outlined
nutrition and dietary diversity, and improved food potential disbenefits from urban agriculture in Sub-
health literacy, although the magnitude of these Saharan Africa, including physical hazards (e.g.,
benefits varies by context (McCormack et al. 2010; repeated bending, noise from grinding), chemical
Zezza and Tasciotti 2010; Algert et al. 2016; Santo, hazards (e.g., upstream waste discharge, vehicle
Palmer and Kim 2016; Piorr et al. 2018; Sickler 2018; exhaust), biological hazards (e.g., direct livestock
Harada et al. 2021). Studies in the United States transmission, vector-borne pathogens) and
have highlighted the benefits of urban agriculture psychosocial hazards (e.g., long hours, fear of theft
for well-being, particularly for people who grow or assault).
their own food, for low-income groups, for women
These health risks may be further heightened
and for community gardeners (Ambrose et al. 2020;
for women in low-income developing countries,
Ambrose et al. 2021). A study from the US Twin
who often rely on urban agriculture as the sole
Cities area exploring the well-being implications
source of food and may be forced to grow food
of gardening found that low-income and female
on contaminated sites (e.g., waste dumps) using
gardeners are associated with higher emotional
contaminated water, due to a lack of access to
well-being (Ambrose et al. 2020).
arable land (Nabulo et al. 2004; Nabulo, Kiguli and
Audate et al. (2019) reviewed 101 articles on the Kiguli 2009). In Kampala, Uganda, women were
health benefits and impacts of urban agriculture, with found to be more vulnerable to health hazards
many of the studies focused on North America and because of the multiple roles they perform. For
Sub-Saharan Africa. Generally, the results revealed example, women and children who spend long hours
positive impacts on food security, nutrition, social selling food products by the road may be exposed to
capital, physical and mental health outcomes, and heavy metal pollutants (Nabulo et al. 2004).
well-being. The studies did not find clear evidence of
negative impacts of urban agriculture.

However, the promotion of urban agriculture must

consider local contexts and conditions to avoid
potential health disbenefits. For example, one
study found that using untreated or partially treated
wastewater for urban agriculture in Hyderabad,
India increased health risks as the produce, soil
and water become contaminated with pathogens
(Miller-Robbie, Ramaswami and Amerasinghe
2017). Studies in the United States point to similar
health risks for food grown in urban microclimates,
including contamination through soil, urban
waste, heavy metals, polluted water and the use
of brownfield sites (Kim et al. 2014). Exposure to
bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens could occur
through contact, inhalation and consumption
(Wortman and Lovell 2013). Additionally, pesticide

21
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

2.6 Challenges and business addition, urban agriculture faces challenges related
models to enhance the to the disproportionate institutional support by
transition to circular urban gender. A study in Khartoum State, Sudan found
agriculture that 94.3 per cent of women felt they lacked
institutional support, with only 5.7 per cent being

Challenges involved in women’s organizations (Daoud 2019, p.

Evidence indicates that cities are having difficulties 30).

transitioning to circular urban agriculture. Challenges In many developing regions, patterns of

include institutional barriers (such as a lack of production, distribution and marketing impede
defined property rights for biological materials), urban agriculture from effectively supporting the
governance issues related to managing bio-based transition to a circular economy. At the production
systems (competition for land and land tenure level, challenges include the quality of the water
issues), behavioural barriers (misgivings about using and wastewater being used (Box 2), the quality
waste as a resource, non-participation in recycling, of the available organic compost (Soto and Siura
inadequate incentives) and technical barriers (lack 2008; Rekow 2015), the use of pesticides (Monteiro
of waste segregation infrastructure or of metrics and Monteiro 2006; Soto and Siura 2008) and the
to measure circularity) (Borrello et al. 2016; World effects of air pollution on food safety (Amato-
Economic Forum 2018). Other barriers include land- Lorenço et al. 2016). To address these challenges,
use planning and a lack of urban policy directives local governments can provide credit and technical
(Puppim de Oliveira and Ahmed 2021), limited crop assistance for more regenerative practices. One
types, difficulties in becoming circular (D’Ostuni and study found that, through four years of ecological
Zaffi 2021) and limited supplies of waste.
soil management, the share of agricultural inputs
Gender disparities can exacerbate these challenges can be reduced to 30 per cent or less of the
for women. A 2011 study found that less than 20 per production cost (compared to 40-60 per cent with
cent of all land holders were women, even though conventional management), making producers
women represented 43 per cent of the agricultural less dependent on inputs and impacting their
labour force in 2012 (FAO 2011b; FAO 2011c). In prices (Instituto Escolhas and URBEM 2020).

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 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

BOX 2: Reusing wastewater

In urban centres in developing countries, land and water inputs are

scarce and more costly, leading to the use of stormwater, contaminated
sewage or grey water for irrigation and freshwater aquaculture (Toze
2006; van Lier and Huibers 2010). Studies have found that, for example,
the levels of fecal coliforms in water used for irrigation in urban
agriculture do not meet World Health Organization (WHO) standards/
guidelines (Amoah et al. 2006; WHO 2006; Janeiro et al. 2020). Although
urban wastewater can be treated for reuse in agriculture, allowing for
the recovery of nutrients and alleviating pressures on ecosystems and
fresh water (Hyderabad Declaration 2002; Liu et al. 2010; Janeiro et al.
2020), only a small share of wastewater is currently processed. Less
than 5 per cent of the wastewater in Sub-Saharan Africa is treated,
while the largest areas irrigated with untreated or diluted wastewater
are found in China, India and Mexico (Keraita, Drechsel and Konradsen
2008; Lautze, Cai and Matchaya 2014; Jaramillo and Restrepo 2017;
Janeiro et al. 2020).
Wastewater aquaculture exists in a few African countries including
Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, South Africa and Zimbabwe (Bunting 2004;
Magnusson and Bergman eds. 2014). After partially treating the
wastewater, the phytoplankton or zooplankton can provide valuable
nutrition for fish (Magnusson and Bergman eds. 2014). Reclaimed
water is used in China to cultivate vegetables and cereals and in India
to farm sugar cane; meanwhile, Mexico uses reclaimed wastewater
(typically untreated or partially treated) to grow vegetables, maize and
alfalfa (Janeiro et al. 2020). The potential social benefits for safe water
reclamation in urban agriculture in developing countries are significant,
covering the cost of reclamation (Janeiro et al. 2020). It is important
that developing countries invest adequately when planning urban
water and sanitation infrastructure (Janeiro et al. 2020).

Long commercialization chains dominate the urban compensation for products in long chains is typically
food supply, with several intermediaries operating incompatible with the necessary investments and
between the producer and the final consumer. This production costs (Instituto Escolhas and URBEM
is the case even in urban agriculture, especially 2020). Large buyers of horticultural products –
when it is integrated into large-scale supply. On the such as retail chains and institutional buyers – can
one hand, intermediaries can help to concentrate play a crucial role in reducing the negative impacts
the supply and better organize the demand for of the supply chain (helping to reduce losses and
food; however, they also generate more food loss make local agriculture more profitable) by making
during transport and reduce the profit margin for direct commitments with producer associations
producers. Typically, each intermediary adds 100 and cooperatives, rather than purchasing from
per cent to the product value, which means that the distributors.

23
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

The stability of agriculture in urban land use Business models for transitioning to
is another critical challenge impeding urban circular urban agriculture
agriculture’s contribution to a circular economy. Urban agriculture should be designed to create,
Often, the cost of land is incompatible with deliver and capture value by identifying a viable
the financial returns of urban agriculture, and market for products that have real demand
selling land is more advantageous than keeping (Dorward et al. 2003; Dubbeling, Hoekstra and van
cropland. In metropolitan areas, in particular, urban Veenhuizen 2010). This includes markets for safe,
agriculture struggles to compete with residential fresh, and organic produce, which many consumers
and commercial land uses. However, agriculture prefer (Bienabe, Vermeulen and Bramley 2011).
can be practiced in locations where buildings are Urban consumers are also increasingly (although
not allowed, such as under power lines and in other less so for underserved populations) concerned
urban interstices. Land distribution policies, such as about environmental and social issues related to
the one in Rio Branco in the Brazilian Amazon, can food production and distribution (Hinrichs 2000;
aim to prioritize the social or ecological function of Haldy 2004; Brown, Dury and Holdsworth 2009).
non-productive and degraded peri-urban areas. This has given rise to, for example, a vegetable
box (social enterprise) subscription model for
Local governments should promote land access
organic produce (Thom and Conradie 2013), which
policies through the regularization of areas
shortens the link between the farmer and regular
that are already occupied and through loans of
consumers of organic produce (Haldy 2004; Thom
available public areas. Meanwhile, it is essential
and Conradie 2013).
that territorial planning instruments and urban
land-use regulations officially acknowledge urban There are several reasons to support alternative
agriculture. To this end, the City Region Food business models for urban agriculture. First, urban
Systems (CRFS) approach can be helpful towards farmers need to adjust their farming to exploit all
strengthening the functional ties of the urban- opportunities and to counter existing constraints
rural relationship. Since urban food consumption (van Huylenbroeck et al. 2005). Second, the
impacts other regions that supply these products cultivation, processing and marketing of urban
and receive their waste, food is an essential link farming products takes place in an environment
in strategically defining the scope and direction of characterized by the highest levels of demand
policies that engage with sustainable development (McClintock 2010). Third, as observed by Skar et
(Dubbeling et al. 2017; Lardon et al. 2018). al. (2019), cities offer favourable conditions for

