Sydney

Coordinates: 33°52′04″S 151°12′36″E

Sydney (/ˈsɪdni/ ( listen) SID-nee) is the capital city of the state of New
South Wales, and the most populous city in Australia. Located on
Sydney
Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and New South Wales
extends about 70  km (43.5  mi) towards the Blue Mountains to the west,
Hawkesbury to the north, the Royal National Park and Macarthur to the
south and south-west.[5] Greater Sydney consists of 658 suburbs, spread
across 33 local government areas. Residents of the city are colloquially
known as "Sydneysiders".[6] The estimated population on June 2022 was
5,297,089;[7] the city is home to approximately 66% of the state's
population.[8] Notable nicknames of the city include the "Emerald City"
and the "Harbour City".[9]

Aboriginal Australians have inhabited the Greater Sydney region for at

least 30,000 years, and Aboriginal engravings and cultural sites are
common throughout Greater Sydney. The traditional custodians of the
land on which modern Sydney stands are the clans of the Darug,
Dharawal and Eora peoples.[10]

During his first Pacific voyage in 1770, James Cook charted the eastern
coast of Australia, making landfall at Botany Bay. In 1788, the First Fleet
of convicts, led by Arthur Phillip, founded Sydney as a British penal
colony, the first European settlement in Australia.[11] After World War II,
Sydney experienced mass migration and by 2021 over 40 per cent of the
population was born overseas. Foreign countries of birth with the greatest
representation are mainland China, India, United Kingdom, Vietnam and
the Philippines.[12]

Despite being one of the most expensive cities in the world,[13][14] From top, left to right: Sydney Opera
Sydney frequently ranks in the top ten most liveable cities in the House and Harbour Bridge; Queen Victoria
world.[15][16][17] It is classified as an Alpha global city by the Building; University of Sydney; Bondi
Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence Beach; Archibald Fountain and St Mary's
in the region and throughout the world.[18][19] Ranked eleventh in the Cathedral; skyline of the CBD
world for economic opportunity,[20] Sydney has an advanced market
economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing and tourism.[21][22]
Established in 1850, the University of Sydney was Australia's first
university and is regarded as one of the world's leading universities.[23]

Sydney has hosted major international sporting events such as the 2000
Summer Olympics. The city is among the top fifteen most-visited cities in
the world,[24] with millions of tourists coming each year to see the city's
landmarks.[25] The city has over 1,000,000 ha (2,500,000 acres) of nature
reserves and parks,[26] and its notable natural features include Sydney
Harbour and Royal National Park. The Sydney Harbour Bridge and the
World Heritage-listed Sydney Opera House are major tourist attractions.

Map of the Sydney metropolitan area

Central Station is the hub of Sydney's rail network, and the main
passenger airport serving the city is Kingsford Smith Airport, one of the
world's oldest continually operating airports.[27]

Toponymy
In 1788, Captain Arthur Phillip, the first governor of New South Wales,
named the cove where the first British settlement was established Sydney
Sydney
Cove after Home Secretary Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney.[28]
The cove was called Warrane by the Aboriginal inhabitants.[29] Phillip
considered naming the settlement Albion, but this name was never
officially used.[28] By 1790 Phillip and other officials were regularly
calling the township Sydney.[30] The town of Sydney was declared a city Coordinates 33°52′04″S 151°12′36″E
in 1842.[31]
Population 5,259,764 (2021)[1] (1st)
The Gadigal (Cadigal) clan, whose territory stretches along the southern  • Density 433/km2 (1,120/sq mi)
shore of Port Jackson from South Head to Darling Harbour, are the (2021)[1]
traditional owners of the land on which the British settlement was initially
Established 26 January 1788
established, and call their territory Gadi (Cadi). Aboriginal clan names
within the Sydney region were often formed by adding the suffix "-gal" to Area 12,367.7 km2
a word denoting the name for their territory, a specific place in their (4,775.2 sq mi)
territory, a food source, or totem. The modern Greater Sydney area covers (GCCSA)[2]
the traditional lands of 28 known Aboriginal clans.[32] Time zone AEST (UTC+10)
 • Summer AEDT (UTC+11)
History (DST)
Location 877 km (545 mi) NE
First inhabitants of the region of Melbourne
923 km (574 mi) S of
The first people to inhabit the area now known as Sydney were Aboriginal Brisbane
Australians who had migrated from northern Australia and before that
287 km (178 mi) NE
from southeast Asia.[33] Flaked pebbles found in Western Sydney's gravel
of Canberra
sediments might indicate human occupation from 45,000 to 50,000 years
BP,[34] while radiocarbon dating has shown evidence of human activity in 3,936 km (2,446 mi)
the Sydney region from around 30,000 years ago.[35] Prior to the arrival of E of Perth
the British, there were 4,000 to 8,000 Aboriginal people in the greater 1,404 km (872 mi) E
Sydney region.[36][10] of Adelaide

The inhabitants subsisted on fishing, hunting, and gathering plant foods LGA(s) Various (33)
and shellfish. The diet of the coastal clans was more reliant on seafoods County Cumberland[3]
whereas the food of hinterland clans was more focused on forest animals
State Various (49)
and plants. The clans had distinctive sets of equipment and weapons
electorate(s)
mostly made of stone, wood, plant materials, bone and shell. They also
differed in their body decorations, hairstyles, songs and dances. Aboriginal Federal Various (24)
clans had a rich ceremonial life which was part of a belief system division(s)
centering on ancestral, totemic and supernatural beings. People from
different clans and language groups came together to participate in Mean max Mean min Annual
initiation and other ceremonies. These occasions fostered trade, marriages temp[4] temp[4] rainfall[4]
and clan alliances.[37] 22.8 °C 14.7 °C 1,149.7 mm
73 °F 58 °F 45.3 in
The earliest British settlers recorded the word 'Eora' as an Aboriginal term
meaning either 'people' or 'from this place'.[38][10] The clans of the Sydney
area occupied land with traditional boundaries. There is debate, however, about which group or nation these clans
belonged to, and the extent of differences in language, dialect and initiation rites. The major groups were the coastal Eora
people, the Dharug (Darug) occupying the inland area from Parramatta to the Blue Mountains, and the Dharawal people
south of Botany Bay.[10] Darginung and Gundungurra languages were spoken on the fringes of the Sydney area.[39]
 Aboriginal clans of Sydney area, as recorded by early British settlers
Clan Territory name Location

Bediagal Not recorded Probably north-west of Parramatta

Lower Sydney Harbour around Sow and Pigs

Birrabirragal Birrabirra
reef
Boolbainora Boolbainmatta Parramatta area

Borogegal Booragy Probably Bradleys Head and surrounding area Charcoal drawing of kangaroos in
Boromedegal Not recorded Parramatta Heathcote National Park

Buruberongal Not recorded North-west of Parramatta

Darramurragal Not recorded Turramarra area

South side of Port Jackson, from South Head

Gadigal Cadi (Gadi)
to Darling Harbour
Gahbrogal Not recorded Liverpool and Cabramatta area

Gamaragal Cammeray North shore of Port Jackson

Gameygal Kamay Botany Bay

Gannemegal Warmul Parramatta area

Garigal Not recorded Broken Bay area

Gayamaygal Kayeemy Manly Cove

Gweagal Gwea Southern shore of Botany Bay

North shore of Port Jackson, opposite Sydney

Wallumedegal Wallumede
Cove
South side of Port Jackson, from Darling
Wangal Wann
Harbour to Rose Hill

Clans of the Sydney region whose territory wasn't reliably recorded are: the Domaragal,
Doogagal, Gannalgal,
Gomerigal, Gooneeowlgal, Goorunggurregal, Gorualgal, Murrooredial, Noronggerragal,
Oryangsoora and Wandeandegal.

Note: The names and territory boundaries do not always correspond with those used by contemporary
Aboriginal groups of the greater Sydney area.[39][40][41]

The first meeting between Aboriginals and British explorers occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook
landed at Botany Bay (Kamay[42]) and encountered the Gweagal clan.[43] Two Gweagal men opposed the landing party
and in the confrontation one of them was shot and wounded.[44][45] Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week,
collecting water, timber, fodder and botanical specimens and exploring the surrounding area. Cook sought to establish
relations with the Aboriginal population without success.[46]

Convict town (1788–1840)

Britain had been sending convicts to its American colonies for most of the
eighteenth century, and the loss of these colonies in 1783 was the impetus for the
decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay. Proponents of colonisation also
pointed to the strategic importance of a new base in the Asia-Pacific region and its
potential to provide much-needed timber and flax for the navy.[47]

The First Fleet of 11 ships under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip arrived in
Botany Bay in January 1788. It consisted of more than a thousand settlers,
including 736 convicts.[48] The fleet soon moved to the more suitable Port Jackson The Founding of Australia, 26
where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788.[49] The January 1788, by Captain Arthur
colony of New South Wales was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 Phillip R.N., Sydney Cove. Painting
February 1788. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, by Algernon Talmage.
which Philip described as being, 'with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line
may ride in the most perfect Security'.[50]

The settlement was planned to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on subsistence agriculture. Trade and ship building
were banned in order to keep the convicts isolated. However, the soil around the settlement proved poor and the first crops
failed, leading to several years hunger and strict food rationing. The food crisis was relieved with the arrival of the Second
Fleet in mid-1790 and the Third Fleet in 1791.[51] Former convicts received small grants of land, and government and
private farms spread to the more fertile lands around Parramatta, Windsor and Camden on the Cumberland Plain. By 1804,
the colony was self-sufficient in food.[52]

A smallpox epidemic in April 1789 killed about half the Indigenous population of the Sydney region.[10][53] In November
1790 Bennelong led a group of survivors of the Sydney clans into the settlement, establishing a continuous presence of
Aboriginal Australians in settled Sydney.[54]

Phillip had been given no instructions for urban development, but in July 1788 submitted a plan for the new town at
Sydney Cove. It included a wide central avenue, a permanent Government House, law courts, hospital and other public
buildings, but no provision for warehouses, shops, or other commercial buildings. Phillip promptly ignored his own plan,
and unplanned development became a feature of Sydney's topography.[55][56]

After the departure of Phillip in December 1792, the colony's military officers
began acquiring land and importing consumer goods obtained from visiting ships.
Former convicts also engaged in trade and opened small businesses. Soldiers and
former convicts built houses on Crown land, with or without official permission, in
what was now commonly called Sydney town. Governor William Bligh (1806–
08) imposed restrictions on trade and commerce in the town and ordered the
demolition of buildings erected on Crown land, including some owned by past and
serving military officers. The resulting conflict culminated in the Rum Rebellion of
1808, in which Bligh was deposed by the New South Wales Corps.[57] Thomas Watling's View of Sydney
Cove, c. 1794–1796
Governor Lachlan Macquarie (1810–1821), played a leading role in the
development of Sydney and New South Wales, establishing a bank, a currency
and a hospital. He employed a planner to design the street layout of Sydney and commissioned the construction of roads,
wharves, churches, and public buildings. Parramatta Road, linking Sydney and Parramatta, was opened in 1811[58] and a
road across the Blue Mountains was completed in 1815, opening the way for large-scale farming and grazing in the lightly
wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range.[59][60]

Following the departure of Macquarie, official policy encouraged the emigration of free British settlers to New South
Wales. Immigration to the colony increased from 900 free settlers in 1826–30 to 29,000 in 1836–40, many of whom
settled in Sydney.[61][62] By the 1840s Sydney exhibited a geographic divide between poor and working class residents
living west of the Tank Stream in areas such as The Rocks, and the more affluent residents living to its east.[62] Free
settlers, free-born residents and former convicts now represented the vast majority of the population of Sydney, leading to
increasing public agitation for responsible government and an end to transportation. Transportation to New South Wales
ceased in 1840.[63]

Conflict on the Cumberland Plain

In 1804, Irish convicts led around 300 rebels in the Castle Hill Rebellion, an
attempt to march on Sydney, commandeer a ship, and sail to freedom.[64] Poorly
armed, and with their leader Philip Cunningham captured, the main body of
insurgents were routed by about 100 troops and volunteers at Rouse Hill. At least
39 convicts were killed in the uprising and subsequent executions.[65][66]