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 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

2.7 Urban agriculture

typologies around the globe
Urban land is usually very expensive and often
supports the concentration of commercial and
industrial activities in cities. This enables cities
to grow rapidly economically and in population,
bolstering growth in gross domestic product
(Bettencourt et al. 2007). Consequently, economic
incentives in cities favour high-value activities.
Within this fabric, different typologies of urban
agriculture – within city boundaries, in peri-urban
areas and in even-larger geospatial expanses (local
agriculture) – can contribute to the local food
system (Table 1). What is considered local varies
widely, with some local farms located hundreds
of kilometres from the point of consumption (US
creating local and short marketing channels for Congress 2008; Feldmann and Hamm 2015).
agricultural products and farming-related services, With this understanding, studies have shown
due to “the potential of nearby and easily accessible that the capacity for urban agriculture within city
large consumer groups, the concentration of boundaries to meet local needs varies. In-boundary
particular societal demands and trends, and the production can range from less than 1 per cent for
innovative milieu in cities”. New York and 10 per cent for Minneapolis in the
Urban agriculture business models must United States to 5 per cent for Delhi and 40 per cent
distinguish themselves by adapting to cities and for Pondicherry in India (Boyer and Ramaswami
shifting away from “mainstream commodity 2020). For fresh produce, in-boundary production
market and global prices mechanisms” (Skar et can range from 1.7 per cent in Cleveland, United
al. 2019). The most-used business models for States and 2.6 per cent in Leicester, United
urban agriculture are product differentiation and Kingdom to 90 per cent in Accra, Ghana and 76
enterprise differentiation (Skar et  al. 2019). Other per cent in Shanghai, China (Lee-Smith and Prain
emerging models include low cost, reclaiming the 2006; Grewal and Grewal 2012; Corbould 2013;
commons, and experience, as well as agro-tourism Edmondson et al. 2020). Fresh produce, however,
(Reed and Kleynhans 2009; Phillip, Hunter and comprises only a small fraction of the weight of
Blackstock 2010). For developed countries, Pölling food and of the land required for food production,
et al. (2017) undertook a comparative analysis of which is dominated by grain. Differences also vary
urban agriculture business models in Spain, Italy by city type, with Pondicherry and Minneapolis, for
and Germany. In developing countries, constraints example, considered very active in food production
inhibiting urban farmers from accessing niche and processing.
markets include land tenure insecurity and Higher within-boundary food production in
inadequate finance, as well as the cost and time developing countries versus developed countries
involved in obtaining organic certification of is not surprising, as existing research and media
produce to meet international standards (Bienabe, reports find that the main motivation for urban
Vermeulen and Bramley 2011). agriculture in developed countries is not the amount
of food you can grow for the whole community, but
rather growing food specifically for underserved
populations or to support other co-benefits, such
as social cohesion, education, civic-engagement,

25
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

health and well-being (Kortright and Wakefield Typologies of urban agriculture vary across
2011; Pfeiffer, Silva and Colquhoun 2015; Plumer continents and nations. In a literature review, Cilliers
2016; Santo, Palmer and Kim 2016; Poulsen 2017). et al. (2020) identified 27 different urban agriculture
practices across the globe based on the rationale for
Other researchers have run scenarios to show
establishment. In developed countries, production is
how much food could be produced if all available
undertaken for recreational or aesthetic purposes
green spaces in urban areas (vacant lots, rooftop
besides household food supply and security, and
gardens, greenhouses, etc.) were utilized (Colasanti
tends to occur on rooftops, balconies, vacant
and Hamm 2010; Grewal and Grewal 2012). For
lots and parks (McClintock 2010). In developing
example, Grewal and Grewal (2012) found that if
countries, however, the focus is on food security and
Cleveland used 80 per cent of every vacant lot, plus
nutritional needs as well as on household income
9 per cent of occupied residential lots and 62 per
generation, and activities take place on undeveloped
cent of industrial and commercial rooftops, it could
lands, marginal lands and community plots
meet 46-100 per cent of its fresh produce needs,
(Box 3) (McClintock 2010; Gray, Elgert and
94 per cent of its poultry and shell egg needs,
WinklerPrins 2020).
and 100 per cent of its honey needs. Nixon and
Ramaswami (2018) found that already today, Given the diversity of urban agricultural systems,
without any expansion of agriculture, 21 per cent several authors have attempted to provide
of US metropolitan statistical areas could be typologies that suit their context. The typologies
self-reliant in egg and milk equivalents, 16 per are classified by scale of production (Gray et al.
cent in vegetables and 12 per cent in fruits, if food 2014), ownership structure (Pulighe and Lupia
supply chains were oriented to match local 2019; Nicholls et al. 2020) and level of technology
production capability. Grain requirements remain and innovation (Ayambire et al. 2019; Orsini et al.
challenging, however. 2020). Table 2 presents an adaption of typologies
that are practiced in cities of developed and
developing countries and that have the potential to
promote sustainable development.

BOX 3: Urban agriculture in Accra, Ghana

Accra, the capital city of Ghana, has a population of 5.4 million, with
around 8.7 per cent engaged in urban agriculture. Urban agriculture
takes place within the household space or on private open or publicly
available space. Significantly fewer farming activities occur within the
homestead than away from home, with plot sizes ranging from 1 square
metre to 10 hectares or more, and generally increasing along the urban/
peri-urban divide. The main types of low-income agriculture include
container gardening, homestead gardening, open-space commercial
horticulture, subsistence and commercial livestock, and fish farming –
using mainly rainwater and wastewater (World Bank 2013). The main
produce are vegetables, maize, cassava and plantain; and the animals
are poultry, sheep, goats and fish. The vegetables, maize and a few
small livestock are produced within the city, whereas staples like maize,
plantain and cassava, and large and small livestock are produced in
peri-urban areas.

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 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

Table 2: Types of urban agriculture, technology adoption and user types

Typologies Description Technology Level User Type/Scale

Backyard Private gardens and balcony or terrace Low Farmers

gardens gardening associated with residential (individual
food production. growers)

Community Self-organized or neighbourhood Low Society

gardens initiatives producing food for personal or
common benefit; members participate
in decision processes and share
resources such as space, water and
tools.

Allotment Legally fixed forms of urban gardens Low Society

gardens that are tended individually by plot
holders and their families (see Box 4).

Rooftop Gardens on top of houses or industrial Medium to high Farmers, society

gardens buildings and representing innovative
agricultural production; can be
organized collectively or privately.

Vertical farms High-tech methods to cultivate plants Medium to high Farmers, society
with artificial in soil-less or organic or inorganic
lighting substrates, including hydroponics,
aeroponics* and aquaponics;
advancements in greenhouse and
supporting technologies such as multi-
racking mechanized systems, recycling
systems, LED lighting, and solar and
wind power.

Alternative farms** Microgreens, urban beekeeping. Low to high Farmers, society

* The growing of plants and crops without the use of soil wherein the plant’s roots are suspended in the air and are
misted with water on a regular basis.
** Farms where the production method is not energy- and chemical-intensive.
Adapted from Ayambire et al. 2019 and Orsini et al. 2020.

27
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

BOX 4:
Allotment gardens and their ability to feed urban
populations: Leicester, United Kingdom

An analysis by Edmondson et al. (2020) estimated

the fruit and vegetable production in 46 allotment
garden sites in Leicester, United Kingdom, 45 of them
owned by the city council. The sites comprised 3,200
individual plots and accounted for 1.3 per cent of the
city’s land. The researchers found that the average
plot spanned 264 square metres and that around
52 per cent of the plot area was cultivated on average,
with as many as 72 different crops being grown.
The plots produced more than 1,200 tons of fruit
and vegetables and 200 tons of potatoes annually,
meeting the fruit and vegetable needs of some
8,500 people (2.6 per cent of city residents). The
researchers estimated that cultivating the 13 per cent
of plots that remained uncultivated could add 200
tons of fruits and vegetables and 100 tons of potatoes
annually, feeding another 1,500 people (bringing the
total to 3 per cent of residents).

The case study highlights that food grown on

allotment plots can make a modest but important
contribution to feeding urban populations. The
authors point to the focus on urban agriculture
that has occurred in the United States, Canada
and the United Kingdom during or following times
of emergency rather than on a continuing basis
(Ambrose et al. 2020; Ambrose et al. 2021). Examples
from World War II include the Dig for Victory and
Victory Garden campaigns (Ambrose et al. 2021).
In Leicester, in the 1950s, allotment gardens were
meeting the fruit and vegetable needs of more than
45,000 residents, compared to less than 10,000
in 2012 (Rydin et al. 2012). This pattern seems to
persist, with urban agriculture in the United States
increasing during the COVID-19 pandemic (Nixon
and Ramaswami 2018). This highlights the need for
long-term policy support for urban agriculture and for
protecting cultivated urban land from development to
allow urban agriculture to reach its full potential.