As the colony spread to the more fertile lands around the Hawkesbury river, north- The Castle Hill convict rebellion of
west of Sydney, conflict between the settlers and the Darug people intensified, 1804
reaching a peak from 1794 to 1810. Bands of Darug people, led by Pemulwuy and
later by his son Tedbury, burned crops, killed livestock and raided settler huts and
stores in a pattern of resistance that was to be repeated as the colonial frontier expanded. A military garrison was
established on the Hawkesbury in 1795. The death toll from 1794 to 1800 was 26 settlers and up to 200 Darug.[67][68]
Conflict again erupted from 1814 to 1816 with the expansion of the colony into Dharawal country in the Nepean region
south-west of Sydney. Following the deaths of several settlers, Governor Macquarie despatched three military detachments
into Dharawal lands, culminating in the Appin massacre (April 1816) in which at least 14 Aboriginal people were
killed.[69][70]

Colonial city (1841–1900)

The New South Wales Legislative Council was transformed into a semi-elected body in 1842. The town of Sydney was
declared a city the same year, and a governing council established, elected on a restrictive property franchise.[63]

The discovery of gold in New South Wales and Victoria in 1851 initially caused
some economic disruption as male workers moved to the goldfields. Melbourne
soon overtook Sydney as Australia's largest city, leading to an enduring rivalry
between the two cities. However, increased immigration from overseas and wealth
from gold exports increased demand for housing, consumer goods, services and
urban amenities.[71] The New South Wales government also stimulated growth by
investing heavily in railways, trams, roads, ports, telegraph, schools and urban
services.[72] The population of Sydney and its suburbs grew from 95,600 in 1861
Aerial illustration of Sydney, 1888 to 386,900 in 1891.[73] The city developed many of its characteristic features. The
growing population packed into rows of terrace houses in narrow streets. New
public buildings of sandstone abounded, including at the University of Sydney
(1854–61), [74] the Australian Museum (1858–66),[75] the Town Hall (1868–88),[76] and the General Post Office (1866–
92). [77] Elaborate coffee palaces and hotels were erected.[78] Exotic plants such as jacarandas and frangipani were
introduced in parks and gardens.[79] Daylight bathing at Sydney's beaches was banned, but segregated bathing at
designated ocean baths was popular.[80]

Drought, the winding down of public works and a financial crisis led to economic depression in Sydney throughout most
of the 1890s. Meanwhile, the Sydney-based premier of New South Wales, George Reid, became a key figure in the
process of federation.[81]

State capital (1901–present)

When the six colonies federated on 1 January 1901, Sydney became the capital of
the State of New South Wales. The spread of bubonic plague in 1900 prompted
the new state government to modernise the wharves and demolish inner-city slums.
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 saw more Sydney males volunteer
for the armed forces than the Commonwealth authorities could process, and helped
reduce unemployment in the city. Those returning from the war in 1918 were
promised "homes fit for heroes" in new suburbs such as Daceyville and Matraville.
"Garden suburbs" and mixed industrial and residential developments also grew
along the rail and tram corridors.[62] The population reached one million in 1926, A tramcar on George Street in 1920.
after Sydney had regained its position as the most populous city in Australia.[82] Sydney once had one of the largest
The government created jobs with massive public projects such as the tram networks in the British Empire.
electrification of the Sydney rail network and building the Sydney Harbour
Bridge.[83]

Sydney was more severely affected by the Great Depression of the 1930s than regional NSW or Melbourne.[84] New
building almost came to a standstill, and by 1933 the unemployment rate for male workers was 28 per cent, but over 40
per cent in working class areas such as Alexandria and Redfern. Many families were evicted from their homes and shanty
towns grew along coastal Sydney and Botany Bay, the largest being "Happy Valley" at La Perouse.[85] The Depression
also exacerbated political divisions. In March 1932, when populist Labor premier Jack Lang attempted to open the Sydney
Harbour Bridge he was upstaged by Francis de Groot of the far-right New Guard, who slashed the ribbon with a
sabre.[86]

In January 1938, Sydney celebrated the Empire Games and the sesquicentenary of European settlement in Australia. One
journalist wrote, "Golden beaches. Sun tanned men and maidens...Red-roofed villas terraced above the blue waters of the
harbour...Even Melbourne seems like some grey and stately city of Northern Europe compared with Sydney's sub-tropical
splendours." Meanwhile, a congress of the "Aborigines of Australia", declared 26
January "A Day of Mourning" for "the whiteman's seizure of our country."[87]

With the outbreak of war in 1939, Sydney experienced a surge in industrial

development to meet the needs of a wartime economy. Unemployment virtually
disappeared and women moved into jobs previously male preserves. Sydney was
attacked by Japanese submarines in May and June 1942 with 21 lives lost.
Households throughout the city built air raid shelters and performed drills.[88]

A post-war immigration and baby boom saw a rapid increase in Sydney's Sydney Harbour Bridge opening day,
population and the spread of low-density housing in suburbs throughout the 19 March 1932
Cumberland Plain. Immigrants—mostly from Britain and continental Europe—and
their children accounted for over three-quarters of Sydney's population growth
between 1947 and 1971.[89] The newly created Cumberland County Council oversighted low-density residential
developments, the largest at Green Valley and Mount Druitt. Older residential centres such as Parramatta, Bankstown and
Liverpool became suburbs of the metropolis.[90] Manufacturing, protected by high tariffs, employed over a third of the
workforce from 1945 to the 1960s. However, as the long post-war economic boom progressed, retail and other service
industries became the main source of new jobs.[91]

An estimated one million onlookers, most of the city's population, watched as Queen Elizabeth II landed in 1954 at Farm
Cove where Captain Phillip had raised the Union Jack 165 years earlier, commencing her Australian Royal Tour. It was
the first time a reigning monarch stepped onto Australian soil.[92]

Increasing high rise development in Sydney and the expansion of suburbs beyond the "green belt" envisaged by the
planners of the 1950s resulted in community protests. In the early 1970s, trade unions and resident action groups imposed
green bans on development projects in historic areas such as The Rocks. Federal, State and local governments
subsequently introduced a range of heritage and environmental legislation.[62] The Sydney Opera House was also
controversial for its cost and disputes between architect Jørn Utzon and government officials. However, soon after it
opened in 1973 it became a major tourist attraction and symbol of the city.[93] The progressive reduction in tariff
protection from 1974 began the transformation of Sydney from a manufacturing centre focused on the domestic market to
a "world city" providing financial, commercial, cultural and educational services to local residents and Australian and
overseas markets.[94] From the 1980s, overseas immigration to Sydney grew rapidly, with Asia, the Middle East and
Africa becoming major sources of immigrants. By 2021, the population of Sydney was over 5.2 million, with 40% of the
population born overseas. China and India overtook England as the largest source countries for overseas-born
residents.[95]

Geography

Topography

Sydney is a coastal basin with the Tasman Sea to the east, the Blue Mountains to
the west, the Hawkesbury River to the north, and the Woronora Plateau to the
south.

Sydney spans two geographic regions. The Cumberland Plain lies to the south and
west of the Harbour and is relatively flat. The Hornsby Plateau is located to the
north and is dissected by steep valleys. The flat areas of the south were the first to
be developed as the city grew. It was not until the construction of the Sydney
Harbour Bridge that the northern reaches of the coast became more heavily
populated. Seventy surf beaches can be found along its coastline with Bondi
Beach being one of the most famous.

The Nepean River wraps around the western edge of the city and becomes the Sydney lies on a submergent
Hawkesbury River before reaching Broken Bay. Most of Sydney's water storages coastline where the ocean level has
can be found on tributaries of the Nepean River. The Parramatta River is mostly risen to flood deep rias.
industrial and drains a large area of Sydney's western suburbs into Port Jackson. The southern parts of the city are drained
by the Georges River and the Cooks River into Botany Bay.

There is no single definition of the boundaries of Sydney. The Australian Statistical Geography Standard definition of
Greater Sydney covers 12,369 km2 (4,776 sq mi) and includes the local government areas of Central Coast in the north,
Hawkesbury in the north-west, Blue Mountains in the west, Sutherland Shire in the south, and Wollondilly in the south-
west.[96] The local government area of the City of Sydney covers about 26 square kilometres from Garden island in the
east to Bicentennial Park in the west, and south to the suburbs of Alexandria and Rosebery.[97]

Geology

Sydney is made up of mostly Triassic rock with some recent igneous dykes and
volcanic necks (typically found in the Prospect dolerite intrusion, west of
Sydney).[98] The Sydney Basin was formed when the Earth's crust expanded,
subsided, and filled with sediment in the early Triassic period.[99] The sand that
was to become the sandstone of today was washed there by rivers from the south
and northwest and laid down between 360 and 200 million years ago. The
sandstone has shale lenses and fossil riverbeds.[99]
Almost all of the exposed rocks
The Sydney Basin bioregion includes coastal features of cliffs, beaches, and around Sydney are Sydney
estuaries. Deep river valleys known as rias were carved during the Triassic period sandstone.
in the Hawkesbury sandstone of the coastal region where Sydney now lies. The
rising sea level between 18,000 and 6,000 years ago flooded the rias to form
estuaries and deep harbours.[99] Port Jackson, better known as Sydney Harbour, is one such ria.[100] Sydney features two
major soil types; sandy soils (which originate from the Hawkesbury sandstone) and clay (which are from shales and
volcanic rocks), though some soils may be a mixture of the two.[101]

Directly overlying the older Hawkesbury sandstone is the Wianamatta shale, a geological feature found in western Sydney
that was deposited in connection with a large river delta during the Middle Triassic period which shifted over time from
west to east. The Wianamatta shale generally comprises fine grained sedimentary rocks such as shales, mudstones,
ironstones, siltstones and laminites, with less common sandstone units.[102] The Wianamatta Group is made up of the
following units (listed in stratigraphic order): Bringelly Shale, Minchinbury Sandstone and Ashfield Shale.[103]

Ecology

The most prevalent plant communities in the Sydney region are grassy woodlands
(i.e. savannas)[104] and some pockets of dry sclerophyll forests,[105] which consist
of eucalyptus trees, casuarinas, melaleucas, corymbias and angophoras, with
shrubs (typically wattles, callistemons, grevilleas and banksias), and a semi-
continuous grass in the understory.[106] The plants in this community tend to have
rough and spiky leaves, as they're grown in areas with low soil fertility. Sydney
also features a few areas of wet sclerophyll forests which are found in the wetter,
elevated areas in the north and the northeast. These forests are defined by straight, Typical grassy woodland in the
tall tree canopies with a moist understory of soft-leaved shrubs, tree ferns and Sydney metropolitan area
herbs.[107]

The predominant vegetation community in Sydney is the Cumberland Plain Woodland, which is found in Western Sydney
(Cumberland Plain),[108] followed by the Sydney Turpentine-Ironbark Forest which is scattered in the Inner West and
Northern Sydney,[109] the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub in the coastline and the Blue Gum High Forest which is
scantily present in the North Shore – All of which are critically endangered.[110][111] The city also includes the Sydney
Sandstone Ridgetop Woodland found in Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park on the Hornsby Plateau to the north.[112]

Sydney is home to dozens of bird species,[113] which commonly include the Australian raven, Australian magpie, crested
pigeon, noisy miner and the pied currawong, among others. Introduced bird species ubiquitously found in Sydney are the
common myna, common starling, house sparrow and the spotted dove.[114] Reptile species are also numerous and
predominantly include skinks.[115][116] Sydney has a few mammal and spider species, such as the grey-headed flying fox
and the Sydney funnel-web, respectively,[117][118] and has a huge diversity of marine species inhabiting its harbour and
many beaches.[119]

Climate

Under the Köppen–Geiger classification, Sydney has a humid subtropical climate

(Cfa)[120] with "warm [and] sometimes hot" summers and "cool" winters, as
described by the Australian Bureau of Statistics.[121] The El Niño–Southern
Oscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole and the Southern Annular Mode[122][123]
play an important role in determining Sydney's weather patterns: drought and
bushfire on the one hand, and storms and flooding on the other, associated with the
opposite phases of the oscillation in Australia. The weather is moderated by
proximity to the ocean, and more extreme temperatures are recorded in the inland A summer storm passing over
western suburbs.[124] Sydney Harbour

At Sydney's primary weather station at Observatory Hill, extreme temperatures

have ranged from 45.8 °C (114.4 °F) on 18 January 2013 to 2.1 °C (35.8 °F) on 22 June 1932.[125][126][127] An average
of 14.9 days a year have temperatures at or above 30 °C (86 °F) in the central business district (CBD).[124] In contrast, the
metropolitan area averages between 35 and 65 days, depending on the suburb.[128] The hottest day in the Sydney
metropolitan area occurred in Penrith on 4 January 2020, where a high of 48.9  °C (120.0  °F) was recorded.[129] The
average annual temperature of the sea ranges from 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) in September to 23.7 °C (74.7 °F) in February.[130]
Sydney has an average of 7.2 hours of sunshine per day[131] and 109.5 clear days annually.[4] Due to the inland location,
frost is recorded early in the morning in Western Sydney a few times in winter. Autumn and spring are the transitional
seasons, with spring showing a larger temperature variation than autumn.[132]

Sydney experiences an urban heat island effect.[133] This makes certain parts of the city more vulnerable to extreme heat,
including coastal suburbs.[133][134] In late spring and summer, temperatures over 35 °C (95 °F) are not uncommon,[135]
though hot, dry conditions are usually ended by a southerly buster,[136] a powerful southerly that brings gale winds and a
rapid fall in temperature.[137] Since Sydney is downwind of the Great Dividing Range, it occasionally experiences dry,
westerly foehn winds typically in winter and early spring (which are the reason for its warm maximum
temperatures).[138][139][140] Westerly winds are intense when the Roaring Forties (or the Southern Annular Mode) shift
towards southeastern Australia,[141] where they may damage homes and affect flights, in addition to making the
temperature seem colder than it actually is.[142][143]

Rainfall has a moderate to low variability and has historically been fairly uniform throughout the year, although in recent
years it has been more summer-dominant and erratic.[144][145][146][147] Precipitation is usually higher in late summer
through to early winter and lower in late winter to early spring.[122][148][124][149] In late autumn and winter, east coast
lows may bring large amounts of rainfall, especially in the CBD.[150] In the warm season black nor'easters are usually the
cause of heavy rain events, though other forms of low-pressure areas, including remnants of ex-cyclones, may also bring
heavy deluge and afternoon thunderstorms, particularly in the western suburbs.[151][152] Snowfall was last reported in the
Sydney City area in 1836, while a fall of graupel, or soft hail, in Lindfield, Roseville and Killara was mistaken by many
for snow, in July 2008.[153] In 2009, dry conditions brought a severe dust storm towards the city.[154][155]
 Climate data for Sydney (Observatory Hill) 1991–2020 averages, 1861–present extremes
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Record
45.8 42.1 39.8 35.4 30.0 26.9 26.5 31.3 34.6 38.2 41.8 42.2 45.8
high °C
(114.4) (107.8) (103.6) (95.7) (86.0) (80.4) (79.7) (88.3) (94.3) (100.8) (107.2) (108.0) (114.4)
(°F)

Average
27.0 26.8 25.7 23.6 20.9 18.3 17.9 19.3 21.6 23.2 24.2 25.7 22.8
high °C
(80.6) (80.2) (78.3) (74.5) (69.6) (64.9) (64.2) (66.7) (70.9) (73.8) (75.6) (78.3) (73.0)
(°F)

Daily
23.5 23.4 22.1 19.5 16.6 14.2 13.4 14.5 17.0 18.9 20.4 22.1 18.8
mean °C
(74.3) (74.1) (71.8) (67.1) (61.9) (57.6) (56.1) (58.1) (62.6) (66.0) (68.7) (71.8) (65.8)
(°F)

Average
20.0 19.9 18.4 15.3 12.3 10.0 8.9 9.7 12.3 14.6 16.6 18.4 14.7
low °C
(68.0) (67.8) (65.1) (59.5) (54.1) (50.0) (48.0) (49.5) (54.1) (58.3) (61.9) (65.1) (58.5)
(°F)

Record
10.6 9.6 9.3 7.0 4.4 2.1 2.2 2.7 4.9 5.7 7.7 9.1 2.1
low °C
(51.1) (49.3) (48.7) (44.6) (39.9) (35.8) (36.0) (36.9) (40.8) (42.3) (45.9) (48.4) (35.8)
(°F)

Average
rainfall 91.1 131.5 117.5 114.1 100.8 142.0 80.3 75.1 63.4 67.7 90.6 73.0 1,149.7
mm (3.59) (5.18) (4.63) (4.49) (3.97) (5.59) (3.16) (2.96) (2.50) (2.67) (3.57) (2.87) (45.26)
(inches)

Average
rainy
8.2 9.0 10.1 7.9 7.9 9.3 7.2 5.6 5.8 7.6 8.7 7.9 95.2
days
(≥ 1 mm)

Average
afternoon
relative 60 62 59 58 58 56 52 47 49 53 57 58 56
humidity
(%)

Mean
monthly
232.5 205.9 210.8 213.0 204.6 171.0 207.7 248.0 243.0 244.9 222.0 235.6 2,639
sunshine
hours

Percent
possible 53 54 55 63 63 57 66 72 67 61 55 55 60
sunshine

Source 1: Bureau of Meteorology [156][157]

Source 2: Bureau of Meteorology, Sydney Airport (sunshine hours)[158]

Regions
The Greater Sydney Commission, a planning body, divides Sydney into three
"cities" and five "districts" based on the 33 LGAs in the metropolitan area. The
"metropolis of three cities" comprises Eastern Harbour City, Central River City
and Western Parkland City.[159] The Australian Bureau of Statistics also includes
City of Central Coast (the former Gosford City and Wyong Shire) as part of
Greater Sydney for population counts.[160] This adds another 330,000 people to
the metropolitan area covered by Greater Sydney Commission.[161]
Sydney area at night, facing west.
Wollongong is bottom left, and the
Inner suburbs Central Coast is at the far right.

The CBD extends about 3 km (1.9 mi) south from Sydney Cove. It is bordered by
Farm Cove within the Royal Botanic Garden to the east and Darling Harbour to the west. Suburbs surrounding the CBD
include Woolloomooloo and Potts Point to the east, Surry Hills and Darlinghurst to the south, Pyrmont and Ultimo to the
west, and Millers Point and The Rocks to the north. Most of these suburbs
measure less than 1 km2 (0.4 sq mi) in area. The Sydney CBD is characterised by
considerably narrow streets and thoroughfares, created in its convict beginnings in
the 18th century.[162]

Several localities, distinct from suburbs, exist throughout Sydney's inner reaches.
Central and Circular Quay are transport hubs with ferry, rail, and bus interchanges.
Chinatown, Darling Harbour, and Kings Cross are important locations for culture,
tourism, and recreation. The Strand Arcade, which is located between Pitt Street Historical buildings in Millers Point,
Mall and George Street, is a historical Victorian-style shopping arcade. Opened on an inner suburb north of the CBD
1 April 1892, its shop fronts are an exact replica of the original internal shopping
facades.[163] Westfield Sydney, located beneath the Sydney Tower, is the largest
shopping centre by area in Sydney.[164]

Since the late 20th century, there has been a trend of gentrification amongst
Sydney's inner suburbs. Pyrmont, located on the harbour, was redeveloped from a
centre of shipping and international trade to an area of high density housing, tourist
accommodation, and gambling.[165] Originally located well outside of the city,
Darlinghurst is the location of the historic, former Darlinghurst Gaol,
manufacturing, and mixed housing. It had a period when it was known as an area
of prostitution. The terrace style housing has largely been retained and
Darlinghurst has undergone significant gentrification since the
1980s.[166][167][168]
A street in the inner-city suburb of
Green Square is a former industrial area of Waterloo which is undergoing urban Paddington
renewal worth $8  billion. On the city harbour edge, the historic suburb and
wharves of Millers Point are being built up as the new area of Barangaroo. The
enforced rehousing of local residents due to the Millers Point/Barangaroo development has caused significant controversy
despite the $6 billion worth of economic activity it is expected to generate.[169][170] The suburb of Paddington is a well
known suburb for its streets of restored terrace houses, Victoria Barracks, and shopping including the weekly Oxford
Street markets.[171]

Inner West

The Inner West generally includes the Inner West Council, Municipality of
Burwood, Municipality of Strathfield, and City of Canada Bay. These span up to
about 11 km west of the CBD. Historically, especially prior to the building of the
Harbour Bridge,[172] the outer suburbs of the Inner West such as Strathfield were
the location of "country" estates for the colony's elites. By contrast, the inner
suburbs in the Inner West, being close to transport and industry, have historically
housed working class industrial workers. These areas have undergone
gentrification in the late 20th century, and many parts of the region are now highly
Newtown, one of the inner-most
valued residential suburbs.[173] As of the end of 2021, an Inner West suburb parts of the Inner West, is one of the
(Strathfield) remained one of the 20 most expensive postcode areas in Australia most complete Victorian and
measured by median house price (the other 19 were all in metropolitan Sydney, all Edwardian era commercial precincts
in Northern Sydney or the Eastern Suburbs).[174] In addition to preserved areas of in Australia.
low-density suburban residences, the region now features a large proportion of
medium- and high-density housing. The University of Sydney is located in this
area, as well as the University of Technology, Sydney and a campus of the Australian Catholic University. Geographically,
the Parramatta River, which forms the northern boundary of this area, forms a series of large bays, including Homebush
Bay, Hen and Chicken Bay and Iron Cove, creating a series of picturesque riverfront suburbs. The southern boundary is
the smaller Georges River. The Anzac Bridge spans Johnstons Bay and connects Rozelle to Pyrmont and the city, forming
part of the Western Distributor.

The Inner West is today well known as the location of village commercial centres that have acquired cosmopolitan
flavours, such as the "Little Italy" commercial centres of Leichardt, Five Dock and Haberfield,[175] "Little Portugal" in
Petersham,[176] "Little Korea" in Strathfield[177] or "Little Shanghai" in Ashfield.[178] Large-scale shopping centres in the
area include Westfield Burwood, DFO Homebush and Birkenhead Point Outlet
Centre. There is a large cosmopolitan community and nightlife hub on King Street
in Newtown.

The area is serviced by the T1, T2, and T3 railway lines, including the Main
Suburban Line, which was the first to be constructed in New South Wales.
Strathfield railway station is a secondary railway hub within Sydney, and major
station on the Suburban and Northern lines. It was constructed in 1876.[179] The
future Sydney Metro West will also connect this area with the City and Parramatta.
The area is also serviced by the Parramatta River services of Sydney Ferries,[180] Geographically, the Inner West is
numerous bus routes and cycleways.[181] characterised by large bays and
peninsulas along the southern bank
of the Parramatta River (Hen and
Eastern suburbs Chicken Bay and Abbotsford Bay
pictured.
The Eastern Suburbs encompass the Municipality of Woollahra, the City of
Randwick, the Waverley Municipal Council, and parts of the Bayside Council.
They include some of the most affluent and advantaged areas in the country, with
some streets being amongst the most expensive in the world. As at 2014, Wolseley
Road, Point Piper, had a top price of $20,900 per square metre, making it the
ninth-most expensive street in the world.[182] More than 75% of neighbourhoods
in the Electoral District of Wentworth fall under the top decile of SEIFA
advantage, making it the least disadvantaged area in the country.[183] As of the end
of 2021, of the 20 most expensive postcode areas in Australia (measured by
median house price), nine were in the Eastern Suburbs.[174]
Tamarama and Bronte beaches
Major landmarks include Bondi Beach, a major tourist site; which was added to
the Australian National Heritage List in 2008;[184] and Bondi Junction, featuring a
Westfield shopping centre and an estimated office work force of 6,400 by 2035,[185] as well as a railway station on the T4
Eastern Suburbs Line. The suburb of Randwick contains Randwick Racecourse, the Royal Hospital for Women, the
Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney Children's Hospital, and University of New South Wales Kensington Campus.
Randwick's 'Collaboration Area' has a baseline estimate of 32,000 jobs by 2036, according to the Greater Sydney
Commission.[186]

Construction of the CBD and South East Light Rail was completed in April 2020.[187] Main construction was due to be
completed in 2018 but was delayed until 2020.[188] The project aims to provide reliable and high-capacity tram services to
residents in the City and South-East.

Major shopping centres in the area include Westfield Bondi Junction and Westfield Eastgardens.

Southern Sydney

Southern Sydney includes the suburbs in the local government areas of former
Rockdale, Georges River Council (collectively known as the St George area), and
broadly it also includes the suburbs in the local government area of Sutherland,
south of the Georges River (colloquially known as 'The Shire').