28
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

The typologies presented in Table 2 emphasize

technology adoption and the nature of the
social structure that supports sustainable urban
agriculture. However, urban agriculture typologies
can also be classified in terms of umbrella typologies
and sub-typologies, as well as urban locational
characteristics (Table 3). The typologies in Table
3 highlight the distinction in urban agriculture in
developing countries, which focuses mainly on
providing food security and nutritional needs as
well as household income generation.

Table 3: Agriculture systems in urban agriculture

Typologies Sub-typologies Description

Horticulture Patchwork horticulture (food crops) Small farms (mainly vegetables) on

unused public lands (including reserved
land on sides of highways).

Private and public nurseries producing

fast-maturing fruit seedlings (coconuts,
mangoes, oranges, etc.) to be sold from
trucks in city centres.

Patchwork horticulture (ornamental) Ornamental plant nurseries, packaging

and sales points located along busy
roads.

Controlled-environment farms Greenhouse farms producing mainly

vegetables.

Livestock Animal husbandry Poultry (for meat and eggs); urban

and suburban ranching and piggery
operations.

Fish farming Tank farms located deep in urban

centres, often in private homes.

Backyard mixed farms Backyard mixed farms Pond/Cage farms, mainly in suburban
areas, supplying urban areas.

* The growing of plants and crops without the use of soil wherein the plant’s roots are suspended in the air and are
misted with water on a regular basis.
** Farms where the production method is not energy- and chemical-intensive.
Adapted from Ayambire et al. 2019 and Orsini et al. 2020.

29
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

2.8 Benefits of supporting pollination and seed dispersion, and

urban agriculture regulating the microclimate (Smith and Roebber

In this section, we examine the potential benefits 2011; Santamouris 2014; Zupancic, Westmacott

of urban agriculture with specific attention to its and Bulthuis 2015; Vasquez et al. 2019).
contribution to the resilience of food systems – By using organic waste as fertilizer, urban agriculture
that is, the capacity to quickly respond to impacts can mitigate the environmental impacts of mineral
on food supply, access to nutritious food and fertilizers as well as the emissions from landfilling.
healthy diets, and sustainable food consumption.
Worldwide, an estimated 30-50 per cent of produce
is lost due to lack of cold storage and inadequate
Environmental benefits infrastructure (FAO 2011a), with fruits and
The expansion of green areas in cities can vegetables recording the highest losses. Although
potentially contribute to climate change mitigation per capita food waste is much higher in Europe and
and adaptation, heat and flood mitigation, North America than in Asia and Africa, food losses
erosion reduction and carbon capture. It can also in developed and developing countries are the same.
contribute to the maintenance of agricultural In developing countries, they occur mainly during
biodiversity and related knowledge, the increased post-harvest and processing, whereas in developed
presence of pollinators and the consequent countries they occur at the retail and consumer
reduction in biodiversity loss. Agricultural areas on
levels (FAO 2011a). Urban agriculture’s proximity to
city fringes can serve as essential transition zones
markets can potentially reduce emissions as well
between urban land use and forests, ensuring the
as food loss during transport. However, studies and
maintenance of ecosystem services. However,
data are lacking.
such benefits can only be achieved when urban
agriculture is circular (using regenerative practices, Despite the potential benefits of urban agriculture,
eliminating pollutants, recycling waste and few studies have looked at the multiple
maximizing exploitation of the inputs used) and is environmental benefits and disbenefits of different
fair and equitable for producers and consumers. types of agriculture. In agreement with other
literature, Boyer and Ramaswami (2020) explored
Besides providing food and fibre, highly efficient
and integrated urban agriculture systems generate the water, energy/emissions and land impacts

other environmental benefits. Drip irrigation and of urban food actions across two cities each in
hydroponics can greatly impact crop water yield. the United States and India and found that the
Agricultural irrigation represents around 85 per biggest levers for reducing greenhouse gases
cent of global water use, and drip irrigation can (and mitigating other impacts in some cases)
increase yields up to 90 per cent (Rufí-Salís et al. were dietary change and food waste management
2020; Langemeyer et al. 2021). Urban agriculture (Weber and Matthews 2008; Avetsyan, Hertel and
can benefit ecosystems by preventing erosion, Sampson 2014; Santo, Palmer and Kim 2016).

30
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

Overall, urban agriculture’s contribution to reducing Different types of urban agriculture, such as
the environmental impacts from food systems institutional, backyard, and community gardens,
remains limited for several reasons. First, a relatively can promote mental and physical health, offer
small amount of land in urban areas is used in opportunities to socialize, and help establish
agriculture, and rooftop and high-tech vertical networks to exchange inputs and knowledge.
farming are still a niche. Second, only a few crops
The social and nutritional benefits of urban
can be grown economically in cities or in controlled
agriculture are amplified for women in low-
indoor environments, and those crops (vegetables,
income developing countries, particularly as
herbs, fruits) are not the biggest contributors to the
they seek to improve household food security,
food system’s environmental impact. Studies on
health and financial security (Anosike and Fasona
urban agriculture’s impacts on reducing food waste
2004; Hovorka 2006). Even in cases where the
and transport emissions are limited. Third, many
economic potential of urban agriculture is limited,
studies have noted that increasing urban agriculture
it helps socially empower women through social
in cities can increase environmental stresses,
networks, creating a greater sense of community,
including fertilizer pollution, water/energy use, and
engagement in community development and
growing on contaminated land (The Economist
financial independence (Maxwell 1995; Slater 2001;
2010; Yu, Zhu and Li 2012; Kozai 2013; Love, Uhl
Hovorka 2006; Buechler 2009; Ponce and Donoso
and Genello 2015; Miller-Robbie, Ramaswami and
2009; Orsini et al. 2013).
Amerasinghe 2017).
In a study conducted in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe,
Decision makers who want to promote urban
Hadebe and Mpofu (2013) found that 68.3 per cent
agriculture with positive effects on the environment
of women were engaged in urban agriculture,
should consider impacts on energy, land and water
compared to 31 per cent of men, with 54 per cent
use, and the potential effects of pollution on food
of women making the decisions on what to plant
quality.
and grow. Further, 76.2 per cent of women agreed
that this food production resulted in improved
Social and nutritional benefits nutrition for their families compared to purchased
Urban agriculture’s most significant contribution food items. Concurrently, a study in Cape Town,
is to promote food and nutritional security in cities South Africa found that both men and women who
by expanding the supply of fresh and healthy food engaged in urban agricultural activities experienced
at fair prices. A few studies exploring nutrition the same benefits in terms of food security and
outcomes of urban agriculture reported positive health benefits, with women demonstrating that
effects on fruit and vegetable intake, the nutritional engaging in urban agriculture provided stress relief
status of children and food diversity (Audate et al. (Robertson 2013).
2019). Policies that promote urban agriculture have
great potential to make urban food systems more
resilient in times of shortage, reduce impacts of
price fluctuations, improve food access for socially
vulnerable populations and reduce social inequality
(Maciel et al. 2018).

Urban agriculture also has the potential to enhance

local food culture. Increasing the supply of local
products and maintaining traditional farmers on
their land enhance traditional knowledge, customs
and the preservation of agrobiodiversity.

31
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

Economic benefits A study conducted in the western suburbs of

In principle, commercial urban agriculture has the Bulawayo, Zimbabwe showed that women opt to
potential to generate employment and income and grow crops that enhance household food security
to boost the local economy. Technical assistance rather than purchase food items for their family
aimed at commercialization and scaling-up, as needs (Hadebe and Mpofu 2013). In Sogamoso,
well as policies for accessing land to credit, are Colombia, 83 per cent of peri-urban agriculturalists
therefore essential (Maciel et al. 2018; Escolhas and consume at least some of the animal or vegetable
URBEM 2020). Urban agriculture also promotes the products that they produce, contributing to
development of high technology and green industry. increased food security and access to healthy
diets (Feola et al. 2020). Urban agriculture
Non-commercial (subsistence) urban agriculture,
makes urban food systems more resilient to
such as household and community gardens, also
supply crises, especially when inserted into solid
plays a vital role in the economy, helping to reduce
commercialization networks featuring fair and
food costs for participants. Particularly in low-
solidary trade. Additionally, a study conducted in
income developing countries in Asia and Africa,
Khartoum State, Sudan demonstrated that 32 per
social, cultural and gender norms often result in
cent of women improved their income (alongside
women having lower levels of education, limited
improved food security) by engaging in urban
autonomy, greater domestic responsibilities,
agriculture (Daoud 2019, p. 28).
and limited access to finances and well-paying
employment (Anosike and Fasona 2004; Hovorka Conventional land-based urban agriculture is
2006; Hadebe and Mpofu 2013). In such cases, relatively low-paying (Brown and Getz 2008; Gray
urban agriculture provides women with the 2013; Holmes 2013). It is often practiced as a
opportunity to engage in income-generating activity hobby or by groups that face food insecurity, more
with minimal capital investment while taking care so in developing, low-income countries where
of other household responsibilities (Obuobie et al. it is used mainly for household consumption
2004; Buechler 2009; Hovorka, Zeeuw and Njenga (Zezza and Tasciotti 2010; Poulsen et al. 2015).
eds. 2009; Orsini et al. 2013). The economic benefits of such operations have
been found to vary based on agriculture type
and process, crops grown, farmer income level,
gender, etc. (Poulsen et al. 2015). Zezza and
Tasciotti (2010) found that urban agriculture
constituted a sizable portion of the incomes of
poorer households in some developing countries
in Africa and Asia but not in Latin America and
Eastern Europe.
The dynamics of urban and rural settings differ due
to the institutional and societal dynamics in cities
and rural areas which can create more polarization
(Hovorka, Zeeuw and Njenga eds. 2009, p. 2). As
articulated above, women can not only enhance
family food security through urban farming, but also
generate income through selling excess products
(Hovorka, Zeeuw and Njenga eds. 2009, p. 2). Soto
et al. (2009) note that urban farming empowers
women through independence, leadership and
capacity-building. Thus, there is value in looking to
women to enhance urban agriculture as more of
the world’s population moves to cities.

32
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

To create value-added products, niche urban farms Gotham Greens grows specialty foods year-round in
in controlled indoor environments have developed solar- and wind-powered greenhouses, warehouses
in some countries, with a focus on products such and roof farms in six US states (Gotham Greens
as herbs that can be grown in soil-less media 2021). With machine learning and artificial
(Box 5). Research shows significant potential for intelligence, automation will likely be the next step
vertical farming, a market that is expected to reach towards efficiency. The economic benefits and who
$7.3 billion globally by 2025 (Markets and Markets gets them will depend on whether operations are
2020; Alterman 2021). Major investments in high- conventional or high-tech.
tech urban agriculture have occurred. For example,

BOX 5: High-tech commercial vertical farming:

The case of AeroFarms, United States

AeroFarms, headquartered in New Jersey, United States, has

played a prominent role in commercial indoor vertical farming
since it started operations in 2004. The company’s 6,500 square
metre facility in Newark grows more than 900,000 kilograms
of produce a year (Birkby 2016; Pandey 2017), using artificial
intelligence to control lights, nutrients and temperature. With its
automated process, AeroFarms can produce 550 varieties of
fruit and vegetables, while achieving 390 times the yield per unit
compared to traditional farming and using 95 per cent less water
and no pesticides (Birkby 2016; AeroFarms 2021). This efficiency
is attributable to a unique closed-loop system that integrates
vertical farming with aeroponics and a patented reusable cloth
medium for growing. AeroFarms can grow produce in half the time
of traditional field operations (Pandey 2017; AeroFarms 2021).

AeroFarms focuses on the sustainability of food systems AeroFarms’ growing facility. Photo source: AeroFarms 2021
and boasts a business model designed to address 12 of the
17 Sustainable Development Goals. It integrates with local
distribution systems to meet urban food needs and, in the
process, creates year-round employment for communities
(Pandey 2017; AeroFarms 2021). In addition, AeroFarms partners
with the city and schools to educate communities about vertical
farming and to fight local food insecurity (Vyawahare 2016;
Baer 2021). As a Certified B Corporation, it meets the “highest
standards” of verified social and environmental performance,
transparency and legal accountability (Certified B Corporation
2017). Plans include expanding to grow additional leafy products
and berries, incorporating autonomous systems and machine
learning technologies, and new facilities in Abu Dhabi and Virginia
(Klein 2021).

33
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

Benefits and trade-offs of urban

agriculture typologies
While the different typologies of urban agriculture
provide economic, social and environmental
benefits to urban communities (Mougeot
2000; Mougeot ed. 2005), they also generate
environmental, productivity and related trade-
offs (Table 4). The optimum benefits lie at some
appropriate balance between the production from
urban agriculture and the externalities that it
generates (Lin, Philpott and Jha 2015).

Changes in food production can conflict with

other Sustainable Development Goals, such as
protecting land resources and mitigating climate
change. Decision makers need to understand
potential trade-offs between these goals and find a
balance between human needs and environmental
impacts. For urban agriculture to generate net
social benefits, it must be highly efficient and be
an integrated production system. It should have
lower environmental impacts than conventional
agriculture, with production based on efficient water
use and fertile soils and integrated into urban land-
use planning, which can also help mitigate climate
change (Bren d’Amour et al. 2017; Langemeyer et
al. 2021). Modern technologies such as controlled-
environment agriculture (vertical or greenhouse
farming, hydroponics, aeroponics, aquaculture,
aquaponics) should be explored.

34
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

Table 4: Benefits and trade-offs of urban agriculture typologies

Typology Benefits Trade-offs

Backyard gardens Economic: provide fresh, safe and hygienic foods; save Mosquito breeding;
income spent on food commodities. use of drinking water
for irrigation; health
and environmental
Social: source of exercise; enhance well-being. implications of improper
management of wastes.
Environmental: recycling of household organic wastes
into compost; reduce pressure on landfills.

Community gardens Economic: promote food security for the poor. Competition for space
for urban infrastructure,
e.g., housing; demands
Social: promote intercultural communications; green the
for drinking water for
city; educate people; strengthen communities.
irrigation.

Environmental: storm attenuation services; reduce

temperature and greenhouse gases.

Allotment gardens Economic: enhance self-sufficiency of lower-income Competition for space

residents. for urban infrastructure,
e.g., housing; spill-over
of chemical nutrients to
Social: encourage community participation. natural systems.

Environmental: improve biodiversity and ecosystem

services.

Rooftop gardens; greenhouses Economic: increase organic fruit and vegetable Mosquito breeding;
production; create employment opportunities; enhance demands for drinking
property value. water for irrigation.

Social: improve aesthetics; provide education; enhance

community participation.

Environmental: increase biodiversity; reduce heat and

energy use; recycle organic waste.

Vertical farming Economic: reduces energy, packaging and fuel to Demands for drinking
transport food; turns waste into an asset; offers greater water for irrigation;
yields; creates jobs. introduction of pest and
pathogens into natural
Social: improves air quality, the environment and health; environment.
supplies fresher local foods; saves time for productive
and socially rewarding activities; enhances well-being;
encourages higher education and skilled jobs; availability
of potable water.

Environmental: reduces air pollution and need for landfills;

requires less space; increases biodiversity; reduces
surface water run-off.

Adapted from Khan et al. 2020 and Nicholls et al. 2020.

35
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

3. Policies to Support
Urban Agriculture

Promoting urban agriculture within the context 3.1 Types of policies

of a food systems approach calls for actions not for urban agriculture
only from the agricultural sector but also from the Clear policies in many areas are needed to support
urban planning sector. This is critical for integrating urban agriculture. These include defining land tenure
urban agriculture into the urban economic and and property rights, providing tax and fiscal incentives
ecological system (Mougeot 2000). The success to landowners, providing incentives for procurement
of urban agriculture depends on a supportive (e.g., for acquiring waste segregation equipment) and
and conducive policy environment. Appropriate creating public awareness and education (Mougeot
policies will, among others, create awareness 2000; Simatele and Binns 2008).
of the socioeconomic and environmental role of
urban agriculture, delineate the responsibility of Additionally, case studies from Africa, Asia and

governments and city planners, integrate urban South America indicate that women in low-

agriculture in city planning and land-use planning income developing countries often face unique

processes, identify the type of resources (financial or heightened barriers to participating in urban

and technical) needed, provide formal and informal agriculture compared with their male counterparts.

institutional support, and take steps to address the These barriers relate to land access, land security,

potential disbenefits of urban agriculture. the availability of capital and credit, the supply
of agricultural inputs, agricultural education/
Circular urban agriculture aims to make maximum information, water scarcity, and access to markets
use of resources through recycling and reuse. for sales and connections with institutions and
However, the transition to circular urban agriculture local governments (Anosike and Fasona 2004;
faces institutional, behavioural and technical Ba Diao 2004; Obuobie et al. 2004; Sapkota 2004;
barriers as well as governance challenges. Policies Hovorka, Zeeuw and Njenga eds. 2009; Devi and
to support circular urban agriculture should be Buechler 2009; Nabulo, Kiguli and Kiguli 2009; Arce,
designed and developed within this context. Prain and Maldonado 2009; Buechler 2009; Gaye
Ekins et al. (2019) suggest five areas of policy and Touré 2009; Hope et al. 2009; Ishani 2009).
interventions for a circular economy, which may Given that women constitute a majority of those
also apply to circular urban agriculture. These engaged in urban agriculture in many countries
are: regulatory frameworks; fiscal frameworks; (Maxwell 1995; Slater 2001; Hovorka, Zeeuw
education, information and awareness creation; and Njenga eds. 2009; Hadebe and Mpofu 2013;
public procurement policies; and innovation Orsini et al. 2013; Poulsen et al. 2015), it is critical
support schemes. These are particularly important to acknowledge and assess the unique barriers
when considering the governance of circular urban they face and to consider gender equality in urban
agriculture. agriculture policymaking.