The Kurnell peninsula, near Botany Bay, is the site of the first landfall on the
eastern coastline made by Lt. (later Captain) James Cook in 1770. La Perouse, a
historic suburb named after the French navigator Jean-François de Galaup, comte
Kurnell, La Perouse, and Cronulla,
de Lapérouse (1741–88), is notable for its old military outpost at Bare Island and
along with various other suburbs,
the Botany Bay National Park.
face Botany Bay.
The suburb of Cronulla in southern Sydney is close to Royal National Park, Australia's oldest national park. Hurstville, a
large suburb with a multitude of commercial buildings and high-rise residential buildings dominating the skyline, has
become a CBD for the southern suburbs.[189]

Northern Sydney

'Northern Sydney' may also include the suburbs in the Upper North Shore, Lower
North Shore and the Northern Beaches.

The Northern Suburbs include several landmarks – Macquarie University,

Gladesville Bridge, Ryde Bridge, Macquarie Centre and Curzon Hall in Marsfield.
This area includes suburbs in the local government areas of Hornsby Shire, City of
Ryde, the Municipality of Hunter's Hill and parts of the City of Parramatta.

The North Shore, an informal geographic term referring to the northern Chatswood is a major commercial
metropolitan area of Sydney, consists of Artarmon, Chatswood, Roseville, district.
Lindfield, Killara, Gordon, Pymble, Hornsby and many others.

The Lower North Shore usually refers to the suburbs adjacent to the harbour such as Neutral Bay, Waverton, Mosman,
Cremorne, Cremorne Point, Lavender Bay, Milsons Point, Cammeray, Northbridge, and North Sydney. Hunters Hill and
Gladesville are often also considered as being part of the Lower North Shore.[190] The Lower North Shore's eastern
boundary is Middle Harbour, or at the Roseville Bridge at Castle Cove and Roseville Chase. The Upper North Shore
usually refers to the suburbs between Chatswood and Hornsby. It is made up of suburbs located within Ku-ring-gai and
Hornsby Shire councils.

The North Shore includes the commercial centres of North Sydney and Chatswood. North Sydney itself consists of a large
commercial centre, with its own business centre, which contains the second largest concentration of high-rise buildings in
Sydney, after the CBD. North Sydney is dominated by advertising, marketing businesses and associated trades, with many
large corporations holding office in the region.

The Northern Beaches area includes Manly, one of Sydney's most popular holiday destinations for much of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries. The region also features Sydney Heads, a series of headlands which form the 2 km (1.2 mi) wide
entrance to Sydney Harbour. The Northern Beaches area extends south to the entrance of Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour),
west to Middle Harbour and north to the entrance of Broken Bay. The 2011 Australian census found the Northern
Beaches to be the most white and mono-ethnic district in Australia, contrasting with its more-diverse neighbours, the North
Shore and the Central Coast.[191]

As of the end of 2021, half of the 20 most expensive postcode areas in Australia (measured by median house price) were
all in Northern Sydney, including four on the Northern Beaches, two on the Lower North Shore, three on the Upper North
Shore, one (straddling Hunters Hill and Woolwich) in Northern Sydney (the other 10 were also all in metropolitan
Sydney: nine in the Eastern Suburbs and one in the Inner west).[174]

Hills district

The Hills district generally refers to the suburbs in north-western Sydney including the local government areas of The
Hills Shire, parts of the City of Parramatta Council and Hornsby Shire. Actual suburbs and localities that are considered to
be in the Hills District can be somewhat amorphous and variable. For example, the Hills District Historical Society
restricts its definition to the Hills Shire local government area, yet its study area extends from Parramatta to the
Hawkesbury. The region is so named for its characteristically comparatively hilly topography as the Cumberland Plain lifts
up, joining the Hornsby Plateau.

Several of its suburbs also have "Hill" or "Hills" in their names, such as Baulkham Hills, Castle Hill, Seven Hills,
Beaumont Hills, and Winston Hills, among others. Windsor and Old Windsor Roads are historic roads in Australia, as they
are the second and third roads, respectively, laid in the colony.[192]

Western suburbs
The greater western suburbs encompasses the areas of Parramatta, the sixth largest
business district in Australia, settled the same year as the harbour-side colony,[193]
Bankstown, Liverpool, Penrith, and Fairfield. Covering 5,800 km2 (2,200 sq mi)
and having an estimated resident population as at 2017 of 2,288,554, western
Sydney has the most multicultural suburbs in the country. The population is
predominantly of a working class background, with major employment in the
heavy industries and vocational trade.[194] Toongabbie is noted for being the third
mainland settlement (after Sydney and Parramatta) set up after the British
colonisation of Australia began in 1788, although the site of the settlement is An aerial view of Greater Western
actually in the separate suburb of Old Toongabbie.[195] Sydney; as well as being mostly
suburban in nature, western Sydney
The western suburb of Prospect, in the City of Blacktown, is home to Raging is also made up of various industrial
Waters, a water park operated by Parques Reunidos.[196] Auburn Botanic precincts and business parks.
Gardens, a botanical garden situated in Auburn, attracts thousands of visitors each
year, including a significant number from outside Australia.[197] Another
prominent park in the west is the Western Sydney Regional Park in Abbotsbury.[198] The greater west also includes
Sydney Olympic Park, a suburb created to host the 2000 Summer Olympics, and Sydney Motorsport Park, a motorsport
circuit located in Eastern Creek.[199] The Boothtown Aqueduct in Greystanes is a 19th-century water bridge that is listed
on the New South Wales State Heritage Register as a site of State significance.[200] Prospect Hill, a historically significant
ridge in the west and the only area in Sydney with ancient volcanic activity,[201] is also listed on the NSW State Heritage
Register.[202]

To the northwest, Featherdale Wildlife Park, an Australian zoo in Doonside, near Blacktown, is a major tourist attraction,
not just for Western Sydney, but for NSW and Australia.[203] Sydney Zoo, opened in 2019, is another prominent zoo
situated in Bungaribee.[204] Westfield Parramatta in Parramatta is Australia's busiest Westfield shopping centre, having
28.7 million customer visits per annum.[205] Established in 1799, the Old Government House, a historic house museum
and tourist spot in Parramatta, was included in the Australian National Heritage List on 1 August 2007 and World Heritage
List in 2010 (as part of the 11 penal sites constituting the Australian Convict Sites), making it the only site in greater
western Sydney to be featured in such lists.[206] Moreover, the house is Australia's oldest surviving public building.[207]

Further to the southwest is the region of Macarthur and the city of Campbelltown, a significant population centre until the
1990s considered a region separate to Sydney proper. Macarthur Square, a shopping complex in Campbelltown, has
become one of the largest shopping complexes in Sydney.[208] The southwest also features Bankstown Reservoir, the
oldest elevated reservoir constructed in reinforced concrete that is still in use and is listed on the New South Wales State
Heritage Register.[209] The southwest is home to one of Sydney's oldest trees, the Bland Oak, which was planted in the
1840s by William Bland in the suburb of Carramar.[210]

Urban structure

The Sydney CBD with the Opera House and Harbour Bridge. Sydney is home to the most high-rise buildings in the nation.[211]

Architecture
The earliest structures in the colony were built to the bare minimum of standards. Upon his appointment, Governor
Lachlan Macquarie set ambitious targets for the architectural design of new construction projects. The city now has a
world heritage listed building, several national heritage listed buildings, and dozens of Commonwealth heritage listed
buildings as evidence of the survival of Macquarie's ideals.[212][213][214]

In 1814 the Governor called on a convict named Francis Greenway to design

Macquarie Lighthouse.[215] The lighthouse and its Classical design earned
Greenway a pardon from Macquarie in 1818 and introduced a culture of refined
architecture that remains to this day.[216] Greenway went on to design the Hyde
Park Barracks in 1819 and the Georgian style St James's Church in 1824.[217][218]
Gothic-inspired architecture became more popular from the 1830s. John Verge's
Elizabeth Bay House and St Philip's Church of 1856 were built in Gothic Revival
style along with Edward Blore's Government House of 1845.[219][220] Kirribilli
House, completed in 1858, and St Andrew's Cathedral, Australia's oldest York Street is an example of a city
cathedral,[221] are rare examples of Victorian Gothic construction.[219][222] street in Sydney with an array of
intact Victorian heritage architecture.
From the late 1850s there was a shift towards Classical architecture. Mortimer
Lewis designed the Australian Museum in 1857.[223] The General Post Office,
completed in 1891 in Victorian Free Classical style, was designed by James
Barnet.[224] Barnet also oversaw the 1883 reconstruction of Greenway's
Macquarie Lighthouse.[215][216] Customs House was built in 1844 to the
specifications of Lewis, with additions from Barnet in 1887 and W L Vernon in
1899.[225] The neo-Classical and French Second Empire style Town Hall was
completed in 1889.[226][227] Romanesque designs gained favour amongst
Sydney's architects from the early 1890s. Sydney Technical College was
completed in 1893 using both Romanesque Revival and Queen Anne
approaches.[228] The Queen Victoria Building was designed in Romanesque General Post Office
Revival fashion by George McRae and completed in 1898.[229] It was built on the
site of the Sydney Central Markets and accommodates 200 shops across its three
storeys.[230]

As the wealth of the settlement increased, and as Sydney developed into a metropolis after Federation in 1901, its
buildings became taller. Sydney's first tower was Culwulla Chambers on the corner of King Street and Castlereagh Street
which topped out at 50 m (160 ft) making 12 floors. The Commercial Traveller's Club, located in Martin Place and built in
1908, was of similar height at 10 floors. It was built in a brick stone veneer and demolished in 1972 to make way for
Harry Seidler's MLC Centre.[231] This heralded a change in Sydney's cityscape and with the lifting of height restrictions
in the 1960s there came a surge of high-rise construction.[232] Acclaimed architects such as Jean Nouvel, Harry Seidler,
Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Norman Foster, and Frank Gehry have each made their own contribution to the city's
skyline.

The Great Depression had a tangible influence on Sydney's architecture. New structures became more restrained with far
less ornamentation than was common before the 1930s. The most notable architectural feat of this period is the Harbour
Bridge. Its steel arch was designed by John Bradfield and completed in 1932. A total of 39,000 tonnes of structural steel
span the 503 m (1,650 ft) between Milsons Point and Dawes Point.[233][234]

Modern and International architecture came to Sydney from the 1940s. Since its completion in 1973 the city's Opera
House has become a World Heritage Site and one of the world's most renowned pieces of Modern design. It was
conceived by Jørn Utzon with contributions from Peter Hall, Lionel Todd, and David Littlemore. Utzon was awarded the
Pritzker Prize in 2003 for his work on the Opera House.[235] Sydney is home to Australia's first building by renowned
Canadian-American architect Frank Gehry, the Dr Chau Chak Wing Building (2015), based on the design of a tree house.
An entrance from The Goods Line–a pedestrian pathway and former railway line–is located on the eastern border of the
site.

Contemporary buildings in the CBD include Citigroup Centre,[236] Aurora Place,[237] Chifley Tower,[238][239] the
Reserve Bank building,[240] Deutsche Bank Place,[241] MLC Centre,[242] and Capita Centre.[243] The tallest structure is
Sydney Tower, designed by Donald Crone and completed in 1981.[244] Regulations limited new buildings to a height of
235 m (771 ft) due to the proximity of Sydney Airport, although strict restrictions employed in the early 2000s have slowly
been relaxed in the past ten years, with a maximum height restriction now sitting at 330 metres (1083 feet).[245] Green
 bans and heritage overlays have been in place since at least 1977 to protect Sydney's
heritage after controversial demolitions in the 1970s led to an outcry from Sydneysiders to
preserve the old and keep history intact, sufficiently balancing old and new
architecture.[246]

Housing

Sydney surpasses both New York City and Paris

real estate prices, having some of the most
expensive in the world.[247][248] The city remains
Australia's most expensive housing market, with
the mean house price at $1,142,212 as of
Frank Gehry's Dr Chau
December 2019 (over 25% higher the national
Chak Wing Building
mean house price).[249]
Terraces in Kirribilli
There were 1.76  million dwellings in Sydney in
2016 including 925,000 (57%) detached houses, 227,000 (14%) semi-detached
terrace houses and 456,000 (28%) units and apartments.[250] Whilst terrace houses are common in the inner city areas, it is
detached houses that dominate the landscape in the outer suburbs.

Due to environmental and economic pressures, there has been a noted trend towards denser housing. There was a 30%
increase in the number of apartments in Sydney between 1996 and 2006.[251] Public housing in Sydney is managed by
the Government of New South Wales.[252] Suburbs with large concentrations of public housing include Claymore,
Macquarie Fields, Waterloo, and Mount Druitt. The Government has announced plans to sell nearly 300 historic public
housing properties in the harbourside neighbourhoods of Millers Point, Gloucester Street, and The Rocks.[253]

Sydney is one of the most expensive real estate markets globally. It is only second to Hong Kong with the average
property costing 14 times the annual Sydney salary as of December 2016.[254] A range of heritage housing styles can be
found throughout Sydney. Terrace houses are found in the inner suburbs such as Paddington, The Rocks, Potts Point and
Balmain–many of which have been the subject of gentrification.[255][256] These terraces, particularly those in suburbs
such as The Rocks, were historically home to Sydney's miners and labourers. In the present day, terrace houses now make
up some of the most valuable real estate in the city.[257]

Federation homes, constructed around the time of Federation in 1901, are located in suburbs such as Penshurst,
Turramurra, and in Haberfield. Haberfield is known as "The Federation Suburb" due to the extensive number of
Federation homes. Workers cottages are found in Surry Hills, Redfern, and Balmain. California bungalows are common in
Ashfield, Concord, and Beecroft. Larger modern homes are predominantly found in the outer suburbs, such as Stanhope
Gardens, Kellyville Ridge, Bella Vista to the northwest, Bossley Park, Abbotsbury, and Cecil Hills to the west, and
Hoxton Park, Harrington Park, and Oran Park to the southwest.[258]

Parks and open spaces

The Anzac War Memorial in Hyde Park is a public memorial dedicated to the achievement of the Australian Imperial
Force of World War I.

The Royal Botanic Garden is the most iconic green space in the Sydney region, hosting both scientific and leisure
activities.[259] There are 15 separate parks under the administration of the City of Sydney.[260] Parks within the city centre
include Hyde Park, The Domain and Prince Alfred Park.

The Centennial Parklands is the largest park in the City of Sydney, comprising 189 ha (470 acres).

The inner suburbs include Centennial Park and Moore Park in the east (both within the City of Sydney local government
area), while the outer suburbs contain Sydney Park and Royal National Park in the south, Ku-ring-gai Chase National
Park in the north, and Western Sydney Parklands in the west, which is one of the largest urban parks in the world. The
Royal National Park was proclaimed on 26 April 1879 and with 13,200 ha (51 sq mi) is the second oldest national park in
the world.[262]
Hyde Park is the oldest parkland in the country.[264] The largest park in the
Sydney metropolitan area is Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, established in 1894
with an area of 15,400  ha (59  sq  mi).[265] It is regarded for its well-preserved
records of indigenous habitation and more than 800 rock engravings, cave
drawings and middens have been located in the park.[266]

The area now known as The Domain was set aside by Governor Arthur Phillip in
1788 as his private reserve.[267] Under the orders of Macquarie the land to the The Centennial Parklands is the
immediate north of The Domain became the Royal Botanic Garden in 1816. This largest park in the City of Sydney,
makes them the oldest botanic garden in Australia.[267] The Gardens are not just a comprising 189 ha (470 acres).[261]
place for exploration and relaxation, but also for scientific research with herbarium
collections, a library and laboratories.[268] The two parks have a total area of 64 ha
(0.2 sq mi) with 8,900 individual plant species and receive over 3.5 million annual
visits.[269]

To the south of The Domain is Hyde Park, the oldest public parkland in Australia
which measures 16.2  ha (0.1  sq  mi) in area.[270] Its location was used for both
relaxation and the grazing of animals from the earliest days of the colony.[271]
Macquarie dedicated it in 1810 for the "recreation and amusement of the
inhabitants of the town" and named it in honour of the original Hyde Park in The Anzac War Memorial in Hyde
London. Park is a public memorial dedicated
to the achievement of the Australian
Economy Imperial Force of World War I.[263]

Researchers from Loughborough University have ranked Sydney amongst the top
ten world cities that are highly integrated into the global economy.[273] The Global
Economic Power Index ranks Sydney number eleven in the world.[274] The
Global Cities Index recognises it as number fourteen in the world based on global
engagement.[275] There is a significant concentration of foreign banks and
multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as Australia's
financial capital and one of Asia Pacific's leading financial hubs.[276][277]
The central business district.
The prevailing economic theory in effect during early colonial days was
Sydney is the financial and
mercantilism, as it was throughout most of Western Europe.[278] The economy
economic centre of Australia, having
struggled at first due to difficulties in cultivating the land and the lack of a stable
the largest economy and contributing
monetary system. Governor Lachlan Macquarie solved the second problem by
a quarter of Australia's total
creating two coins from every Spanish silver dollar in circulation.[278] The
GDP.[272]
economy was clearly capitalist in nature by the 1840s as the proportion of free
settlers increased, the maritime and wool industries flourished, and the powers of
the East India Company were curtailed.[278]

Wheat, gold, and other minerals became additional export industries towards the end of the 1800s.[278] Significant capital
began to flow into the city from the 1870s to finance roads, railways, bridges, docks, courthouses, schools and hospitals.
Protectionist policies after federation allowed for the creation of a manufacturing industry which became the city's largest
employer by the 1920s.[278] These same policies helped to relieve the effects of the Great Depression during which the
unemployment rate in New South Wales reached as high as 32%.[278] From the 1960s onwards Parramatta gained
recognition as the city's second CBD and finance and tourism became major industries and sources of employment.[278]

Sydney's nominal gross domestic product was AU$400.9  billion and AU$80,000 per capita[279] in 2015.[280][277] Its
gross domestic product was AU$337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia.[280] The Financial and Insurance Services
industry accounts for 18.1% of gross product and is ahead of Professional Services with 9% and Manufacturing with
7.2%. In addition to Financial Services and Tourism, the Creative and Technology sectors are focus industries for the City
of Sydney and represented 9% and 11% of its economic output in 2012.[281][282]

Businesses
There were 451,000 businesses based in Sydney in 2011, including 48% of the top 500 companies in Australia and two-
thirds of the regional headquarters of multinational corporations.[283] Global companies are attracted to the city in part
because its time zone spans the closing of business in North America and the opening of business in Europe. Most foreign
companies in Sydney maintain significant sales and service functions but comparably less production, research, and
development capabilities.[284] There are 283 multinational companies with regional offices in Sydney.[285]

Domestic economics

Sydney has been ranked between the fifteenth and the fifth most expensive city in
the world and is the most expensive city in Australia.[287] Of the 15 categories
only measured by UBS in 2012, workers receive the seventh highest wage levels
of 77 cities in the world.[287] Working residents of Sydney work an average of
1,846 hours per annum with 15 days of leave.[287]

The labour force of Greater Sydney Region in 2016 was 2,272,722 with a
participation rate of 61.6%.[288] It was made up of 61.2% full-time workers,
30.9% part-time workers, and 6.0% unemployed individuals.[250][289] The largest Pitt Street, a major street in the
reported occupations are professionals, clerical and administrative workers, CBD, runs from Circular Quay in the
managers, technicians and trades workers, and community and personal service north to Waterloo in the south, and is
workers.[250] The largest industries by employment across Greater Sydney are home to many large high-end
Health Care and Social Assistance with 11.6%, Professional Services with 9.8%, retailers.[286]
Retail Trade with 9.3%, Construction with 8.2%, Education and Training with
8.0%, Accommodation and Food Services 6.7%, and Financial and Insurance
Services with 6.6%.[2] The Professional Services and Financial and Insurance Services industries account for 25.4% of
employment within the City of Sydney.[290]

In 2016, 57.6% of working age residents had a total weekly income of less than $1,000 and 14.4% had a total weekly
income of $1,750 or more.[291] The median weekly income for the same period was $719 for individuals, $1,988 for
families, and $1,750 for household.[292]

Unemployment in the City of Sydney averaged 4.6% for the decade to 2013, much lower than the current rate of
unemployment in Western Sydney of 7.3%.[277][293] Western Sydney continues to struggle to create jobs to meet its
population growth despite the development of commercial centres like Parramatta. Each day about 200,000 commuters
travel from Western Sydney to the CBD and suburbs in the east and north of the city.[293]

Home ownership in Sydney was less common than renting prior to the Second World War but this trend has since
reversed.[251] Median house prices have increased by an average of 8.6% per annum since 1970.[294][295] The median
house price in Sydney in March 2014 was $630,000.[296] The primary cause for rising prices is the increasing cost of land
and scarcity[297] which made up 32% of house prices in 1977 compared to 60% in 2002.[251] 31.6% of dwellings in
Sydney are rented, 30.4% are owned outright and 34.8% are owned with a mortgage.[250] 11.8% of mortgagees in 2011
had monthly loan repayments of less than $1,000 and 82.9% had monthly repayments of $1,000 or more.[2] 44.9% of
renters for the same period had weekly rent of less than $350 whilst 51.7% had weekly rent of $350 or more. The median
weekly rent in Sydney in 2011 was $450.[2]

Financial services

Macquarie gave a charter in 1817 to form the first bank in Australia, the Bank of New South Wales.[298] New private
banks opened throughout the 1800s but the financial system was unstable. Bank collapses were a frequent occurrence and
a crisis point was reached in 1893 when 12 banks failed.[298]

The Bank of New South Wales exists to this day as Westpac.[299] The Commonwealth Bank of Australia was formed in
Sydney in 1911 and began to issue notes backed by the resources of the nation. It was replaced in this role in 1959 by the
Reserve Bank of Australia which is also based in Sydney.[298] The Australian Securities Exchange began operating in
1987 and with a market capitalisation of $1.6 trillion is now one of the ten largest exchanges in the world.[300]
The Financial and Insurance Services industry now constitutes 43% of the economic
product of the City of Sydney.[276] Sydney makes up half of Australia's finance sector and
has been promoted by consecutive Commonwealth Governments as Asia Pacific's leading
financial centre.[21][22][301] In the 2017 Global Financial Centres Index, Sydney was
ranked as having the eighth most competitive financial centre in the world.[302]

In 1985 the Federal Government granted 16 banking licences to foreign banks and now 40
of the 43 foreign banks operating in Australia are based in Sydney, including the People's
Bank of China, Bank of America, Citigroup, UBS, Mizuho Bank, Bank of China, Banco
Santander, Credit Suisse, Standard Chartered, State Street, HSBC, Deutsche Bank,
Barclays, Royal Bank of Canada, Société Générale, Royal Bank of Scotland, Sumitomo
Mitsui, ING Group, BNP Paribas, and Investec.[276][298][303][304]
State Savings Bank
Manufacturing

Sydney has been a manufacturing city since the protectionist policies of the 1920s. By 1961 the industry accounted for
39% of all employment and by 1970 over 30% of all Australian manufacturing jobs were in Sydney.[305] Its status has
declined in more recent decades, making up 12.6% of employment in 2001 and 8.5% in 2011.[2][305] Between 1970 and
1985 there was a loss of 180,000 manufacturing jobs.[305] Despite this, Sydney still overtook Melbourne as the largest
manufacturing centre in Australia in the 2010s.[306] Its manufacturing output of $21.7 billion in 2013 was greater than that
of Melbourne with $18.9  billion.[307] Observers have noted Sydney's focus on the domestic market and high-tech
manufacturing as reasons for its resilience against the high Australian dollar of the early 2010s.[307] The Smithfield-
Wetherill Park Industrial Estate in Western Sydney is the largest industrial estate in the Southern Hemisphere and is the
centre of manufacturing and distribution in the region.[308]

Tourism and international education

Sydney is a gateway to Australia for many international visitors and ranks

among the top sixty most visited cities in the world.[309] It has hosted over
2.8  million international visitors in 2013, or nearly half of all international
visits to Australia. These visitors spent 59  million nights in the city and a
total of $5.9  billion.[25] The countries of origin in descending order were
China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, South Korea,
Japan, Singapore, Germany, Hong Kong, and India.[310] Darling Harbour is a major entertainment
and tourism precinct.
The city also received 8.3 million domestic overnight visitors in 2013 who
spent a total of $6 billion.[310] 26,700 workers in the City of Sydney were
directly employed by tourism in 2011.[311] There were 480,000 visitors and 27,500 people staying overnight each day in
2012.[311] On average, the tourism industry contributes $36 million to the city's economy per day.[311]