36
Proposed policy guidelines to strengthen urban Among the numerous actions needed in the urban
agriculture include the following (Hagey, Rice and agriculture sector are creating partnerships to
Flournoy 2012; Instituto Escolhas and URBEM 2020): develop multi-level urban-regional agricultural
policy, clarifying the purpose of urban food
• Financing and technical assistance policies for
actions, and developing tailored policy guidelines
transitioning food production towards more
for food and nutritional security, social equity
sustainable models without pesticides and with
(including gender) and well-being, environmental
soil regeneration and sustainable use of water.
sustainability, resource circularity and economic
•
Land access policies, through institutional development. Table 5 provides examples of
regularization of areas already occupied by existing policies that support urban agriculture in
productive farmers and land-use agreements in different regions. The first four are national-level
available public areas. policies, which are critical in creating a conducive
• Recognition of urban agriculture and peri-urban environment for sub-national policies.
policies in master plans, urban zoning and
instruments for territorial planning and land-use
regulation.

•
Policies for more sustainable water use and
access, such as infrastructure investment in
cisterns, wells and irrigation systems that avoid
using treated water for human consumption.

•
Policies to oversee organic waste composting
and urban planning for local food production.

•
Policies to strengthen public markets for local
producers.

• Public procurement policies that privilege local

producers when possible (e.g., school meals).

• Policies that support research and data collection

on food systems and related challenges.

37
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

Table 5: Examples of existing policies to support urban agriculture

City and/or Policy description

Country

Brazil The National Policy on Agroecology and Organic Production (Política Nacional de Agroecologia
e Produção Orgânica – PNAPO), launched in 2012, institutionalizes different policies and public
actions to promote food and nutritional security. A key instrument is the Agroecology and Organic
Production National Plan, which includes urban agriculture as a target. The two editions of the Plan
strengthened the relationship between public and private agents around agroecology, helping to
incorporate the theme in policy planning and implementation (FAO n.d.; Giacchè and Porto 2015).
http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2012/decreto/d7794.htm
https://www.in.gov.br/materia/-/asset_publisher/Kujrw0TZC2Mb/content/id/44100949/do1-2018-
10-05-portaria-interministerial-n-1-107-de-4-de-outubro-de-2018-44100743
Brazil The Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture National Program (Programa Nacional de Agricultura
Urbana e Periurbana), implemented in 2018, aims to encourage agroecological food production
in cities, healthy eating habits, and agricultural production for educational purposes, especially in
socially vulnerable regions. Through the programme, it is possible to support initiatives such as
implementing vegetable gardens and seedling nurseries, and promoting technical assistance.
https://www.gov.br/cidadania/pt-br/acoes-e-programas/inclusao-produtiva-urbana/agricultura-
urbana/agricultura-urbana-1
Brazil The Pedagogical Gardens Project (Projeto Hortas Pedagógicas) is an initiative of the Ministry of
Citizenship to integrate scientific knowledge and food and nutritional security. It targets public
schools, which can obtain training to promote gardens to increase access to nutritious food (Brasil
2020). Four schools were selected in two north-eastern states. In 2020, during the COVID-19
lockdown, the vegetable gardens contributed to the food security of the schools’ communities
(Brasil 2020). The project also offers a free online course for public managers.
https://www.gov.br/cidadania/pt-br/acoes-e-programas/inclusao-produtiva-urbana/agricultura-
urbana/projeto-hortas-pedagogicas
China The Urban Master Plan 2005-2020 makes provision to preserve farmland and green space and to
designate green areas in city fringes and corridors. It also promotes wastewater recycling and rain
and flood water harvesting, protects forest areas and subsidizes energy-saving production.
Bandung City, The Bandung Food and Agriculture Office facilitates the local farming programme with attention
West Java, to gender mainstreaming. It directly supports the participation of women farmer groups in urban
Indonesia farming through training, education and monitoring by the government. In addition, it provides
these groups with access to city land for farming, seeding homes, nurseries and fishponds (Safitri,
Abdoellah and Gunawan 2021).
Bobo- A policy promotes open urban lots (greenways) while protecting peri-urban forests and
Dioulasso, acknowledges agroforestry and gardening as urban land uses. The greenways are planted with
Burkina Faso different fruit-bearing tree species, and space is provided for recreation. Participating households
have increased their consumption of fresh vegetables and reduced their food expenditures.
Bogota, The Huertas Urbanas en Espacios Públicos de Bogotá (Urban gardens in public spaces in Bogota),
Colombia project is led by the Department of Public Space Advocacy and a range of public institutions.
The objective is to transform public spaces through urban agriculture to counteract the effects
of climate change while allowing environmental education and promoting food security (Bogotá
2020). Currently, the regulation covers seven different community gardens in public areas.
https://www.dadep.gov.co/transparencia/marco-legal/resoluciones-producidas-la-entidad/
resolucion-361-del-30-diciembre-2020
Bulawayo City, The city promotes gender mainstreaming by including gender and social inclusion as key areas in
Zimbabwe its Urban Agriculture Policy. The plan calls for the equitable allocation of land for urban agriculture
to women and men (Policy 6.2.1 C/).
https://foodsystemsplanning.ap.buffalo.edu/gsfp-policy/urban-agriculture-policy-bulawayo-zimbabwe

38
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

City and/or Policy description

Country

Freetown, Zoning of wetlands and low-lying valleys for urban agriculture aims to promote urban agriculture
Sierra Leone for food supply and job creation, while increasing water infiltration, reducing flooding and keeping
flood zones free from legal and illegal construction.
Kathmandu, The city promotes rooftop gardens as well as recycling of household and urban waste. It trained
Nepal more than 500 households in rooftop gardening and formulated a rooftop garden policy.
Kesbewa, Sri The cities promote the preservation and protection of green and productive areas on stream banks
Lanka; Rosario, to reduce flood risks.
Argentina
Rosario, Fiscal and tax incentives are provided to landowners who lease vacant private land to groups of
Argentina urban poor willing to work on the land. Cities can also make municipal land available to groups of
urban poor for gardening purposes, either through lease arrangements or by providing occupancy
licences. These contracts often include conditions regarding “safe and sustainable land”.
São Paulo and The Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture Program in São Paulo (Programa de Agricultura Urbana e
Rio de Janeiro, Periurbana – PROAURP) and the Carioca Community Gardens Program (Hortas Cariocas) in Rio de
Brazil Janeiro integrate urban agriculture into social housing and slum upgrading programmes. Space was
created for home gardens, community gardens (see Box 6), and street trees for shade and fruit.
https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/meio_ambiente/servicos/proaurp/index.php?p=30091
https://www.rio.rj.gov.br/web/smac/hortas-cariocas
São Paulo, The Urban Master Plan, 2014-2030 stipulated a Municipal Plan of Conservation and Recuperation of
Brazil Ecosystem Services Provider Areas. Specific zoning promotes peri-urban agriculture, aiming for its
sustainable transition and permanence to contain urban sprawl in spring water areas. The main policy
tool is Payments for Environmental Services, also considering urban agriculture (São Paulo 2019).
https://gestaourbana.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/marco-regulatorio/plano-diretor/texto-da-lei-ilustrado
Various cities, • Cleveland (Ohio), Hartford (Connecticut) and Washington, D.C. collect and maintain inventories
United States* of public or private vacant land suitable for gardens. Cleveland’s water department allows urban
farmers to use fire hydrants for urban farms based on a predetermined rate.
• Minneapolis (Minnesota) helps provide access to water and compost for local community
gardeners. The city also adopted a resolution that aims to expand the consumption, production,
and distribution of local, sustainably produced and healthy foods.
• Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) created a food policy council and released the Philadelphia Food
Charter, which includes a focus on urban agriculture.
Various cities, • During the COVID-19 pandemic, Novi Grad Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina allocated public
Europe land for urban agriculture at no cost and provided free seeds (Custovic and Ljusa 2020).
• In Barcelona, Spain, the city council’s L’Hort al terrat (“garden on the roof”) programme promotes
rooftop gardening, often on unused municipal facilities. Some of the produce is delivered to soup
kitchens and food banks (Barcelona City Council 2018).
• As part of its Climate Action Plan, Paris, France committed to creating 100 hectares of green
roofs and walls, with a third of this allocated to urban agriculture projects (City of Paris 2018).
• In Leicester, United Kingdom, the city council actively promotes allotment gardening at 43
locations with more than 3,000 plots. The Council directly manages and maintains 11 allotment
garden locations (Leicester City Council 2021).
• Ghent, Belgium was one of the first European cities to launch its own urban food policy, Gent
en Garde, in 2013, with strategic goals to create a sustainable food system. Awarded a United
Nations Global Climate Action Award in 2019, the policy calls for a greater focus on urban
agriculture incorporating programmes such as locally grown school lunches and exploring
innovative business models to promote urban agriculture (City of Ghent 2016).

* For more examples of US policies to support urban agriculture in the United States, see Hagey, Rice and Flournoy (2012). Compiled
from various sources including Hagey, Rice and Flournoy (2012) and Dubbeling, van Veenhuizen and Halliday (2019).

39
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

BOX 6: Manguinhos Community Garden, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

The Manguinhos Community Garden is the most extensive horticultural garden in Latin America. It is
located in the Maré Complex, which covers 11 slums in Rio de Janeiro and has one of the city’s lowest
levels of quality of life (O’Reilly 2014). The Carioca Community Gardens Program launched the garden
in 2013 as part of a policy to boost economic dynamism with low environmental impact. To develop
the garden, 700 truckloads of waste were removed, the ground was adapted for food crops, and several
nurseries, greenhouses and water tanks were built. Every month, 2 tons of organic food are distributed
to 800 households at no cost. The agroecological practices use organic compost prepared by the city
organic waste treatment company (O’Reilly 2014). As of 2021, the garden directly employed 22 people
who receive assistance from the municipality (Lichterbeck 2021; Souza 2021).

The Carioca Community Gardens Program is supported by the Rio de Janeiro City Hall. As of
2021, it included some 49 community gardens, of which 25 are at schools and 24 in vulnerable
neighbourhoods. The organic production supplies around 80 tons of fresh vegetables annually, with
half of the production donated to nearby public shelters, nursing homes and schools, and the rest
sold to provide income for participants (Rio de Janeiro n.d.). Together, the gardens employ around
180 people. The initiative also strengthens the sustainable occupation of underused lands and
integrates the United Nations’ Partnership for SDG online platform (UN 2020b).

View of the Manguinhos Community Garden, Ian Cheibub.

Photo source: Lichterbeck 2021

40
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

3.2 Governance In Africa, the governance of urban food systems

of urban agriculture is complex, encompassing a range of actors with
competing agendas. This impacts food production,
Urban agriculture brings together a range of
distribution, retail, and safety and impedes
actors, including city planners, farm managers, the
participatory governance, contributing to food and
underserved urban population, state institutions, and
nutritional insecurity (Smit 2016; Nchanji 2017).
non-governmental and civil society organizations.
Weak governance exacerbates the challenges
In developed countries, food policy councils have
facing urban agriculture, such as land competition,
emerged that adopt collaborative governance
land tenure decisions, unfair land-use planning
approaches to work alongside or partner with other
and lack of policy directives (Puppim de Oliveira
actors (Haysom 2020). In developing countries,
and Ahmed 2021). Nonetheless, some successful
particularly in Africa, the conditions for adequate
mechanisms to govern urban agriculture in Africa
urban food governance are just emerging. Often,
have emerged (Box 7).
urban agriculture is perceived as a rural activity
that is “inappropriate and detracts from the modern
image of the city” (Simatele and Binns 2008).

BOX 7: Food labs and systems in Sub-Saharan Africa

Zambia developed food labs under the Sustainable Diets Arusha, Tanzania has joined nine other cities in six Eastern
for All programme in 2015 to promote healthy, diverse, and Southern African countries for a City-to-City Food
nutritious and sustainable food systems. Local-level Food Systems Forum. A key focus area of this multi-stakeholder
Change Lab interventions included capacity-building mechanism is the governance of urban food systems.
to reduce deforestation, food festivals, food dialogue Arusha is developing and implementing a city-region food
meetings and radio programmes to promote diverse food system policy that fits into its overall master plan.
consumption. Nationally, the Zambian Food Change Lab In Kenya, the Nairobi and Environs Food Security, Agriculture and
identifies opportunities for changes in food production, Livestock Forum (NEFSALF), a network of urban and peri-urban
consumption, processing, and access, involving institutional farmers that involves the private, public, and community sectors,
actors, technical experts and community members. was founded in 2003. The farmers, mainly youth, receive training

In Uganda, a Food Change Lab began in 2015 to advocate in food systems input and policy thinking. Network members
form hubs to undertake self-organized activities. The women’s
for a more conducive policy environment and to improve
hub has been most successful and has lasted longer than its
diets and the productivity of local food systems. The Lab
male counterpart. The women learn financial management,
engaged citizens and community leaders in activities aimed
adding value to food products to help grow their businesses.
at improving food quality and nutrition. The key challenges
Source: RUAF 2019
considered were the lack of local capacity to process food
and natural resources, resulting in high levels of export of
primary produce, malnutrition in children, consumption of
high-starch foods with low proteins and micronutrients,
and declining production of nutritious traditional crops. The
programme promoted household awareness through, for
example, cooking demonstrations, food fests and mobilizing
small farmers to learn basic food processing methods.
Programme results included greater household consumption
of indigenous foods and vegetables planted in gardens.

41
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

3.3 Urban agriculture and forum or mechanism that addresses these issues
multi-stakeholder and the integration of related public policies in
governance mechanisms a coordinated and holistic way. Evidence shows
The urban agriculture sector involves diverse that such fora can provide fertile ground for an
issues of land, land use and tenure, access, food integrative and systemic approach and create
and ecosystem health (Corcoran and Calvin 2015). platforms for collaboration among key food system
The starting point for the governance of urban actors (UNEP 2019; Biodiversity International et al.
agriculture is establishing a multi-stakeholder 2021). See Boxes 8 and 9 for examples.

BOX 8: Connect the Dots Project and Sampa+Rural Seal: São Paulo, Brazil
In 2016, the municipal government of São Paulo won the Mayors Challenge in Latin America and the
Caribbean Prize for its Connect the Dots Project. The initiative has created actions to integrate public
policies and different actors involved in the food system, with a focus on strengthening urban agriculture
by democratizing access to fresh and quality food, containing urbanization in watershed areas and
reducing waste generation in the food system (São Paulo 2018; São Paulo 2020). The project has two
fronts: 1) creating tools to collect farmers’ data on production and marketing and to feed a digital platform
to support technical assistance activities and the agricultural value chain; and 2) based on the identified
demands and needs, supporting a group of technicians in the field to promote agroecological practices,
through different institutional partnerships.
The Sampa+Rural Seal was created to increase visibility and value and strengthen the network of initiatives
directly linked to urban agriculture in São Paulo. Of the two types of seals, the Production Seal is intended
specifically for traders of local agricultural products, while the Presence Seal is aimed at the set of actors
that the digital platform has mapped, from farmers and civil society initiatives to markets and tourism
establishments (São Paulo n.d.). As of 2021, 56 commercial establishments and 110 farmers were certified
with the Production Seal (São Paulo n.d.). Another 2,359 places, mapped through the platform, can receive
one of the two seals at no cost.

BOX 9: Online Vegetable Gardens, Peru

The Urban Masterplan (2001-2010) of the District of María Del Triunfo, in Peru’s Metropolitan Region,
included urban agriculture as a strategy to tackle food insecurity and poverty (Kohn, Schvimer and Delgado
2019). Strategy implementation included efforts by the local community, the municipality, and several
private and non-governmental organizations. One activity, the Huertos en Línea (Online Vegetable Gardens)
project, carried out by the electric power company Red de Energía del Perú (REP), promotes existing
community gardens and also recovers degraded areas assigned to REP (including under power lines) and
occupies them with urban agriculture.
With the local community and government, REP manages 15 different gardens in Peru, impacting more
than 720 inhabitants (REP 2019). Most of the gardens are in María Del Triunfo, where individuals or families
cultivate vegetables for self-consumption and commercial purposes. REP offers tools and materials,
including seeds and irrigation infrastructure, which it replaces every three years. Local community leaders
coordinate the programme, which also promotes technical assistance and access to local markets (Kohn,
Schvimer and Delgado 2019).

42
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

Available literature on food policy councils and gardening site was developed where stakeholders
similar structures shows that urban agriculture and citizens can receive free training on urban
has been an important catalyst for the emergence agriculture, including on topics ranging from food
of multi-stakeholder initiatives that support more production and consumption to composting. The
inclusive and holistic governance of food systems initiative now operates in all six districts of the
(RUAF 2019; Biodiversity International et al. 2021). municipality, in 24 neighbourhoods and in more
In 2011, Antananarivo, Madagascar launched than 36 schools and social centres, reaching over
an urban agriculture initiative to promote micro- 18,000 beneficiaries (mainly women and children)
gardens in vulnerable neighbourhoods to boost (Andrianarisoa et al. 2019, cited in Biodiversity
food security and incomes. In 2014, a multi-actor International et al. 2021). In 2017, the programme
platform was created to connect these activities, won the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact prize (Milan
and two years later, with the signing of the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact 2017).
Urban Food Policy Pact, the idea emerged of
Since 2014, more than 42 schools in Ghent, Belgium
creating a food policy committee to strengthen
have received training in how to develop community
food governance. Thus, the Antananarivo Food
garden beds on their campus, and 240 parents and
Policy Council was born from a pre-existing
teachers have participated in these workshops. In
platform of food actors who moved from focusing
London, one of the most concrete achievements
on urban agriculture to having a systemic vision of
of the London Food Board is Capital Growth, the
the food chain (Andrianarisoa et al. 2019).
city’s largest food growing network, which helps
A recent study analysed seven outstanding multi- community gardens, schools, allotments and home
stakeholder mechanisms for urban food systems growers gain skills and grow food through training,
and found that, in all cases, urban agriculture advice and networking opportunities. Thirty-one
was a priority topic (Biodiversity International councils are actively involved, and the network
et al. 2021). Consequently, urban agriculture has supported more than 2,900 growing spaces
features prominently in the food policy documents across all 33 boroughs since its launch in 2008.
associated with these structures. For example, the Capital Growth has engaged more than 150,000
Los Angeles Food Policy Council supported the volunteers in growing food and has harvested over
development of the Urban Agriculture Incentive 1 million portions of fruit and vegetables, valued at
Zone Policy, which incentivizes urban agriculture 600,000 British pounds (€705,543).7
in California by offering a reduction in property tax
assessments in exchange for converting vacant
or unimproved property to agricultural use (City of
Los Angeles 2018). Similarly, in 2018, the Municipal
Food Security Committee of La Paz, Bolivia
formulated the Municipal Law for the Promotion of
Urban Gardens and a policy proposal on Urban and
Peri-urban Agriculture for the Cities of Tomorrow
(City of La Paz 2018; Fundación Alternativas 2018).