Popular destinations include the Sydney Opera House, the Sydney Harbour Bridge, Watsons Bay, The Rocks, Sydney
Tower, Darling Harbour, the State Library of New South Wales, the Royal Botanic Garden, the Australian Museum, the
Museum of Contemporary Art, the Art Gallery of New South Wales, the Queen Victoria Building, Sea Life Sydney
Aquarium, Taronga Zoo, Bondi Beach, Luna Park and Sydney Olympic Park.[312]

Major developmental projects designed to increase Sydney's tourism sector include a casino and hotel at Barangaroo and
the redevelopment of East Darling Harbour, which involves a new exhibition and convention centre, now Australia's
largest.[313][314][315]

Sydney is the highest-ranking city in the world for international students. More than 50,000 international students study at
the city's universities and a further 50,000 study at its vocational and English language schools.[275][316] International
education contributes $1.6 billion to the local economy and creates demand for 4,000 local jobs each year.[317]

Demographics
 The population of Sydney in 1788 was less than 1,000.[319] With convict
transportation it almost tripled in ten years to 2,953.[320] For each decade since
1961 the population has increased by more than 250,000.[321] The 2021 census
recorded the population of Greater Sydney as 5,231,150.[1] The Australian Bureau
of Statistics (ABS) projects the population will grow to between 8 and 8.9 million
by 2061, but that Melbourne will replace Sydney as Australia's most populous city
by 2026.[322][323] The four most densely populated suburbs in Australia are
located in Sydney with each having more than 13,000 residents per square
Chinese New Year celebrations in kilometre (33,700 residents per square mile).[324] Between 1971 and 2018,
Chinatown. Sydney is home to the Sydney experienced a net loss of 716,832 people to the rest of Australia, but its
nation's largest population of population grew due to overseas arrivals and a healthy birth rate.[325]
Chinese Australians.[318]
The median age of Sydney residents is 37 and 14.8% of people are 65 or
older.[250] The married population accounts for 48.6% of Sydney whilst 36.7% of
people have never been married.[250] 49.0% of families are couples with children, 34.4% are couples without children,
and 14.8% are single-parent families.[250]

Ancestry and immigration

Most immigrants to Sydney between 1840 and 1930 were British, Irish or Chinese. At the Country of birth (2021)[12]
2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:[12]
Birthplace[N 1] Population

English (21.8%) Filipino (2.7%) Australia 2,970,737

Australian (20.4%)[N 2] Greek (2.6%) Mainland China 238,316
Chinese (11.6%) Vietnamese (2.5%)
India 187,810
Irish (7.2%) German (2.2%)
England 153,052
Scottish (5.6%) Korean (1.4%)
Indian (4.9%) Nepalese (1.4%) Vietnam 93,778

Italian (4.3%) Australian Aboriginal (1.4%)[327] Philippines 91,339

Lebanese (3.5%) Maltese (1.1%) New Zealand 85,493

At the 2021 census, 40.5% of Sydney's population was born overseas. Foreign countries Lebanon 61,620
of birth with the greatest representation are Mainland China, India, England, Vietnam, Nepal 59,055
Philippines and New Zealand.[12]
Iraq 52,604

At the 2021 census, 1.7% of Sydney's population identified as being Indigenous — South Korea 50,702
Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.[N 3][328] Hong Kong SAR 46,182

South Africa 39,564

Language Italy 38,762

A language other than English is used in 42% of households in Sydney. The most widely Indonesia 35,413
used non-English languages at home are Mandarin (5%), Arabic (4.2%), Cantonese Malaysia 35,002
(2.8%), Vietnamese (2.2%) and Hindi (1.5%).[328] Fiji 34,197

Pakistan 31,025
Religion

In 2021, Christianity was the largest religious affiliation at 46%, the largest denominations of which were Catholicism at
23.1% and Anglicanism at 9.2%. 30.3% of Sydney residents identified themselves as having no religion. The most
common non-Christian religious affiliations were Islam (6.3%), Hinduism (4.8%), Buddhism (3.8%), Sikhism (0.7%), and
Judaism (0.7%). About 500 people identified with traditional Aboriginal religions.[12]
The Church of England was the only recognised church before Governor
Macquarie appointed official Catholic chaplains in 1820.[329] Macquarie also
ordered the construction of churches such as St Matthew's, St Luke's, St James's,
and St Andrew's. Religious groups, alongside secular institutions, have played a
significant role in education, health and charitable services throughout Sydney's
history.[330]

Crime
St Mary's Cathedral is the cathedral
Crime in Sydney is low, with The Independent ranking Sydney as the fifth safest church of the Roman Catholic
city in the world in 2019.[331] However, drug use is a significant problem. Archdiocese of Sydney.
Methamphetamine is heavily consumed compared to other countries, while heroin
is less common.[332] One of the biggest crime related issues to face the city in
recent times was the introduction of lock-out laws in February 2014,[333] in an attempt to curb alcohol fuelled violence.
Patrons could not enter clubs or bars in the inner-city after 1:30am, and last drinks were called at 3am. The lock-out laws
were removed in January 2020.[334]

Culture

Science, art, and history

Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park is rich in Indigenous Australian heritage,

containing around 1,500 pieces of Aboriginal rock art – the largest cluster of
Indigenous sites in Australia, surpassing Kakadu, which has around 5,000 sites but
over a much greater landmass. The park's indigenous sites include petroglyphs, art
sites, burial sites, caves, marriage areas, birthing areas, midden sites, and tool
manufacturing locations, among others, which are dated to be around 5,000 years The Art Gallery of New South Wales,
old. The inhabitants of the area were the Garigal people.[335][336] Other rock art located in The Domain, is the fourth
sites exist in the Sydney region, such as in Terrey Hills and Bondi, although the largest public gallery in Australia.
locations of most are not publicised to prevent damage by vandalism, and to retain
their quality, as they are still regarded as sacred sites by Indigenous
Australians.[337]

The Australian Museum opened in Sydney in 1827 with the purpose of collecting
and displaying the natural wealth of the colony.[338] It remains Australia's oldest
natural history museum. In 1995 the Museum of Sydney opened on the site of the
first Government House. It recounts the story of the city's development.[339] Other
museums based in Sydney include the Powerhouse Museum and the Australian
National Maritime Museum.[340][341]

The State Library of New South Wales holds the oldest library collections in The State Library of New South
Australia, being first established as the Australian Subscription Library in Wales holds the oldest library
1826.[342] In 1866 then Queen Victoria gave her assent to the formation of the collections in Australia.
Royal Society of New South Wales. The Society exists "for the encouragement of
studies and investigations in science, art, literature, and philosophy". It is based in
a terrace house in Darlington owned by the University of Sydney.[343] The Sydney Observatory building was constructed
in 1859 and used for astronomy and meteorology research until 1982 before being converted into a museum.[344]
The Museum of Contemporary Art was opened in 1991 and occupies an Art Deco building in Circular Quay. Its collection
was founded in the 1940s by artist and art collector John Power and has been maintained by the University of
Sydney.[345] Sydney's other significant art institution is the Art Gallery of New South Wales which coordinates the
coveted Archibald Prize for portraiture.[346] Contemporary art galleries are found in Waterloo, Surry Hills, Darlinghurst,
Paddington, Chippendale, Newtown, and Woollahra.

Entertainment

Sydney's first commercial theatre opened in 1832 and nine more had commenced
performances by the late 1920s. The live medium lost much of its popularity to the cinema
during the Great Depression before experiencing a revival after World War II.[347]
Prominent theatres in the city today include State Theatre, Theatre Royal, Sydney Theatre,
The Wharf Theatre, and Capitol Theatre. Sydney Theatre Company maintains a roster of
local, classical, and international plays. It occasionally features Australian theatre icons
such as David Williamson, Hugo Weaving, and Geoffrey Rush. The city's other prominent
theatre companies are New Theatre, Belvoir, and Griffin Theatre Company. Sydney is also
home to Event Cinemas' first theatre, which opened on George St in 1913, under its
former Greater Union brand; the theatre currently operates, and is regarded as one of
Australia's busiest cinema locations.

The Sydney Opera House is the home of Opera Australia and Sydney Symphony. It has
The State Theatre on
staged over 100,000 performances and received 100  million visitors since opening in
Market Street was opened
in 1929.
1973.[235] Two other important performance venues in Sydney are Town Hall and the
City Recital Hall. The Sydney Conservatorium of Music is located adjacent to the Royal
Botanic Garden and serves the Australian music community through education and its
biannual Australian Music Examinations Board exams.[348]

Many writers have originated in and set their work in Sydney. Others have visited
the city and commented on it. Some of them are commemorated in the Sydney
Writers Walk at Circular Quay. The city was the headquarters for Australia's first
published newspaper, the Sydney Gazette.[349] Watkin Tench's A Narrative of the
Expedition to Botany Bay (1789) and A Complete Account of the Settlement at
Port Jackson in New South Wales (1793) have remained the best-known accounts
of life in early Sydney.[350] Since the infancy of the establishment, much of the
literature set in Sydney were concerned with life in the city's slums and working-
class communities, notably William Lane's The Working Man's Paradise (1892),
Christina Stead's Seven Poor Men of Sydney (1934) and Ruth Park's The Harp in A concert at the Sydney Opera
the South (1948).[351] The first Australian-born female novelist, Louisa Atkinson, House
set various of her novels in Sydney. [352] Contemporary writers, such as Elizabeth
Harrower, were born in the city and thus set most of the work there–Harrower's
debut novel Down in the City (1957) was mostly set in a King's Cross apartment.[353][354][355] Well known contemporary
novels set in the city include Melina Marchetta's Looking for Alibrandi (1992), Peter Carey's 30 Days in Sydney: A Wildly
Distorted Account (1999), J. M. Coetzee's Diary of a Bad Year (2007) and Kate Grenville's The Secret River (2010). The
Sydney Writers' Festival is held every year between April and May.[356]

Filmmaking in Sydney was quite prolific until the 1920s when spoken films were introduced and American productions
gained dominance in Australian cinema.[357] The Australian New Wave of filmmaking saw a resurgence in film
production in the city–with many notable features shot in the city between the 1970s and 80s, helmed by directors such as
Bruce Beresford, Peter Weir and Gillian Armstrong.[358] Fox Studios Australia commenced production in Sydney in
1998. Successful films shot in Sydney since then include The Matrix, Lantana, Mission: Impossible 2, Moulin Rouge!,
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, Australia, Superman Returns, and The Great Gatsby. The National Institute
of Dramatic Art is based in Sydney and has several famous alumni such as Mel Gibson, Judy Davis, Baz Luhrmann, Cate
Blanchett, Hugo Weaving and Jacqueline Mckenzie.[359]

Sydney is the host of several festivals throughout the year. The city's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in
Australia.[360] The Royal Easter Show is held every year at Sydney Olympic Park. Sydney Festival is Australia's largest
arts festival.[361] The travelling rock music festival Big Day Out originated in Sydney. The city's two largest film festivals
are Sydney Film Festival and Tropfest. Vivid Sydney is an annual outdoor exhibition of art installations, light projections,
and music. In 2015, Sydney was ranked 13th for being the top fashion capitals in the world.[362] It hosts the Australian
Fashion Week in autumn. The Sydney Mardi Gras has commenced each February since 1979.

Sydney's Chinatown has had numerous locations since the 1850s. It moved from George Street to Campbell Street to its
current setting in Dixon Street in 1980.[363] Little Italy is located in Stanley Street.[278]

Restaurants, bars and nightclubs can be found in the entertainment hubs in the Sydney CBD (Darling Harbour,
Barangaroo, The Rocks and George Street), Oxford Street, Surry Hills, Newtown and Parramatta.[364][365] Kings Cross
was previously considered the red-light district though the 2014-2020 lockout laws affected this area most. The Star is the
city's casino and is situated next to Darling Harbour while the new Crown Sydney resort is in nearby Barangaroo.[366]

Media

The Sydney Morning Herald is Australia's oldest newspaper still in print. Now a
compact form paper owned by Nine Entertainment, it has been published
continuously since 1831.[367] Its competitor is the News Corporation tabloid The
Daily Telegraph which has been in print since 1879.[368] Both papers have
Sunday tabloid editions called The Sun-Herald and The Sunday Telegraph
respectively. The Bulletin was founded in Sydney in 1880 and became Australia's
longest running magazine. It closed after 128 years of continuous publication.[369]
Sydney heralded Australia's first newspaper, the Sydney Gazette, published until
1842.