Beyond policy development, the studied multi-

stakeholder mechanisms show on-the-ground
results related to promoting urban agriculture. In
Antananarivo, within the framework of the urban
agriculture programme, an experimental micro-

7 All currency conversions were carried out on 22 July 2021.

43
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

4. Conclusions, Recommendations
and Further Research Needs

4.1 Conclusions addresses several Sustainable Development

Goals, particularly SDG 2 (Zero hunger), SDG 3
Urban agriculture will play a critical role in meeting
(good health and well-being), SDG 8 (decent work
the food needs of the world’s burgeoning cities.
and economic growth), SDG 11 (sustainable
At the same time, urban expansion has been
cities) and SDG 12 (responsible consumption and
shown to impact larger-scale rural agriculture
production). Finally, it is important to understand
occurring around cities (Seto, Güneralp and why policy does not tend to reflect women, despite
Hutyra 2012), with impacts on biodiversity, on their active role in urban agriculture, and why it
the release of agricultural carbon pools and on is necessary to create the enabling environment
rural livelihoods. An urban-rural regional approach through gender mainstreaming in governance to
can be complementary to and an important part be able to empower women to have a greater role
of urban agricultural policy. Urban agriculture for inclusivity.

Several conclusions and key messages have 3. Overall benefits: Broadly speaking, the potential
emerged from this synthesis, specifically focusing benefits of urban agriculture will be context
on intra-urban practices of urban agriculture. They dependent and specific to addressing the
are as follows: needs of underserved populations, providing
recreational benefits and providing opportunities
1. Urban agriculture takes many different forms:
for high-tech agriculture. Hence, local contexts
The inputs, outputs, and multiple benefits as
and uncertainties must be considered.
well as management to reduce any related
risks will vary depending on the technology and 4. Extent of urban agriculture and potential for
business model. urban-rural regional linkages: It is important
to clarify the spatial extent of urban agriculture
2. Protecting the natural base: Urban agriculture
and to describe it as intra-urban, peri-urban and
must be practiced in a way that does not exert
larger local/regional agriculture that directly
pressure on the natural resource base. Circular
serves cities.
urban agriculture aims to use minimal external
inputs, to close nutrient loops and to reduce
negative discharges into the environment.
Urban agriculture will play a role in transitioning
the global economy to circularity, as resources
per person tend to be lower in urban areas,
while the generation of potentially reusable
waste tends to be larger.

44
 An International Resource Panel Think Piece

5. 
Community-wide food provisioning: The 9. Health benefits, risks and impacts: There is
capacity of urban agriculture, within city some evidence of positive health and nutritional
boundaries, to serve the whole community outcomes from urban agriculture; however, this is
is low in developed countries and somewhat context sensitive. The environmental disbenefits
higher in developing countries. Most data are of urban agriculture are the source of health
for fresh produce within urban areas, which risks: for example, air pollution can impact food
can be grown more readily in cities, in contrast quality, and the use of untreated or partially
to grain which needs a significant amount treated wastewater can have significant health
of land. Additionally, the capacity of local disbenefits. Women in low-income developing
agriculture, which extends well beyond urban countries are more susceptible to these risks,
boundaries, to serve the whole community is due to a lack of land access and arable land to
high. Furthermore, women play a crucial role engage in urban agriculture and to a scarcity of
in the provisioning of food in urban areas. It is clean water.
highly significant to consider the challenges
10. Resource circularity: New technologies are
these women face for urban food provisioning.
facilitating the transition to circular urban
6. 
Supporting underserved populations: The agriculture. Examples of circularity include
relevance of urban agriculture to address the integrated networks and applying by-products
food insecurity of specific populations is high, of food waste management, such as compost,
particularly in times of stress such as the biochar, and nutrient-rich digestate, to agricultural
COVID-19 pandemic. This holds true particularly land. However, much larger agricultural lands
for women in low-income developing countries. will be needed to absorb the nutrients than is
available within cities. Resource circularity will
7. Economic benefits: Land-based urban
have to look at regional, and not necessarily urban
agriculture can support livelihoods of the poor
or peri-urban, agriculture.
in developing countries but is limited in much
of the developed world. In most cities, it may 11. 
Future data and policy needs: Among the
be more resource efficient to allocate land challenges and bottlenecks that hinder the
for higher-value commercial and industrial transition to a circular urban agriculture are
activities. In this context, high-tech indoor urban fundamental gaps in the potential for resource
farming and controlled-environment agriculture circularity, as well as institutional barriers,
has shown enormous economic potential for governance problems, behavioural barriers
commercial operations producing limited, high- and technical barriers. Further work is needed
end niche products. to develop methodologies to assess urban
agriculture and to measure its environmental
8. Environmental benefits: Environmental
impacts. Further work is also needed to identify
benefits or resource circularity in urban
unique barriers to urban agriculture faced by
agricultural systems can be positive and
women, particularly in low-income developing
negative. It is important to examine both the
countries, and to design policies to address them.
environmental benefits and disbenefits and
potential risks, in the local context and as part 12. Multi-level governance: Governments at
of overall food systems. Dietary change and the local and national levels should provide
food waste management have higher potential technical assistance and credit to support
of providing environmental benefits. the transition to circular urban agriculture,
develop programmes to monitor environmental
impacts, and connect with larger-scale urban-
regional actors to maximize benefits across
multiple dimensions.

45
Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

4.2 Recommendations 4.3 Knowledge gaps and

Action in the following areas might be useful:
further research needs
The literature indicates that urban agriculture will play an
• Re-visit land-use policies, specifically for cities, and rethink
important role in the transition to a circular economy. However,
city planning. This includes limiting sprawl on agricultural
large knowledge gaps remain. Additional research is needed on
rural lands and adopting multi-level urban-regional
the following topics:
agricultural policy partnerships.
• Identifying contextual factors that can boost the food security
• Digitalize and promote data-driven urban agriculture
benefits of urban agriculture for specific populations, and
approaches, particularly for local environmental monitoring
comparing its feasibility to other options such as food delivery.
and life cycle assessment to ensure sustainability gains
• Promoting local research that identifies unique barriers that
and minimize negative impacts.
women face in urban agriculture participation and finding policy
• Pursue innovations to turn waste into wealth and promote solutions to address them (e.g., land ownership, financing,
circular urban agriculture. access to urban agriculture inputs).

• Develop programmes (educational, awareness creation) to • Governance of urban agriculture, especially in developing
promote urban food production. countries.
• Social benefit-cost analysis, including environmental valuation,
•
In developing countries, develop frameworks for urban
of urban agriculture in developing countries.
agriculture governance.
• Economic benefits of conventional land-based urban
• Incorporate gender mainstreaming into urban agriculture agriculture, especially in developed countries.
policymaking at all levels.
• Business models for urban agriculture in developing countries,
• Establish and strengthen multi-stakeholder fora and including research on agro-tourism potentials and social
mechanisms to govern and enhance collaboration in urban enterprise boxes.
food systems. This would require clarifying policies for • The multifunctionality of urban agriculture and its “relation to
urban food action plans. green infrastructure and food-productive urban landscapes,
circularity debates and discussions of the possible adverse
effect of air pollution on…product quality” (Skar et al. 2019).
• Benefits and disadvantages of specific urban agriculture
typologies in the context of their locations, to help determine
the allocation of resources towards urban agriculture versus
other interventions.
• Geospatial data on non-urban features (small green or empty
spaces) within cities, to better identify and understand the potential
of these spaces for food production and other ecosystem
services.
• Census data on non-commercial and small urban agriculture
initiatives.
• Comparing the costs and benefits between a concentrated,
long-distance supply chain and a decentralized, short-distance
supply chain, such as for urban agriculture.
• Measuring urban agriculture-related ecosystem services.
• Feasibility and trade-offs for large-scale implementation of
technologies that pave the way for the transition to circular urban
agriculture.
•
How digital technology can be used to generate
geospatial data.

46
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https://doi.org/10.1007/S11252-019-0826-6.
Zupancic, T., Westmacott, C. and Bulthuis, M.
(2015). The Impact of Green Space on Heat and Air
Pollution in Urban Communities: A Meta-Narrative
Systematic Review. Vancouver: David Suzuki
Foundation.

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Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

Annex: Definitions of Urban Agriculture

Reference/ Definition Distinction between

Source urban, peri-urban and
“local/direct-to-local”*

FAO 2019 Urban and peri-urban agriculture can be defined as the growing of Both urban and peri-
plants and the raising of animals within and around cities. urban are considered
Urban and peri-urban agriculture provides food products from different urban agriculture.
types of crops (grains, root crops, vegetables, mushrooms, fruits),
animals (poultry, rabbits, goats, sheep, cattle, pigs, guinea pigs, fish,
etc.) as well as non-food products (e.g., aromatic and medicinal herbs,
ornamental plants, tree products).
Urban agriculture includes trees managed for producing fruit and
fuelwood, as well as tree systems integrated and managed with crops
(agroforestry) and small-scale aquaculture.

Game and Urban and peri-urban agriculture can be defined as the growing, Both urban and peri-
Primus 2015 processing and distribution of food and other products through plant urban are considered
cultivation and (seldom) raising livestock in and around cities for urban agriculture.
feeding local populations.

Vejre et al. Urban agriculture spans all actors, communities, activities, places and Both urban and peri-
2015 economies that focus on biological production in a spatial context urban are considered
which – according to local standards – is categorized as “urban”. Urban urban agriculture.
agriculture takes place in intra- and peri-urban areas, and one of its
key characteristics is that it is more deeply integrated into the urban
system compared to other agriculture. Urban agriculture is structurally
embedded in the urban fabric; it is integrated into the social and cultural
life, economics and the metabolism of the city.

Roggema Urban agriculture is the growing, processing and distribution of food or Both urban and peri-
2016; livestock within and around urban centres with the goal of generating urban are considered
McEldowney income. urban agriculture.
2017

Smit 1996 Urban agriculture is an industry that produces, processes and markets Both urban and peri-
food and fuel, largely in response to the daily demand of consumers urban are considered
within a town, city or metropolis, on land and water dispersed urban agriculture.
throughout the urban and peri-urban area, applying intensive production
methods, using and reusing natural resources and urban wastes, to
yield a diversity of crops and livestock.

Mougeot 2000 Urban agriculture is an industry located within (intra-urban) or on the Both urban and peri-
fringe (peri-urban) of a town, a city or a metropolis, which grows and urban are considered
raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food and nonfood urban agriculture.
products, (re-)using largely human and material resources, products
and services found in and around that urban area, and in turn supplying
human and material resources, products and services largely to that
urban area.

Simon-Rojo Urban food gardening encompasses agricultural activities with No spatial bounds.
et al. 2015 generally low economic dependence on the material outputs while
using food production for achieving other, mostly social, goals.

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 Reference/ Definition Distinction between
Source urban, peri-urban and
“local/direct-to-local”*

Pölling et al. Urban farming refers to intentional business models taking advantage Not specific about
2015 of proximity to the city by offering local or regional agricultural products urban boundaries and
or services. The importance of the production in proportion to the other includes local and
societal benefits can vary strongly…. [B]oth, the production-oriented side regional, which could
or the co-benefit-oriented side may prevail depending on the individual be very large.
practices of an urban farming operation.

US Urban agriculture is “part of a local food system where food is Urban agriculture is
Environmental produced within an urban area and marketed to consumers within that a subset of a larger
Protection area”. Additionally, “[u]rban farming can also include animal husbandry food system. Urban
Agency 2021 (e.g., breeding and raising livestock), beekeeping, aquaculture (e.g., fish boundary not specific.
farming), aquaponics (e.g., integrating fish farming and agriculture), and
non-food products such as producing seeds, cultivating seedlings, and
growing flowers.”

European Urban and peri-urban agriculture is “the cultivation of crops and Both urban and peri-
Parliamentary rearing of animals for food and other uses within and surrounding the urban are considered
Research boundaries of cities, including fisheries and forestry.” urban agriculture.
Service 2014

US Urban agriculture can include “city and suburban agriculture [that] takes Both urban and
Department the form of backyard, roof-top and balcony gardening, community suburban are
of Agriculture gardening in vacant lots and parks, roadside urban fringe agriculture considered urban
2021 and livestock grazing in open space”. agriculture.

Piorr et al. Urban and peri-urban agriculture is “comprising of food production in Both urban and
2018 and around urban areas, ranging from leisure to commercial activities”. suburban are
considered urban
agriculture.

Bhat and Urban agriculture is “the practice of cultivating, processing and Not specific about
Paschapur marketing of food and food products in and around urban localities”. urban boundaries;
2020 It “also involves animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping and spatial bounds
horticulture”. of “around urban
localities” are not
specific.

Smit, Ratta Urban agriculture is: “an easy-in, easy-out entrepreneurial activity for No spatial bounds.
and Nasr 1996 people at different levels of income. For the poorest of the poor, it
provides good access to food. For the stable poor, it provides a source
of income and good-quality food at low cost. For middle-income
families, it offers the possibility of savings and a return on their
investment in urban property. For small and large entrepreneurs, it is
a profitable business.”

* Local/direct-to-local can extend hundreds of kilometres outside of cities.

Adapted from Skar et al. 2019.

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Urban Agriculture’s Potential to Advance Multiple Sustainability Goals

About the International

Resource Panel

Aim of the Panel

The International Resource Panel was established to provide independent, coherent and authoritative
scientific assessments on the use of natural resources and their environmental impacts over the full life
cycle. The Panel aims to contribute to a better understanding of how to decouple economic growth from
environmental degradation while enhancing well-being. Benefiting from the broad support of governments
and scientific communities, the Panel is constituted of eminent scientists and experts from all parts of the
world, bringing their multidisciplinary expertise to address resource management issues. The information
included in the International Resource Panel’s reports is evidence based and policy relevant, it informs
policy framing and development, and supports evaluation and monitoring of policy effectiveness.

Outputs of the Panel

Since the International Resource Panel’s launch in 2007, more than 30 assessments have been published.
The assessments of the Panel to date demonstrate the numerous opportunities for governments,
businesses and wider society to work together to create and implement policies that ultimately lead
to sustainable resource management, including through better planning, technological innovation, and
strategic incentives and investments. Following its establishment, the Panel first devoted much of its
research to issues related to the use, stocks and scarcities of individual resources, as well as to the
development and application of the perspective of “decoupling” economic growth from natural resource
use and environmental degradation. These reports include resource-specific studies on biofuels, water
and the use and recycling of metal stocks in society. Building upon this knowledge base, the Panel moved
into examining systematic approaches to resource use. These include looking into the direct and indirect
impacts of trade on natural resource use; issues of sustainable land and food system management;
priority economic sectors and materials for sustainable resource management; benefits, risks and trade-
offs of low-carbon technologies; city-level decoupling; and the untapped potential for decoupling resource
use and related environmental impacts from economic growth.

Upcoming work
In the forthcoming months, the International Resource Panel will focus on scenario modelling of natural
resource use, the socioeconomic implications of resource efficiency and the circular economy, the role
of resources in environmental displacement and migration, and the connections between finance and
sustainable resource use, among others.
More information about the Panel and its research can be found at:
Website: www.resourcepanel.org
Twitter: https://twitter.com/UNEPIRP
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/resourcepanel
Contact: unep-irpsecretariat@un.org

58
Cities are now home to more people than are rural areas, with around 55 per cent of the world’s
population living in urban areas. As urban populations continue to grow, an estimated 80 per cent
of food is expected to be consumed in cities by 2050. Feeding burgeoning cities means that food
production systems will have to change in significant ways, including bringing food production
closer to urban areas.

Urban agriculture has been defined in various ways and can take different forms. Broadly, it refers
to the growing of food and raising of animals within and around urban and peri-urban areas.
Urban agriculture has been advocated as a strategy to provide food and many other benefits for
city dwellers and to address the triple planetary crises of climate change, biodiversity loss and
pollution. Urban agriculture encompasses several of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
including eradicating poverty, ending hunger, achieving gender equality, contributing to well-being,
promoting sustainable cities and supporting ecosystem services. As urban areas grow, they also
displace rural agriculture. Thus, considering urban-rural regional linkages can complement urban
agriculture.

This Think Piece examines the multiple sustainability benefits of urban agriculture, taking a
systems perspective. It provides a synthesis of the different typologies of urban agriculture
practiced worldwide, acknowledges that urban agriculture is not going to address all urban
food problems, highlights urban agriculture’s potential contributions to promoting sustainable
urban food systems and identifies trade-offs associated with urban agriculture. The report also
identifies challenges for transitioning to circular urban agriculture. It examines urban agriculture
policies from different parts of the world and suggests policy guidelines to support multi-
functional urban agriculture. There is an urgent need to develop and strengthen urban food
governance structures, especially in developing countries, which lag behind the developed world
with respect to developing frameworks for governance of urban food systems.

For more information, contact:

International Resource Panel Secretariat
United Nations Environment Programme
1 rue Miollis – Building VII – 75015 Paris, France

Email: unep-irpsecretariat@un.org
Website: www.resourcepanel.org
Twitter: @UNEPIRP
LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/company/resourcepanel

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 ISBN No: 978-92-807-3920-6

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