Each of Australia's three commercial television networks and two public Australia's national broadcaster, the
broadcasters is headquartered in Sydney. Nine's offices and news studios are in ABC, is headquartered in Ultimo.
North Sydney, Ten and Seven are based in Pyrmont, Seven has a news studio in
the Sydney CBD in Martin Place[370][371] the Australian Broadcasting
Corporation is located in Ultimo,[372] and the Special Broadcasting Service is based in Artarmon.[373] Multiple digital
channels have been provided by all five networks since 2000. Foxtel is based in North Ryde and sells subscription cable
television to most parts of the urban area.[374] Sydney's first radio stations commenced broadcasting in the 1920s. Radio
became a popular tool for politics, news, religion, and sport and has managed to survive despite the introduction of
television and the Internet.[375] 2UE was founded in 1925 and under the ownership of Nine Entertainment is the oldest
station still broadcasting.[375] Competing stations include the more popular 2GB, ABC Radio Sydney, KIIS 106.5, Triple
M, Nova 96.9 and 2Day FM.[376]

Sport and outdoor activities

Sydney's earliest migrants brought with them a passion for sport but were restricted by the lack of facilities and equipment.
The first organised sports were boxing, wrestling, and horse racing from 1810 in Hyde Park.[377] Horse racing remains
popular to this day and events such as the Golden Slipper Stakes attract widespread attention. The first cricket club was
formed in 1826 and matches were played within Hyde Park throughout the 1830s and 1840s.[377] Cricket is a favoured
sport in summer and big matches have been held at the Sydney Cricket Ground since 1878. The New South Wales Blues
compete in the Sheffield Shield league and the Sydney Sixers and Sydney Thunder contest the national Big Bash
Twenty20 competition.

First played in Sydney in 1865, rugby grew to be the city's most popular football code by the 1880s. One-tenth of the
state's population attended a New South Wales versus New Zealand rugby match in 1907.[377] Rugby league separated
from rugby union in 1908. The New South Wales Waratahs contest the Super Rugby competition, while the Sydney Rays
represent the city in the National Rugby Championship. The national Wallabies rugby union team competes in Sydney in
international matches such as the Bledisloe Cup, Rugby Championship, and World Cup. Sydney is home to nine of the
sixteen teams in the National Rugby League competition: Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs, Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks,
Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, Penrith Panthers, Parramatta Eels, South Sydney Rabbitohs, St George Illawarra Dragons,
Sydney Roosters, and Wests Tigers. New South Wales contests the annual State of Origin series against Queensland.
Sydney FC and the Western Sydney Wanderers compete in the A-League (men's) and W-League (women's) soccer
competitions and Sydney frequently hosts matches for the Australian national men's team, the Socceroos. The Sydney
Swans and Greater Western Sydney Giants are local Australian rules football clubs that play in the Australian Football
League and the AFL Women's. The Sydney Kings compete in the National Basketball League. The Sydney Uni Flames
play in the Women's National Basketball League. The Sydney Blue Sox contest the Australian Baseball League. The
NSW Pride are a member of the Hockey One League. The Sydney Bears and Sydney Ice Dogs play in the Australian Ice
Hockey League. The Swifts are competitors in the national women's netball league.

Major sporting venues

Stadium Australia Sydney Cricket Ground Western Sydney Stadium

Sydney Football Stadium

Women were first allowed to participate in recreational swimming when separate

baths were opened at Woolloomooloo Bay in the 1830s. From being illegal at the
beginning of the century, sea bathing gained immense popularity during the early
1900s and the first surf lifesaving club was established at Bondi Beach.[377][378]
Disputes about appropriate clothing for surf bathing surfaced from time to time and
concerned men as well as women. The City2Surf is an annual 14  km (8.7  mi)
running race from the CBD to Bondi Beach and has been held since 1971. In
2010, 80,000 runners participated which made it the largest run of its kind in the Sailing on Sydney Harbour
world.[379]

Sailing races have been held on Sydney Harbour since 1827.[380] Yachting has been popular amongst wealthier residents
since the 1840s and the Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron was founded in 1862. The Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race is a
1,170  km (727  mi) event that starts from Sydney Harbour on Boxing Day.[381] Since its inception in 1945 it has been
recognised as one of the most difficult yacht races in the world.[382] Six sailors died and 71 vessels of the fleet of 115
failed to finish in the 1998 edition.[383]

The Royal Sydney Golf Club is based in Rose Bay and since its opening in 1893 has hosted the Australian Open on 13
occasions.[377] Royal Randwick Racecourse opened in 1833 and holds several major cups throughout the year.[384]

Sydney benefitted from the construction of significant sporting infrastructure in preparation for its hosting of the 2000
Summer Olympics. The Sydney Olympic Park accommodates athletics, aquatics, tennis, hockey, archery, baseball,
cycling, equestrian, and rowing facilities. It also includes the high capacity Stadium Australia used for rugby, soccer, and
Australian rules football. The Sydney Football Stadium was completed in 1988 and was used for rugby and soccer
matches. Sydney Cricket Ground was opened in 1878 and is used for both cricket and Australian rules football
fixtures.[377]
The Sydney International tennis tournament is held here at the beginning of each
year as the warm-up for the Grand Slam in Melbourne. Two of the most successful
tennis players in history: Ken Rosewall and Todd Woodbridge were born in and
live in the city.

Sydney co-hosted the FIBA Oceania Championship in 1979, 1985, 1989, 1995,
2007, 2009 and 2011. Sydney Olympic Park was built for
the 2000 Olympics and has become
a major sporting and recreational
Government precinct.

Historical governance

The first five governors had near autocratic power in the colony of New South
Wales, subject only to the laws of England and the supervision of the Colonial
Office in London. Sydney was the seat of government for the colony which
encompassed over half the Australian continent.[385] The first Legislative Council
met in 1826,[386] and in 1842 the imperial parliament expanded and reformed the
council, making it partly elected.[387] In the same year, the town of Sydney
officially became a city and an elected municipal council was established.[388][389]
Parliament House holds the
The council had limited powers, mostly relating to services such as street lighting
Government of New South Wales
and drainage.[390] Its boundaries were restricted to an area of 11.6 square and is the oldest public building in
kilometres, taking in the city centre and the modern suburbs of Woolloomooloo, Australia.
Surry Hills, Chippendale, and Pyrmont.[63] As Sydney grew, other municipal
councils were formed to provide local administration.[391]

In 1856 New South Wales achieved responsible government with the introduction of a bicameral parliament, based in
Sydney, comprising a directly elected Legislative Assembly and a nominated Legislative Council.[392] With the federation
of the Australian colonies in 1901, Sydney became the capital of the state of New South Wales and its administration was
divided between the Commonwealth, State and constituent local governments.[392]

Government in the present

In common with other Australian capital cities, Sydney has no single local government covering its whole area. Local
government areas have responsibilities such as local roads, libraries, child care, community services and waste collection,
whereas the state government retains responsibility for main roads, traffic control, public transport, policing, education,
and major infrastructure project.[393] There are 33 local government areas which are wholly or mostly within Greater
Sydney as defined by the Australian Statistical Geography Standard.[96][394]

Bayside Inner West

Canterbury-Bankstown Ku-ring-gai
Blacktown Lane Cove
Blue Mountains Liverpool
Burwood Mosman
Camden North Sydney
Campbelltown Northern Beaches
Canada Bay Parramatta
Central Coast Penrith
Cumberland Randwick
Fairfield Ryde
Georges River Strathfield
Hawkesbury Sutherland
The Hills Sydney
Hornsby Waverley
Hunter's Hill Willoughby
 Wollondilly Woollahra

Sydney is the location of the secondary official residences of the Governor-

General of Australia and the Prime Minister of Australia, Admiralty House and
Kirribilli House respectively.[395] The Parliament of New South Wales sits in
Parliament House on Macquarie Street. This building was completed in 1816 and
first served as a hospital. The Legislative Council moved into its northern wing in
1829 and by 1852 had entirely supplanted the surgeons from their quarters.[396]
Several additions have been made to the building as the Parliament has expanded,
but it retains its original Georgian façade.[397] Government House was completed
in 1845 and has served as the home of 25 Governors and 5 Governors- The Supreme Court of New South
General.[398] The Cabinet of Australia also meets in Sydney when needed. Wales was one of three of the
earliest established courts in
The highest court in the state is the Supreme Court of New South Wales which is Australia.
located in Queen's Square in Sydney.[399] The city is also the home of numerous
branches of the intermediate District Court of New South Wales and the lower
Local Court of New South Wales.[400]

In the past, the state has tended to resist amalgamating Sydney's more populated local government areas as merged
councils could pose a threat to its governmental power.[401] Established in 1842, the City of Sydney is one such local
government area and includes the CBD and some adjoining inner suburbs.[402] It is responsible for fostering development
in the local area, providing local services (waste collection and recycling, libraries, parks, sporting facilities), representing
and promoting the interests of residents, supporting organisations that target the local community, and attracting and
providing infrastructure for commerce, tourism, and industry.[403] The City of Sydney is led by an elected Council and
Lord Mayor.[404]

In federal politics, Sydney was initially considered as a possibility for Australia's capital city; the newly created city of
Canberra ultimately filled this role.[405] Seven Australian Prime Ministers have been born in Sydney, more than any other
city, including first Prime Minister Edmund Barton and current Prime Minister Anthony Albanese.

Essential public emergency services are provided and managed by the State Government. Greater Sydney is served by:

New South Wales Police Force

New South Wales Ambulance
Fire and Rescue NSW

Infrastructure

Education

Education became a proper focus for the colony from the 1870s when public
schools began to form and schooling became compulsory.[406] By 2011, 90% of
working age residents of Sydney had completed some schooling and 57% had
completed the highest level of school.[2] 1,390,703 people were enrolled in an
educational institution in 2011 with 45.1% of these attending school and 16.5%
studying at a university.[250] Undergraduate or postgraduate qualifications are held
by 22.5% of working age Sydney residents and 40.2% of working age residents of
the City of Sydney.[2][407] The most common fields of tertiary qualification are The University of Sydney
commerce (22.8%), engineering (13.4%), society and culture (10.8%), health
(7.8%), and education (6.6%).[2]

There are six public universities based in Sydney: The University of Sydney, University of New South Wales, University
of Technology Sydney, Macquarie University, Western Sydney University, and Australian Catholic University. Five public
universities maintain secondary campuses in the city for both domestic and international students: the University of Notre
Dame Australia, Central Queensland University, Victoria University, University of Wollongong, and University of
Newcastle. Charles Sturt University and Southern Cross University, both public universities, operate secondary campuses
only designated for international students. In addition, four public universities offer programmes in Sydney through third-
 party education providers: University of the Sunshine Coast, La Trobe University,
Federation University Australia and Charles Darwin University. 5.2% of residents
of Sydney are attending a university.[408] The University of New South Wales and
the University of Sydney are ranked top 50 in the world, the University of
Technology Sydney is ranked 133, while Macquarie University is ranked 237, and
Western Sydney University is ranked 474.[409] Sydney has public,
denominational, and independent schools. 7.8% of Sydney residents are attending
primary school and 6.4% are enrolled in secondary school.[408] There are 935
public preschool, primary, and secondary schools in Sydney that are administered
The University of Technology by the New South Wales Department of Education.[410] 14 of the 17 selective
Sydney secondary schools in New South Wales are based in Sydney.[411]

Public vocational education and training in Sydney are run by TAFE New South
Wales and began with the opening of the Sydney Technical College in 1878. It offered courses in areas such as
mechanical drawing, applied mathematics, steam engines, simple surgery, and English grammar.[228] The college became
the Sydney Institute in 1992 and now operates alongside its sister TAFE facilities across the Sydney metropolitan area,
namely the Northern Sydney Institute, the Western Sydney Institute, and the South Western Sydney Institute. At the 2011
census, 2.4% of Sydney residents are enrolled in a TAFE course.[408]

Health

The first hospital in the new colony was a collection of tents at The Rocks. Many
of the convicts that survived the trip from England continued to suffer from
dysentery, smallpox, scurvy, and typhoid. Healthcare facilities remained hopelessly
inadequate despite the arrival of a prefabricated hospital with the Second Fleet and
the construction of brand new hospitals at Parramatta, Windsor, and Liverpool in
the 1790s.[412]

Governor Lachlan Macquarie arranged for the construction of Sydney Hospital

and saw it completed in 1816.[412] Parts of the facility have been repurposed for The Sydney Hospital, completed in
use as Parliament House but the hospital itself still operates to this day. The city's 1816
first emergency department was established at Sydney Hospital in 1870. Demand
for emergency medical care increased from 1895 with the introduction of an
ambulance service.[412] The Sydney Hospital also housed Australia's first teaching facility for nurses, the Nightingale
Wing, established with the input of Florence Nightingale in 1868.[413]

Healthcare gained recognition as a citizen's right in the early 1900s and Sydney's public hospitals came under the
oversight of the Government of New South Wales.[412] The administration of healthcare across Sydney is handled by
eight local health districts: Central Coast, Illawarra Shoalhaven, Sydney, Nepean Blue Mountains, Northern Sydney,
South Eastern Sydney, South Western Sydney, and Western Sydney.[414] The Prince of Wales Hospital was established in
1852 and became the first of several major hospitals to be opened in the coming decades.[415] St Vincent's Hospital was
founded in 1857,[168] followed by Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children in 1880,[416] the Prince Henry Hospital in
1881,[417] the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in 1882,[418] the Royal North Shore Hospital in 1885,[419] the St George
Hospital in 1894,[420] and the Nepean Hospital in 1895.[421] Westmead Hospital in 1978 was the last major facility to
open.[422]

Transport

Roads

The motor vehicle, more than any other factor, has determined the pattern of Sydney's urban development since World
War II.[423] The growth of low density housing in the city's outer suburbs has made car ownership necessary for hundreds
of thousands of households. The percentage of trips taken by car has increased from 13% in 1947 to 50% in 1960 and to
70% in 1971.[423] The most important roads in Sydney were the nine Metroads, including the 110 km (68 mi) Sydney
Orbital Network. Sydney's reliance on motor vehicles and its sprawling road
network has been criticised by proponents of mass public transport and high
density housing.[424][425][426] The Light Horse Interchange in western Sydney is
the largest in the southern hemisphere.[427]

There can be up to 350,000 cars using Sydney's roads simultaneously during peak
hour, leading to significant traffic congestion.[423] 84.9% of Sydney households
own a motor vehicle and 46.5% own two or more.[250] Car dependency is an
ongoing issue in Sydney–of people who travel to work, 58.4% use a car, 9.1%
catch a train, 5.2% take a bus, and 4.1% walk.[250] In contrast, only 25.2% of
Light Horse Interchange, the largest
working residents in the City of Sydney use a car, whilst 15.8% take a train, 13.3%
of its kind in Australia
use a bus, and 25.3% walk.[428] With a rate of 26.3%, Sydney has the highest
utilisation of public transport for travel to work of any Australian capital city.[429]
The CBD features a series of alleyways and lanes that provide off-street vehicular access to city buildings and as well as
pedestrian routes through city buildings.[430]

Buses

Bus services today are conducted by private operators under contract to Transport for NSW. Integrated tickets called Opal
cards operate on bus routes. In total, nearly 225 million boardings were recorded across the bus network[431] NightRide is
a nightly bus service that operate between midnight and 5am, also replacing trains for most of this period.

Trams and light rail

Sydney once had one of the largest tram networks in the British Empire after
London.[432] It served routes covering 291 km (181 mi). The internal combustion
engine made buses more flexible than trams and consequently more popular,
leading to the progressive closure of the tram network with the final tram operating
in 1961.[423] From 1930 there were 612 buses across Sydney carrying 90 million
passengers per annum.[433]

In 1997, the Inner West Light Rail opened between Central station and Wentworth The CBD and South East Light Rail
Park. It was extended to Lilyfield in 2000 and then Dulwich Hill in 2014. It links connects Sydney's CBD with the
the Inner West and Darling Harbour with Central station and facilitated 9.1 million South Eastern suburbs.
journeys in the 2016–17 financial year.[434] A second, the CBD and South East
Light Rail 12 km (7.5 mi) line serving the CBD and south-eastern suburbs opened
partially in December 2019 and the remainder in April 2020.[435] A light rail line serving Western Sydney has also been
announced, due to open in 2023.

Trains

Established in 1906, Central station is the largest and busiest railway station in the
state and is the main hub of the city's rail network.[436] Sydney Trains is the
suburban rail service. Its tracks form part of the New South Wales railway
network. It serves 175 stations across the city and had an annual ridership of
359  million passenger journeys in 2017–18.[437] Sydney's railway was first
constructed in 1854 with progressive extension to the network to serve both freight
and passengers across the city, suburbs, and beyond to rural New South Wales.
The main station is the Central railway station in the southern part of the CBD. In
the 1850s and 1860s, the railway reached areas that are now outer suburbs of Central station is the busiest railway
Sydney.[423] station in Australia, and the city's
main public transport hub.
Sydney Metro, a driverless rapid transit system separate from the suburban commuter network, commenced operation in
May 2019 and will be extended into the city and down southwest by 2024 and through the inner west to Parramatta by
2030.[438][439] It currently serves 13 stations. A line to serve the greater west is planned for 2026 and will include a station
for the second international airport.

Ferries

At the time the Sydney Harbour Bridge opened in 1932, the city's ferry service was the largest in the world.[440]
Patronage declined from 37  million passengers in 1945 to 11  million in 1963 but has recovered somewhat in recent
years.[423] From its hub at Circular Quay, the ferry network extends from Manly to Parramatta.[440]

Airports

Sydney Airport, officially "Sydney Kingsford-Smith Airport", is located in the inner southern suburb of Mascot with two
of the runways going into Botany Bay. It services 46 international and 23 domestic destinations.[27] As the busiest airport
in Australia, it handled 37.9 million passengers in 2013 and 530,000 tonnes of freight in 2011.[27] It has been announced
that a new facility named Western Sydney Airport will be constructed at Badgerys Creek from 2016 at a cost of
$2.5  billion.[441] Bankstown Airport is Sydney's second busiest airport, and serves general aviation, charter and some
scheduled cargo flights. Bankstown is also the fourth busiest airport in Australia by the number of aircraft movements.[442]
Port Botany has surpassed Port Jackson as the city's major shipping port. Cruise ship terminals are located at Sydney Cove
and White Bay.

Environmental issues and pollution reduction

As climate change, greenhouse gas emissions and pollution have become a major
issue for Australia, Sydney has in the past been criticised for its lack of focus on
reducing pollution, cutting back on emissions and maintaining water quality.[443]
Since 1995, there have been significant developments in the analysis of air
pollution in the Sydney metropolitan region. The development led to the release of
the Metropolitan Air Quality Scheme (MAQS), which led to a broader
understanding of the causation of pollution in Sydney, allowing the government to
form appropriate responses to the pollution.[444] The 2019–20 Australian bushfire
season significantly impacted outer Sydney, and consequently dramatically George Street and bushfire smoke in
reduced the air quality of the Sydney metropolitan area leading to a smoky haze December 2019
that lingered for many days throughout December. The air quality was 11 times the
hazardous level in some days,[445][446] even making it worse than New
Delhi's,[447] where it was also compared to "smoking 32 cigarettes" by Associate Professor Brian Oliver, a respiratory
diseases scientist at the University of Technology Sydney.[448]

Australian cities are some of the most car-dependent cities in the world,[449] especially by world city standards, although
Sydney's is the lowest of Australia's major cities at 66%.[450] Furthermore, the city also has the highest usage of public
transport in an Australian city, at 27%–making it comparable with New York City, Shanghai and Berlin. Despite its high
ranking for an Australian city, Sydney has a low level of mass-transit services, with a historically low-density layout and
significant urban sprawl, thus increasing the likelihood of car dependency.[451][452] Strategies have been implemented to
reduce private vehicle pollution by encouraging mass and public transit,[453] initiating the development of high density
housing and introducing a fleet of 10 new Nissan LEAF electric cars, the largest order of the pollution-free vehicle in
Australia.[454] Electric cars do not produce carbon monoxide and nitrous oxide, gases which contribute to climate
change.[455][456] Cycling trips have increased by 113% across Sydney's inner-city since March 2010, with about 2,000
bikes passing through top peak-hour intersections on an average weekday.[457] Transport developments in the north-west
and east of the city have been designed to encourage the use of Sydney's expanding public transportation system.

The City of Sydney became the first council in Australia to achieve formal certification as carbon-neutral in 2008.[458][459]
The city has reduced its 2007 carbon emissions by 6% and since 2006 has reduced carbon emissions from city buildings
by up to 20%.[457][460] The City of Sydney introduced a Sustainable Sydney 2030 program, with various targets planned
and a comprehensive guide on how to reduce energy in homes and offices within Sydney by 30%.[457][461] Reductions in
energy consumption have slashed energy bills by $30  million a year.[462] Solar panels have been established on many
CBD buildings in an effort to minimise carbon pollution by around 3,000 tonnes a year.[463]

The city also has an "urban forest growth strategy", in which it aims to regular increase the tree coverage in the city by
frequently planting trees with strong leaf density and vegetation to provide cleaner air and create moisture during hot
weather, thus lowering city temperatures.[464] Sydney has also become a leader in the development of green office
buildings and enforcing the requirement of all building proposals to be energy-efficient. The One Central Park
development, completed in 2013, is an example of this implementation and design.[465][466][467][468]

Utilities

Obtaining sufficient fresh water was difficult during early colonial times. A
catchment called the Tank Stream sourced water from what is now the CBD but
was little more than an open sewer by the end of the 1700s.[469] The Botany
Swamps Scheme was one of several ventures during the mid-1800s that saw the
construction of wells, tunnels, steam pumping stations, and small dams to service
Sydney's growing population.[469]

The first genuine solution to Sydney's water demands was the Upper Nepean Warragamba Dam is Sydney's
Scheme which came into operation in 1886 and cost over £2 million. It transports largest water supply dam.
water 100  km (62  mi) from the Nepean, Cataract, and Cordeaux rivers and
continues to service about 15% of Sydney's total water needs.[469] Dams were
built on these three rivers between 1907 and 1935.[469] In 1977 the Shoalhaven Scheme brought several more dams into
service.[470]

The state-owned corporation WaterNSW now manages eleven major dams: Warragamba one of the largest domestic water
supply dams in the world,[471] Woronora, Cataract, Cordeaux, Nepean, Avon, Wingecarribee Reservoir, Fitzroy Falls
Reservoir, Tallowa, the Blue Mountains Dams, and Prospect Reservoir.[472] Water is collected from five catchment areas
covering 16,000 km2 (6,178 sq mi) and total storage amounts to 2.6 TL (0.6 cu mi).[472] The Sydney Desalination Plant
came into operation in 2010.[469] WaterNSW supplies bulk water to Sydney Water, a state-owned corporation that
operates water distribution, sewerage and storm water management services across greater Sydney.

The two distributors which maintain Sydney's electricity infrastructure are Ausgrid and Endeavour Energy.[473][474] Their
combined networks include over 815,000 power poles and 83,000 km (52,000 mi) of electricity cables.

See also
New South Wales
portal

List of museums in Sydney

List of people from Sydney
List of public art in the City of Sydney
List of songs about Sydney
Outline of Sydney

Notes
1. In accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics source, England, Scotland, Mainland China and the
Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau are listed separately.
2. The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are
part of the Anglo-Celtic group.[326]
 3. Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons
identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.

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External links
Official Sydney, NSW government site (https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/)
Official Sydney tourism site (http://www.sydney.com/)
Historical film clips of Sydney (http://aso.gov.au/titles/tags/Sydney/) on the National Film and Sound
Archive of Australia's australianscreen online (http://aso.gov.au/)
Qantas Farewell Flight B747-400 Queen of the Skies - Sydney Final Flight QF747 (https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=itQaxQMZfCk) on YouTube – includes a low-level joyflight around Sydney showing various
aspects of the city on 13 July 2020 (starts at 05:20)
13766899 (https://openstreetmap.org/node/13766899) Sydney on OpenStreetMap
Dictionary of Sydney – the history of Sydney (https://home.dictionaryofsydney.org/) (Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20190324110321/http://home.dictionaryofsydney.org/) 24 March 2019 at the Wayback
Machine)
Sydney Official History Archives (http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/learn/history/archives)
State Records New South Wales (http://www.records.nsw.gov.au/)
National Archives of Australia (http://www.naa.gov.au/)
Understanding Society Through its Records – John Curtin Library (https://web.archive.org/web/20150502
103309/http://john.curtin.edu.au/society/)
Directory of Archives in Australia (https://directory.archivists.org.au/)

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